1.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
2.
National flag
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A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
3.
Ensign
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Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
4.
Jack (flag)
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A jack is a national flag flown from a short jackstaff at the bow of a vessel, while the ensign is flown on the stern. Jacks on bowsprits or foremasts appeared in the 17th century, the word jack is said to result from the signature Jacques of King James I in whose reign the Union Jack was designed. A country may have different jacks for different purposes, especially when the jack is forbidden to other vessels. The United Kingdom has a civil jack, the Netherlands has several unofficial ones. Certain organs of the British government have their own departmental jacks, commercial or pleasure craft may fly the flag of an administrative division or municipality at the bow. Merchant ships may fly a house flag, yachts may fly a club burgee or officers flag or the owners private signal at the bow. Practice may be regulated by law, custom, or personal judgment, a naval jack is usually flown when the ship is not under way, but is moored or at anchor, or when it is dressed overall on special occasions. The Union Jack of the Royal Navy must be run up when the first line is ashore when coming alongside. The same regulations are applied by the Royal Canadian Navy In the United States, Naval jacks are usually rectangular, often square, and smaller than the national ensign or war flag. Some countries fly a version of the national or war flag. France and some countries use the same flag or ensign for all purposes, civil or military. Japan and some countries with civil and war ensigns of different designs fly the civil ensign as a jack. A shortened, square version of the flag is used by some countries. A larger group of show the countrys national coat of arms, either as a banner of arms. Most countries have chosen a different design for their naval jacks, often with some national or maritime symbol. Countries that use their war ensign also as a jack, will fly a smaller version at the bow. United or confederate states have in many cases adopted a jack representing their union, the best known is the Union Jack of the United Kingdoms Royal Navy, composed in 1606 by joining together the flags of England and Scotland. When the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1801, the design of the British Union Jack probably inspired later jacks of other nations, e. g. Russia and the Union Jack of Norway and Sweden
5.
Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
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The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at 10.00 a. m. on Friday,17 August 1945. In 2005, the Netherlands declared that they had decided to accept de facto 17 August 1945 as Indonesias independence date, in a 2013 interview the Indonesian historian Sukotjo, amongst others, asked the Dutch government to formally acknowledge the date of independence as 17 August 1945. The United Nations, who mediated in the conflict, formally acknowledge the date of independence as 27 December 1949, the document was signed by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, who were appointed president and vice-president respectively the following day. The draft was prepared only a few hours earlier, on the night of 16 August, by Sukarno, Hatta, the original Indonesian Declaration of Independence was typed by Sayuti Melik. Maeda himself was sleeping in his room upstairs and he was agreeable to the idea of Indonesias independence, and had lent his house for the drafting of the declaration. Marshal Terauchi, the highest-ranking Japanese leader in South East Asia and son of Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake, was however against Indonesias independence, the declaration was to be signed by the 27 members of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence symbolically representing the new nations diversity. The particular act was inspired by a similar spirit of the United States Declaration of Independence. Instead, the radical activists demanded that the signatures of six of them were to be put on the document. All parties involved in the moment finally agreed on a compromise solution which only included Sukarno. There was no evidence for the growing suspicions, as the Japanese had already surrendered to the Allies. An English translation of the proclamation was broadcast overseas, proklamasi Kami, bangsa Indonesia, dengan ini menjatakan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Hal2 jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l, 17-8-45, changed to hari 17, boelan 8, tahoen 05, Wakil-Wakil Bangsa Indonesia, changed to Atas nama bangsa Indonesia. P R O K L A M A S I Kami, bangsa Indonesia, hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l. Diselenggarakan dengan tjara saksama dan dalam tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja, djakarta, hari 17 boelan 8 tahoen 05 Atas nama bangsa Indonesia, Soekarno/Hatta. An English translation published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as of October 1948 included the speech as read by Sukarno. It incorporated remarks made immediately prior to and after the actual proclamation, PROCLAMATION WE THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA HEREBY DECLARE THE INDEPENDENCE OF INDONESIA. MATTERS WHICH CONCERN THE TRANSFER OF POWER AND OTHER THINGS WILL BE EXECUTED BY CAREFUL MEANS AND IN THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE TIME. DJAKARTA,17 AUGUST1945 IN THE NAME OF THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA SOEKARNO/HATTA This proclamation is printed in the front of the Rp.100,000 Indonesian banknote of the year 1999 and 2004 series, java in a Time of Revolution, Occupation and Resistance, 1944-1946
6.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
7.
United States of Indonesia
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This transfer ended the four-year conflict between Indonesian nationalists and the Netherlands that was fought over for control of Indonesia. It lasted less than a year, before being replaced by the unitary Republic of Indonesia, the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference took place in The Hague from August to November 1949. The Peoples Representative Council consisted of 50 representatives from the Republic of Indonesia and 100 from the states according to their populations. The Senate had two members from each constituent part of the RUSI regardless of population, making 32 members in total, the state was governed according to the Federal Constitution of 1949, which had been drawn up on the sidelines of the Round Table Conference. It had a cabinet of 16 members, led by Prime Minister Hatta, over the first half of 1950, the non-Republic states gradually dissolved themselves into the Republic. Kahin, George McTurnan, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, Cornell University Press, indrayana, Denny, Indonesian Constitutional Reform 1999-2002, PT Gramedia, ISBN 978-979-709-394-5 Legge, J. D. Indonesia, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc Ricklefs, M. C. A History of Modern Indonesia Since c
8.
Flag of Monaco
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The national flag of Monaco has two equal horizontal bands of red and white, both of which have been the heraldic colors of the House of Grimaldi since at least 1339. The present bicolor design was adopted on April 4,1881 and it is identical with the flag of Indonesia, albeit accidentally. Another design, the banner of the arms, was used at various times, particularly in the 17th century, as an unofficial flag. However, it has no designated use, and does not represent any Monegasque official in particular and it is often seen with a gold fringe on the top, bottom, and right, which is one-ninth the height of the white field. Sources disagree as to the flags usage, according to Flags of the World it is, according to the World Flag Database it is, and according to Whitney Smiths Flags Through the Ages and Across the World, it is. Explanation of the use of Monacos various flags World Flag Database Monacos flags at the World Flag Database
9.
Flag of Poland
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The flag of Poland consists of two horizontal stripes of equal width, the upper one white and the lower one red. The two colors are defined in the Polish constitution as the national colors, a variant of the flag with the national coat of arms in the middle of the white stripe is legally reserved for official use abroad and at sea. A similar flag with the addition of a swallow-tail is used as the ensign of Poland. White and red were adopted as national colors in 1831. Prior to that, Polish soldiers wore cockades of various color combinations, the national flag was officially adopted in 1919. Since 2004, Polish Flag Day is celebrated on May 2, the flag is flown continuously on the buildings of the highest national authorities, such as the parliament and the presidential palace. Other institutions and many Polish people fly the flag on national holidays. Current Polish law does not restrict the use of the flag without the coat of arms as long as the flag is not disrespected. Horizontal bicolors of white and red being a widespread design, there are several flags that are similar. There are two national flags with the red stripe above the one, those of Indonesia and Monaco. In Poland, many based on the national design also feature the national colors. Legislation concerning the symbols is far from perfect. The Coat of Arms Act has been amended several times and refers extensively to executive ordinances, moreover, the Act contains errors, omissions and inconsistencies which make the law confusing, open to various interpretations and often not followed in practice. According to Chapter I, Article 28, paragraph 2 of the Constitution, the national colors of Poland are white and red. The Coat of Arms Act, Article 4, further specifies that the colors are white and red in two horizontal, parallel stripes of width, of which the top one is white. If the colors are displayed vertically, the stripe is placed on the left from the onlookers viewpoint. The Constitution contains no mention of a national flag, both flags are defined in Article 6 of the act as follows, The state flag of the Republic of Poland is a rectangular piece of cloth in the colors of the Republic of Poland hoisted on a flagpole. The state flag of the Republic of Poland is also the flag specified in paragraph 1, the hoist to fly ratio for both flags is 5,8
10.
Maritime flag
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A maritime flag is a flag designated for use on ships, boats, and other watercraft. Naval flags are considered important at sea and the rules and regulations for the flying of flags are strictly enforced, the flag flown is related to the country of registration, so much so that the word flag is often used symbolically as a synonym for country of registration. Ensigns are usually required to be flown when entering and leaving harbour, when sailing through foreign waters, and when the ship is signalled to do so by a warship. Warships usually fly their ensigns between the morning ceremony and sunset when moored or at anchor, at all times when underway. When engaged in battle a warship often flies multiple battle ensigns and this tradition dates from the era of sailing vessels. Tradition dictated that if a ship lowered its ensign it was deemed to have surrendered, masts were targets of gunfire, and the second and subsequent ensigns were flown in order to keep the ensign flying even after a mast hit. Jacks are additional national flags flown by warships at the head of the ship and these are usually flown while not underway and when the ship is dressed on special occasions. Jacks in the Royal Navy must be run up when the first line is ashore when coming alongside, although they continued to fly the same ensign as U. S. Since then, commissioned ships of NOAA, which fly the same national ensign as U. S. Navy ships, have flown the flag of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as a distinguishing mark. Similarly, all ships of the United States Lighthouse Service flew the U. S, the rank flag or distinguishing flag is the flag flown by a superior officer on his flagship or headquarters. The origins of this are from the era before radiotelegraphy and radiotelephony, the flag denotes the ship which must be watched for signals designating orders. Such flags are also flown when leaders of the government are aboard Navy ships, today, with the progress in communications, this flag indicates the obligation of the other Naval vessels to pay the relevant honours according to nautical etiquette. In a group of ships all commanded by superior officers. In the Royal Navy, admirals fly rectangular rank flags, an Admiral of the Fleet flies a Union Flag, the flags of vice-admirals and rear-admirals have one and two additional red balls respectively. Commodores fly a Broad Pennant which is a short swallow-tailed pennant based on the St Georges Cross, in the United States Navy as well as in some other countries, admirals fly rectangular flags with stars according to rank. Line officer flags are blue with stars, while staff officer flags are white with blue stars. Captains, when commanding a flotilla or squadron, fly a burgee with the colours of Hellenic Navy Jack, when a rank flag is flown the commissioning pennant is displaced downward. The pennant, historically called a pennon, is a long narrow flag, conveying different meanings depending on its design, examples, A commissioning pennant, or masthead, which a warship flies from its masthead and indicates the commission of the captain of the ship
11.
Indonesian Navy
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The Indonesian Navy was founded on 10 September 1945. The Indonesian Navy is the largest navy in South East Asia based on the number of active personnel, as of 2009, the Indonesian Navy had about 75,000 active personnel and more than 150 vessels in active service. The Indonesian Navy is one of a few navies in the region backed by a domestic defence industry, marine corps. All commissioned ships of the TNI-AL have the prefix KRI, standing for Kapal Republik Indonesia, the Indonesian Navys history began on 10 September 1945, at the outset of the Indonesian National Revolution. The administration of the early Indonesian government established the Peoples Marine Security Agency, as the revolution grew and the Navy began its work, naval bases were established throughout the archipelago. Former ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy handed down to the new republic were acqurired, besides, they also attempted to breach the Dutch naval blockade in order to obtain aid from abroad. The newly-formed navy confronted the more superior Royal Netherlands Navy in Bali, Sibolga, cross-sea operations are also able to prepare the armed forces in South Kalimantan, Bali and Sulawesi. Limitations in strength and ability to lead the Navy had to divert the struggle in the countryside, after most boats were sunk and nearly all bases battered by the Dutch, but the determination to participate again in the sea never subsided. In the hard times during the National Revolution the Navy succeeded in forming the Fleet Forces, Marine Corps, the formation of these elements mark the presence of aspects for the formation of a modern national navy. The end of the War of Independence marked the development of the Navy as a modern Navy and this step in the consolidation of the body along with the Navy, revamping the organization and recruitment of personnel through educational institutions before manning naval equipment. During 1949-1959 the Navy managed to enhance the strength and improve its capabilities, Navy combat equipment grew, both from the Dutch and from other various countries. At the time of the country started to recover from the threat of disintegration, in 1959, the Navy experienced a significant progress until 1965. This is motivated by the politics of confrontation in order to seize West Irian, with such power in the era of the 1960s the Navy was called the largest Navy in Southeast Asia. The Indonesian government claimed West Irian as part of Indonesia. The Dutch government however, the Indonesian Navy started preparing a couple of naval operations for the liberation of West Irian known as Operation Trikora. At the beginning of Trikora, fast-ship torpedo Navy ships have to deal with ships destroyers, frigates, on January 15,1962 Commodore Yos Sudarso along with RI Macan Tutul sank in the sea battle in the Arafura Sea. This battle is known as the Vlakke Hoek incident, at that time the Navy is preparing to organize Operation Jayawijaya which would be the largest amphibious operation in the history of Indonesian military operations if commenced. No less than 100 warships and 16,000 sailors and Marines prepared in the operation, the deployment of forces forced the Dutch to return to negotiations and reached an agreement to hand over West Irian to Indonesia. After seizing West Irian, Soekarno by 1963 moved his sights on Malaysia, Indonesia political confrontation against Neocolonialism and Imperialism continued in Operation Dwikora to oppose the formation of Malaysia
12.
Warship
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A warship is a naval ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the forces of a state. As well as being armed, warships are designed to damage and are usually faster. Unlike a merchant ship, which carries cargo, a warship typically carries weapons, ammunition. Warships usually belong to a navy, though they have also operated by individuals, cooperatives. In wartime, the distinction between warships and merchant ships is often blurred, in war, merchant ships are often armed and used as auxiliary warships, such as the Q-ships of the First World War and the armed merchant cruisers of the Second World War. Until the 17th century it was common for merchant ships to be pressed into naval service, until the threat of piracy subsided in the 19th century, it was normal practice to arm larger merchant ships such as galleons. Warships have also often used as troop carriers or supply ships. The development of catapults in the 4th century BC and the subsequent refinement of technology enabled the first fleets of artillery-equipped warships by the Hellenistic age. During late antiquity, ramming fell out of use and the galley tactics against other ships used during the Middle Ages until the late 16th century focused on boarding. Naval artillery was redeveloped in the 14th century, but cannon did not become common at sea until the guns were capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a required to carry a large number of cannons made oar-based propulsion impossible. The sailing man-of-war emerged during the 16th century, by the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on their broadsides and tactics evolved to bring each ships firepower to bear in a line of battle. The man-of-war now evolved into the ship of the line, in the 18th century, the frigate and sloop-of-war – too small to stand in the line of battle – evolved to convoy trade, scout for enemy ships and blockade enemy coasts. During the 19th century a revolution took place in the means of propulsion, naval armament. Marine steam engines were introduced, at first as an auxiliary force, the Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the development of guns. The introduction of explosive shells soon led to the introduction of iron, the first ironclad warships, the French Gloire and British Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Metal soon entirely replaced wood as the material for warship construction
13.
Pennon
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A pennon or pennant is a flag that is larger at the hoist than at the fly. It can have several shapes, such as triangular, tapering or triangular and it was one of the principal three varieties of flags carried during the Middle Ages. Pennoncells and streamers or pendants are minor varieties of this style of flag, the pennon is a flag resembling the guidon in shape, but only half the size. It does not contain any coat of arms, but only crests, mottos and heraldic, pennon comes from the Latin penna meaning a wing or a feather. The pennon was sometimes pointed, but more generally forked or swallow-tailed at the end, in the 11th century, the pennon was generally square, the fly end being decorated with the addition of pointed tongues or streamers, somewhat similar to the oriflamme. During the reign of Henry III, the acquired the distinctive swallow-tail. Another version of the pennon was introduced in the 13th century. In shape this was a triangle, obtained by cutting diagonally the vertically oblong banner. The pennon was a personal ensign. A pennoncell was a diminutive pennon carried by the esquires, pennons were also used for any special ceremonial occasion, and more particularly at state funerals. For instance, there were XII doz, among the fittings of the ship that took Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, to France in the reign of Henry VII was a great streamer for the ship 40 yards in length 8 yards in breadth. Besides the white ensign, ships commissioned in the Royal Navy fly a long streamer from the maintopgallant masthead and this, which is called a pennant, is in fact the sign of command, and it is first hoisted when a captain commissions his ship. Now, however the pennant is a long white streamer with the St Georges cross in the inner portion close to the mast, pennants have been carried by men-of-war from the earliest times, prior to 1653 at the yard-arm, but since that date at the maintopgallant masthead. There are other navies that also fly pennant in a similar manner, the commissioning pennant in ships may end in a point, but they can also be forked, in which case it is also called a banderole. Pennants are also associated with American sports teams, such as Major League Baseball, in Australian rules football, a pennant is awarded to the winner of major competitions. For many years, this was the prize given. As a result, a League Championship is often referred to as a pennant, as in, and in Australian football, a premiership can also be referred to as a flag. In the Netherlands, an orange pennon is always used on the Kings Day and it is flown alongside the standard Dutch flag
14.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
15.
Bendera Pusaka
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The Bendera Pusaka Sang Saka Merah Putih was the first Indonesian flag. Sewn by Sukarnos wife Fatmawati, it was raised for the first time when Sukarno proclaimed Indonesias independence on 17 August 1945, although required by law to be housed in the National Monument, the flag is still kept at the Presidential Palace. The Bendera Pusaka was sewn by Sukarnos wife Fatmawati and it was based on a 13th-century Majapahit flag, which had nine stripes of red and white. It was first raised at Sukarnos house at 56 Pegangsaan Timur Street, Jakarta and it was hoisted on a short bamboo staff by a group led by Captain Latief Hendaningrat, after its hoisting, the gathered crowd sang Indonesia Raya. During the first year of the Indonesian National Revolution, the Bendera Pusaka flew day, after the Dutch took Jakarta in 1946, the Bendera Pusaka was brought to Yogyakarta in Sukarnos briefcase. During Operatie Kraai, the Bendera Pusaka was cut in half and given to Indonesian composer Husein Mutahar for safekeeping, despite being captured by and escaping from the Dutch, Mutahar managed to bring the flag to Jakarta, sew it back together, and turn it over to Soedjono. Soedjono later returned the flag to Sukarno, who was in exile in Bangka, after the end of the war, the Bendera Pusaka was raised once a year in front of the Presidential Palace during Independence Day celebrations. However, due to the fragile state, beginning in 1968 it has been replaced by a replica. In 2003, plans were released to relocate the Bendera Pusaka from the Presidential Palace to the National Monument. In 2004, the relocation was expected to cost Rp.3.5 billion, however, the relocation has been consistently delayed. As of 2009, its storage at the National Monument has been mandated by law, the Bendera Pusaka consists of two bands, red at the top and white at the bottom, at a scale of 2,3. The red stands for bravery, while the stands for purity. However, alternative meanings have been proposed, including that the red represents palm sugar, the Bendera Pusaka has been used in the name of the Indonesian student organization Pasukan Pengibar Bendera Pusaka. This organization has a national board - the National BPFHT Council and their best appearance is during the Independence Day commemorations every 17 August. In 2003, the governor of Jakarta, Sutiyoso announced his plan to relocate the original Bendera Pusaka from the Merdeka Palace to the National Monument, for security and financial reasons, the Rp 3.5 billion project was delayed for a year. The spending was proposed in the 2003 revised city budget, the plan was to install the flag in a 24-carat gold plated case in the Independence Room inside the National Monument. Indonesian Idioms and Expressions, Colloquial Indonesian at Work
16.
Austronesian peoples
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Austronesians, Austronesian peoples or Austronesian-speaking peoples are various populations in Asia, Oceania and Africa that speak languages of the Austronesian family. The territories populated by Austronesian-speaking peoples are known collectively as Austronesia, most Austronesians bare similar features such as the light brown to brown skin with curly or wavy hair. Before the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty and of Vietnam and it has been argued that these patterns are best explained by dispersal of an agricultural people from Taiwan into insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and, ultimately, the remote Pacific. Although this model—termed the “express train to Polynesia” – is broadly consistent with available data, alternatives to this model posit an indigenous origin for the Austronesian languages in Melanesia or Southeast Asia. Genomic analysis of cultivated coconut has shed light on the movements of Austronesian peoples, by examining 10 microsatelite loci, researchers found that there are 2 genetically distinct subpopulations of coconut – one originating in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Pacific Ocean. However, there is evidence of admixture, the transfer of genetic material, given that coconuts are ideally suited for ocean dispersal, it seems possible that individuals from one population could have floated to the other. However, the locations of the events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa. This pattern coincides with the trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Other research has suggested that, according to dates, Austronesians may have migrated from mainland China to Taiwan as late as 4000 BC. Before Taiwan, Austronesian speakers are thought to have descended from the neolithic cultures of Southeastern China. According to the mainstream model, a large-scale Austronesian expansion began around 5000–2500 BC. Population growth primarily fuelled this migration, over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia between 1200 BC and 500 AD respectively, the Austronesian inhabitants that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia had reached some parts of mainland Southeast Asia, and later on Madagascar. Sailing from Melanesia, and Micronesia, the Austronesian peoples discovered Polynesia by 1000 BC and these people settled most of the Pacific Islands. They had settled Rapa Nui by 300 AD, Hawaii by 400 AD, there is evidence, based in the spreading of the sweet potato, that they reached South America where they traded with the Native Americans. In the Indian Ocean they sailed west from Maritime Southeast Asia and this out of Taiwan model has been recently challenged by a 2008 study. Examination of mitochondrial DNA lineages shows that they have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia for a period than previously believed. Population dispersals occurred at the time as sea levels rose
17.
Tahiti
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Tahiti is the largest island in the Windward group of French Polynesia, this overseas collectivity of the French Republic is sometimes referred to as a French overseas country. The island was formed from volcanic activity and is high and mountainous with surrounding coral reefs, the population is 183,645 inhabitants, making it the most populous island of French Polynesia and accounting for 68.5 percent of its total population. Tahiti is the economic, cultural and political centre of French Polynesia, the capital, Papeete, is located on the northwest coast with the only international airport in the region, Faaā International Airport, situated 5 km from the town centre. Tahiti was originally settled by Polynesians between 300 and 800 CE and they represent about 70 percent of the islands population with the rest made up of Europeans, Chinese and those of mixed heritage. The island was part of the Kingdom of Tahiti until its annexation by France in 1880, when it was proclaimed a colony of France, French is the only official language although the Tahitian language is widely spoken. Tahiti is the highest and largest island in French Polynesia lying close to Moorea island and it is located 4,400 kilometres south of Hawaii,7,900 km from Chile and 5,700 km from Australia. The island is 45 km across at its widest point and covers an area of 1,045 km2, the highest peak is Mont Orohena. Mount Roonui, or Mount Ronui in the southeast rises to 1,332 m, the island consists of two roughly round portions centred on volcanic mountains and connected by a short isthmus named after the small town of Taravao, situated there. The northwestern portion is known as Tahiti Nui, while the much smaller portion is known as Tahiti Iti or Taiarapū. Tahiti Nui is heavily populated along the coast, especially around the capital, the interior of Tahiti Nui is almost entirely uninhabited. Tahiti Iti has remained isolated, as its half is accessible only to those travelling by boat or on foot. The rest of the island is encircled by a road which cuts between the mountains and the sea. A scenic and winding road climbs past dairy farms and citrus groves with panoramic views. Tahitis landscape features lush rainforests and many rivers and waterfalls, including the Papenoo River on the side. November to April is the wet season, the wettest month of which is January with 13.2 in of rain in Papeetē, August is the driest with 1.9 inches. The average temperature ranges between 21 and 31 °C with little seasonal variation, the lowest and highest temperatures recorded in Papeete are 16 and 34 °C, respectively. The first Tahitians arrived from Southeast Asia in about 200 BCE and this hypothesis of an emigration from Southeast Asia is supported by a number of linguistic, biological and archaeological proofs. For example, the languages of Fiji and Polynesia all belong to the same Oceanic sub-group, Fijian-Polynesian, in 1769, for instance, James Cook mentions a great traditional ship in Tahiti that was 33 m long, and could be propelled by sail or paddles
18.
Madagascar
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Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar, and numerous smaller peripheral islands, consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The islands diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the growing human population. The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC, human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo. These were joined around AD1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa, other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by an assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles, the monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in an uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair, Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community. Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations, Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascars development strategy. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis, in the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The islands appellation Madagascar is not of origin, but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. On St. Laurences Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island, polos name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. At 592,800 square kilometres, Madagascar is the worlds 47th largest country, the country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros, the nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west
19.
Singhasari
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Singhasari was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded the Kingdom of Kediri as the dominant kingdom in eastern Java, the kingdoms name cognate to Singosari district of Malang Regency, located several kilometres north of Malang city. Singhasari was mentioned in several Javanese manuscripts, including Pararaton and it derived from sanskrit word singha which means lion and sari or saree which in Old Javanese could means either essence or to sleep. Thus Singhasari could means the essence of lion or sleeping lion, although lion is not an endemic animal of Java, the depiction of lion as symbolism can be found in Javanese culture, especially attributed to the influence of Hindu-Buddhist symbolism. Singhasari was founded by Ken Arok, whose story is a folktale in Central. Most of Ken Aroks life story and also the history of Singhasari was taken from the Pararaton account. Ken Arok was an orphan born of a mother named Ken Endok, Ken Arok rose from being a servant of Tungul Ametung, a regional ruler in Tumapel to becoming ruler of Java from Kediri. He is considered the founder of the Rajasa dynasty of both the Singhasari and later the Majapahit line of monarchs and he was assassinated by Anusapati, in revenge for killing his father, Tunggul Ametung. Ken Aroks son Panji Tohjaya assassinated Anusapati, but he in turn reigned only a few months in 1248 before his nephews revolted and these two, Ranga Wuni and Mahisha Champaka, ruled together under the names Vishnuvardhana and Narasimhamurti. The strongest of these Malaya kingdoms was Jambi, which captured the Srivijaya capital in 1088, then the Dharmasraya kingdom, and the Temasek kingdom of Singapore and these Malayan kingdoms then pledged allegiance to the king. King Kertanegara had long wished to surpass Srivijaya as a maritime empire. The Pamalayu expedition from 1275 to 1292, from the time of Singhasari to Majapahit, is chronicled in the Javanese scroll Nagarakrtagama, Singhasari’s territory thus became Majapahit territory. In the year 1284, king Kertanegara made a hostile Pabali expedition to Bali, the king also sent troops, expeditions and envoys to other nearby kingdoms such as the Sunda-Galuh kingdom, Pahang kingdom, Balakana kingdom, and Gurun kingdom. He also established an alliance with the king of Champa, King Kertanegara totally erased any Srivijayan influence from Java and Bali in 1290. However, the expansive campaigns exhausted most of the Kingdom’s military forces, indonesia is one of the few areas that thwarted invasion by the Mongol horde by repelling a Mongol force in 1293. Moreover, Singhasari had formed an alliance with Champa, another state in the region. Both Java and Champa were worried about Mongol expansion and raids against neighbouring states, Kublai Khan then sent emissaries demanding submission and tribute from Java. In 1280, Kublai Khan sent the first emissary to King Kertanegara, demanding Singhasari’s submission, the next year in 1281, the Khan sent another envoy, demanding the same, which was refused again
20.
Kediri Kingdom
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Kediri or Kadiri was a Hindu Javanese Kingdom based in East Java from 1042 to around 1222. Despite the lack of remains, the age of Kediri saw much development in classical literature. Mpu Sedahs Kakawin Bharatayuddha, Mpu Panuluhs Gatotkacasraya, and Mpu Dharmajas Smaradhana blossomed in this era, the kingdoms capital is believed to had been established in the western part of the Brantas River valley, somewhere near modern Kediri city and surrounding Kediri Regency. The name Kediri or Kadiri derived from Sanskrit word Khadri which means Indian Mulberry, the bark of morinda produces a brownish-purplish dye for batik-making, while its fruit have medicinal values. Similar named city also known, Kadiri in Andhra Pradesh, India, the kingdom was also known as Panjalu as the twin kingdom with Jenggala. During the reign of Jayakatwang that revived the short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri, other than Kadiri, the kingdom was also often referred to as Daha or Dahana, after its capital. The name Daha was used in later Majapahit period, as the seat of court of Trowulan. The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlanggas Kahuripan kingdom, in 1045, Airlangga divided his kingdom of Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu, and abdicated in favour of his sons to live as an ascetic. The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Çri Jayawarşa Digjaya Çāstaprabhu, in his inscription dated 1104, like Airlangga, he claimed himself to be the incarnation or Avatar of Vishnu. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa, the Lanchana of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon called chandrakapala, the symbol of Shiva. During his reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya, the god of love, kameçvaras wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of love and passion. The tales of this story, known as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Siam and his formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana of his reign was Narasingha, the name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedahs Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version of the Mahabharata, written in 1157. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh, Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhayas reign was considered the age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic book ascribed to Jayabhaya, is known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago would be ruled by a race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time. The Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a popular figure in Javanese folklore
21.
Teak
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Teak is a tropical hardwood tree species placed in the flowering plant family Lamiaceae. Tectona grandis is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests and it has small, fragrant white flowers and large papery leaves that are often hairy on the lower surface. It is sometimes known as the Burmese teak, Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is freshly milled. It is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance, and is used for building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, turnings. Myanmars teak forests account for half of the worlds naturally occurring teak. Molecular studies show there are two centres of genetic origin of teak, one in India and the other in Myanmar. CP teak is a description of teak from the states of India. Nagpur teak is another regional Indian teak and it produces small, white flowers arranged in dense clusters at the end of the branches. Flowers contain both types of reproductive organs The word teak comes from, Tamil tekku, Malayalam word thekku, the plant is known as Thekka in Sinhala by Sri Lankan people. Teak is a large, deciduous tree up to 40 m tall with gray to grayish brown branches, leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovate, 15–45 cm long by 8–23 cm wide, and are held on robust petioles that are 2–4 cm long. Fragrant white flowers are borne on 25–40 cm long by 30 cm wide panicles from June to August, the corolla tube is 2. 5–3 mm long with 2 mm wide obtuse lobes. Tectona grandis sets fruit from September to December, fruits are globose and 1. 2-1.8 cm in diameter, flowers are weakly protandrous in that the anthers precede the stigma in maturity and pollen is shed within a few hours of the flower opening. The flowers are entomophilous, but can occasionally be anemophilous. A1996 study found that in its range in Thailand. Heartwood is brownish red in colour, sometimes there are dark patches on it. There is a scent in newly cut wood. Sapwood is whitish to yellowish brown in colour. It can easily separate from heartwood, wood texture is hard and ring porous
22.
Averrhoa bilimbi
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Averrhoa bilimbi is a fruit-bearing tree of the genus Averrhoa, family Oxalidaceae. It is a relative of carambola tree. The bilimbi tree reaches 5–10 m in height and its trunk is short and quickly divides up into ramifications. Bilimbi leaves, 3–6 cm long, are alternate, imparipinnate, there are around 11 to 37 alternate or subopposite oblong leaflets. The leaves are similar to those of the Otaheite gooseberry. The trunk and branches of tree has to be exposed to sunlight for fruits to form, possibly originated in Moluccas, Indonesia, the species is now cultivated and found throughout the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Maldives, Myanmar and Malaysia. It is also common in other Southeast Asian countries, in India, where it is usually found in gardens, the bilimbi has gone wild in the warmest regions of the country. Outside of Asia, the tree is cultivated in Zanzibar, in 1793, the bilimbi was introduced to Jamaica from Timor and after several years, was cultivated throughout Central and South America where it is known as mimbro. In Suriname this fruit is known as lange birambi, introduced to Queensland at the end of the 19th century, it has been grown commercially in the region since that time. This is essentially a tree, less resistant to cold than the carambola, growing best in rich. It prefers evenly distributed throughout the year, but with a 2- to 3-month dry season. Therefore, the species is not found, for example, in the wettest part of Malaysia, in Florida, where it is an occasional curiosity, the tree needs protection from wind and cold. It can be either curried or added as a agent for common Filipino dishes such as sinigang. The uncooked bilimbi is prepared as relish and served with rice, in the Far East, where the tree originated, it is sometimes added to curry. Bilimbi juice is made into a cooling beverage, in Indonesia, it is added to some dishes, substituting for tamarind or tomato. Additionally, the fruit can be preserved by pickling, which reduces its acidity, the flowers are also sometimes preserved in sugar. In another part of Indonesia, Aceh, it is preserved by sun-drying, the sun-dried bilimbi is called asam sunti. Bilimbi and asam sunti are popular in Acehnese cuisine and it can replace mango in making chutney
23.
Purple mangosteen
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The purple mangosteen, colloquially known simply as mangosteen, is a tropical evergreen tree believed to have originated in the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas of Indonesia. It grows mainly in Southeast Asia, southwest India and other areas such as Puerto Rico and Florida. The tree grows from 6 to 25 m tall, the fruit of the mangosteen is sweet and tangy, juicy, somewhat fibrous, with fluid-filled vesicles, with an inedible, deep reddish-purple colored rind when ripe. In each fruit, the fragrant edible flesh that surrounds each seed is botanically endocarp, the purple mangosteen belongs to the same genus as the other, less widely known, mangosteens, such as the button mangosteen or the charichuelo. Mangosteen is a plant to Sunda Islands and the Moluccas of Indonesia. The 15th-century Chinese record Yingyai Shenglan described mangosteen as mang-chi-shih, a plant of Java of white flesh with delectable sweet. A description of mangosteen was included in the Species Plantarum by Linnaeus in 1753, the mangosteen was introduced into English greenhouses in 1855. Subsequently its culture was introduced into the Western Hemisphere, where it established in West Indies islands. It was later established on the Americas mainland in Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, the mangosteen tree generally does not grow well outside the tropics. There is a legend about Queen Victoria offering a reward of 100 pounds sterling to anyone who could deliver to her the fresh fruit, in his publication, Hortus Veitchii, James Herbert Veitch says he visited Java in 1892, to eat the Mangosteen. It is necessary to eat the Mangosteen grown within three or four degrees of latitude of the equator to realize at all the attractive and curious properties of this fruit. Since 2006, private small-volume orders for fruits grown in Puerto Rico were sold to American specialty food stores, Mangosteen is usually propagated by seedlings. Vegetative propagation is difficult and seedlings are more robust and reach fruiting earlier than vegetative propagated plants, Mangosteen produces a recalcitrant seed which is not a true seed strictly defined, but rather described as a nucellar asexual embryo. As seed formation involves no sexual fertilization, the seedling is genetically identical to the mother plant. If allowed to dry, a seed dies quickly, but if soaked, seed germination takes between 14 and 21 days when the plant can be kept in a nursery for about 2 years growing in a small pot. When the trees are approximately 25–30 cm, they are transplanted to the field at a spacing of 20–40 m, after planting, the field is mulched in order to control weeds. Transplanting takes place in the season because young trees are likely to be damaged by drought. Because young trees need shade, intercropping with banana, plantain, coconut palms are mainly used in areas with a long dry season, as palms also provide shade for mature mangosteen trees
24.
Batak
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Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, Angkola, while the archaeology of southern Sumatra testifies to the existence of neolithic settlers, it seems that the northern part of Sumatra was settled by agriculturalists at a considerably later stage. Reliable historical records of the Batak before 1800 are virtually non-existent, the Batak may be mentioned in Zhao Ruguas 13th-century Description of the Barbarous People, which refers to a Ba-ta dependency of Srivijaya. The Suma Oriental, of the 15th century, also refers to the kingdom of Bata, bounded by Pasai and it has been suggested that the important port of Barus in Tapanuli was populated primarily by Batak people. Tamil remains have been found on key trade routes to the Batak lands, tamil influence on Karo religious practices are also noted, with the pekualuh secondary cremation ritual being specific to the Karo and Dairi people. Moreover the Pustaka Kembaren, a story of the Sembiring Kembaren suggests linkages with Pagarruyung in Minangkabau Highlands. From the 16th century onward, Aceh increased the production of pepper, an important export commodity, in exchange for rice, which grew well in the Batak wetlands. Batak people in different areas cultivated either sawah or ladang, the increasing importance of rice had religious significance, which increased the power of the Batak high priests, who had responsibility for ensuring agricultural success. The Batak speak a variety of related languages, all members of the Austronesian language family. Simalungun is an offspring of the southern branch. Some Simalungun dialects can be understood by speakers of Batak Karo and this is due to the existence of a linguistic continuum that often blurs the lines between the Batak dialects. Batak dialect still influences the dialects in Medan city today, the Batak possess their own script known as the Surat Batak. The writing has chiefly ceremonial importance within traditional religious ceremonies, and was subject to change for this reason. It is likely that the Batak people originally received their writing system from southern Sumatra, the traditional occupation of the Batak was agriculture, hunting and farming. The great lake of Toba provided vast opportunity for freshwater aquaculture since ancient times, the port of Barus on the western coast of Batak lands has become famous as the source of kapur barus. In ancient times, Batak warriors were recruited by neighboring Malay courts as mercenaries. In the colonial era, the Dutch introduced commercial cash crops, such as coffee, sawit palm oil, throughout the history of modern Indonesia, the Batak community has been a significant contributor. Batak people have filled a range of occupations, from running modest tire service workshops to serving as state ministers
25.
Aceh War
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The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia. The campaign drew controversy in the Netherlands as photographs and accounts of the toll were reported. Isolated insurgencies continued as late as 1914 and popular resistance continued into the World War II era, for much of the 19th century, Acehs independence had been guaranteed by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 and its status as a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire since the 16th century. During the 1820s, Aceh became a political and commercial power, supplying half of the worlds pepper. Growing European and American demand for pepper led to a series of skirmishes between the British, French and Americans. During the reign of Sultan Alauddin Ibrahim Mansur Syah, the Aceh Sultanate brought the regional rajas under its control, however, this southward trend clashed with the northwards expansion of Dutch colonialism in Sumatra. In return, Britain gained control of the Dutch Gold Coast in Africa, Dutch territorial ambitions in Aceh were fuelled by a desire to exploit its natural resources, especially black pepper and oil, and to eliminate an independent native state player. The Dutch also sought to ward off other rival colonial powers that had ambitions in Southeast Asia, particularly the British, the Dutch tried one strategy after another over the course of decades. In 1873 they tried a single attack, but it failed. They then tried a naval blockade, reconciliation, concentration within a line of forts, reaching 15 to 20 million guilders a year, the heavy spending for failed strategies nearly bankrupted the colonial government. In 1873, negotiations took place in Singapore between representatives of the Aceh Sultanate and the local American Consul over a potential bilateral treaty, the Dutch saw this as a violation of a prior agreement with the British in 1871 and used this as an opportunity to annexe Aceh militarily. An expedition under Major General Johan Harmen Rudolf Köhler was sent out on 26 March 1873 and it was the intention of the Dutch to attack and take the Sultans palace, which would also lead to the occupation of the entire country. The Sultan requested and possibly received military aid from Italy and the United Kingdom in Singapore, in any case the Aceh army was rapidly modernised and enlarged with figures ranging from 10,000 to 100,000. Underestimating the military abilities of the Acehnese, the Dutch made some tactical errors and these defeats undermined Dutch morale and prestige. Forced to retreat, the Dutch imposed a blockade of Aceh. In an attempt to preserve Acehs independence, Sultan Mahmud appealed to the other Western powers and Turkey for help, while the American Consul was sympathetic, the American government remained neutral. Due to its position in the international political stage, the Ottoman Empire was impotent. Meanwhile, the British refused to intervene due to their relations with the Dutch while the French declined to respond to Mahmuds appeal, in November 1873, a second expedition consisting of 13,000 troops led by General Jan van Swieten was dispatched to Aceh
26.
Quran
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The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
27.
South Sulawesi
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South Sulawesi is a province in the southern peninsula of Sulawesi. The Selayar Islands archipelago is part of the province. The 2010 census estimated the population as 8,032,551 which makes South Sulawesi the most populous province on the island, South Sulawesi is located at 4°20S 120°15E and covers an area of 45,764.53 square kilometres. The province is bordered by Central Sulawesi and West Sulawesi to the north, the Gulf of Bone and Southeast Sulawesi to the east, Makassar Strait to the west, and Flores Sea to the south. Five years after independence, the government issued Law No.21 of 1950, ten years later, the government passed Law No.47 of 1960 which endorsed the formation of the South/Southeast Sulawesi province. Four years after that, with Act No.13 of 1964, the remaining South Sulawesi Province is divided into 21 regencies and three independent cities, listed below with their populations as of the 2010 Census. # The 2000 Census population for Palopo city is included in the figure for Luwu Regency. 68/Pres/12/2007 on 10 December 2007, regarding the expansion of the original districts. *** The 2000 Census population for East Luwu Regency is included in the figure for North Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi has a diverse range of ethnic groups. These are the three, The Buginese are the largest ethnic group in South Sulawesi. These people inhabit the middle of the peninsula of South Sulawesi. Many of these people have migrated to the islands around Sulawesi. The Makassarese are the second largest ethnic group in South Sulawesi, Makassar people inhabit the southern part of the southern peninsula of South Sulawesi including the Jeneponto, Takalar, Bulukumba, Bantaeng, Gowa, Maros, and Makassar. The total population is around 3 million people, the Torajan are the indigenous ethnic group which inhabits the mountainous region of South Sulawesi. Their population is approximately 650,000,450,000 of which live in the regency of Tana Toraja. There are various languages and dialects spoken in South Sulawesi, majority of them belongs to Malayo-Polynesian branch of Austronesian languages. Below is the list of languages spoken in the province. Makassarese language is a language spoken in Makassar and surrounding areas and it has a total of 2.1 million speakers. Bugis language is one of the languages spoken in the region up to Pinrang Bone and this language is the predominant language used by many communities in South Sulawesi
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Bali
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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
29.
Java War
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The Java War or Diponegoro War was fought in central Java from 1825 to 1830, between the colonial Dutch Empire and native Javanese rebels. It started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro, a member of the Javanese aristocracy who had previously cooperated with the Dutch. The rebel forces were held up by a siege at Yogyakarta and this allowed the Dutch to raise and ship in new troops. The rebels adopted guerilla tactics and held out against Dutch forces for several years, the war ended in Dutch victory when Diponegoro was invited to a peace conference, then betrayed and captured. Prompted by the cost of the war, the Dutch colonial authorities implemented major reforms throughout the Dutch East Indies to ensure the colonies were profitable, the proximate cause was the Dutch decision to build a road across a piece of Diponegoros property that contained his parents tomb. Amongst other causes was a sense of resentment felt by members of the Javanese aristocratic families at Dutch measures intended to restrict the renting out of land at high prices. Diponegoros rival to the throne, his half brother, Hamengkubuwono IV. Among Diponegoros followers, the war has been described as a jihad both against the Dutch and the murtad or apostate Javanese, the forces of Prince Diponegoro were successful in the early stages of the war, taking control of the middle of Java and besieging Yogyakarta. The Javanese population was supportive of Prince Diponegoros cause, whereas the Dutch colonial authorities were initially indecisive, as the Java war became prolonged, Prince Diponegoro had difficulties in maintaining the numbers of his troops. The Dutch colonial army, however, was able to fill its ranks with troops from Sulawesi. The Dutch commander, General de Kock, raised the siege of Yogyakarta on 25 September 1825, Prince Diponegoro then began an extensive guerrilla war. It is estimated that 200,000 died over the course of the conflict,8,000 of them Dutch. The rebellion finally ended in 1830, after Prince Diponegoro was tricked into entering Dutch controlled territory near Magelang, believing he was there for negotiations for a possible cease-fire and he was captured through treachery and exiled to Manado and then to Makassar, where he died in 1855. The policy brought the Dutch and their native allies enormous wealth through the export of cash crops and it brought the Netherlands back from the brink of bankruptcy, and made the Dutch East Indies a self-sufficient and profitable colony. Babad Dipanagara, an account of the outbreak of the Java War, MC Ricklefs, A History of modern Indonesia since 1300, 2nd ed,1993, pp. 116–17. Sagimun M. D. Pangeran Dipanegara, pahlawan nasional, Proyek Biografi Pahlawan Nasional, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan,1976
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Diponegoro
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Diponegoro, also known as Dipanegara, was a Javanese prince who opposed the Dutch colonial rule. He played an important role in the Java War, in 1830, the Dutch exiled him to Makassar. Diponegoro was born on 11 November 1785 in Yogyakarta, and was the eldest son of Sultan Hamengkubuwono III of Yogyakarta. When the sultan died in 1814, Diponegoro was passed over for the succession to the throne in favor of his half brother, Hamengkubuwono IV. Being a devout Muslim, Diponegoro was alarmed by the relaxing of religious observance at his brothers court. In 1821, famine and plague spread in Java, Hamengkubuwono IV died, leaving only an infant son as heir. When the year-old boy was appointed as Sultan Hamengkubuwono V, there was a dispute over his guardianship, Diponegoro was again passed over, though he believed he had been promised the right to succeed his half brother. This series of disasters and political upheavals finally erupted into full-scale rebellion. Dipenogoro was widely believed to be the Ratu Adil, the Just Ruler predicted in the Pralembang Jayabaya, the beginning of the war saw large losses on the side of the Dutch, due to their lack of coherent strategy and commitment in fighting Diponegoros guerrilla warfare. Ambushes were set up, and food supplies were denied to the Dutch troops, the Dutch finally committed themselves to controlling the spreading rebellion by increasing the number of troops and sending General De Kock to stop the insurgency. De Kock developed a strategy of fortified camps and mobile forces, heavily-fortified and well-defended soldiers occupied key landmarks to limit the movement of Diponegoros troops while mobile forces tried to find and fight the rebels. From 1829, Diponegoro definitively lost the initiative and he was put in a position, first in Ungaran, then in the palace of the Resident in Semarang. Many troops and leaders were defeated or deserted, in 1830 Diponegoros military was as good as beaten and negotiations were started. Diponegoro demanded to have a state under a sultan and wanted to become the Muslim leader for the whole of Java. In March 1830 he was invited to negotiate under a flag of truce and he accepted but was taken prisoner on 28 March despite the flag of truce. De Kock claims that he had warned several Javanese nobles to tell Diponegoro he had to lessen his previous demands or that he would be forced to other measures. The Dutch exiled him to Makassar, today Diponegoro is a National Hero of Indonesia, and Kodam IV/Diponegoro, the Central Java Military Region, is named after him. The Indonesian Navy has named two ships after him, the first of these was the lead ship Diponegoro, a corvette purchased from the Netherlands
31.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
32.
Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
33.
Flag of the Netherlands
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The flag of the Netherlands is a horizontal tricolour of red, white, and blue. The tricolor flag is almost identical to that of Luxembourg, except that it is shorter and it originates as a variant of the older orange-white-blue Prinsenvlag, introduced in the 17th century as the Statenvlag, the naval flag of the States-General of the Dutch Republic. Its official status as the flag of the Kingdom of the Netherlands was formalized in 1937. The national flag of the Netherlands is a tricolour flag, the horizontal fesses are bands of equal size in the colours, from top to bottom, red, white, and blue. The first stadtholder of the Dutch Republic was William I of Orange, partly out of respect for him, the first flag adopted by the Dutch was a horizontal tricolour of orange, white, and blue. It became known as the Prinsenvlag and was based on the livery of William of Orange, the orange dye was particularly unstable and tended to turn red after a while, so in the mid-17th century, red was made the official colour. The flag has flown since then, but was confirmed by Royal Decree only in 1937, as the first revolutionary flag, it has had a seminal influence throughout the world, particularly on the Pan-Slavic colours of Russia. Until about 1800, in the case of both the orange- and the versions, the number of stripes and their order frequently varied. Under the later House of Habsburg this flag remained in use, in 1572 provinces of the Low Countries rose in revolt against King Philip II of Spain, and William Prince of Orange placed himself at the head of the rebels. The use of orange as a colour itself is an innovation of the 16th century. Jacob Duym also reports that in the siege of Leiden in 1574, from this, Rey concludes that the combination of orange-white-blue was certainly used by the Prince of Orange from the 1570s. The Watergeuzen, the privateers, flew an orange-white-blue. Tricolour, the first explicit reference to naval flags in these colours is found in the ordonnances of the Admiralty of Zeeland, dated 1587, the orange-white-blue flag continued to be flown as well and in later times would serve as the basis for the former South African flag. It is also the basis for the flags of New York City and Albany, the 400th anniversary of the introduction of the Princes Flag was commemorated in the Netherlands by the issue of a post stamp in 1972. After about 1630, the band tended to be replaced by a red one. The CIA Factbook suggests that this was due to the orange dye used tending to fade to red over time. Alternatively, it has suggested that there is an older association of the colours red, white and blue with the Low Countries. During the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the signals for this area, with the 3 bands straight or diagonal
34.
Hotel Majapahit
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The Hotel Majapahit is a historic luxury hotel in Surabaya, Indonesia. Located at 65 Jalan Tunjungan, Surabaya, the hotel was founded in 1910 as the Hotel Oranje by Lucas Martin Sarkies who commissioned Regent Alfred John Bidwell to design the hotel. A new art deco style lobby extension was opened in 1936, the opening was celebrated with a royal party attended by Crown Prince Leopold III from Belgium, Princess Astrid from Sweden and Charlie Chaplin. During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia from 1942 to 1945 during WWII, following this incident, the hotel was once again renamed and became known as the Hotel Merdeka. In 1946 the Sarkies brothers returned to manage the hotel and changed the name to the Lucas Martin Sarkies Hotel, then, in 1969 Mantrust Holdings Co. became the new owner and named the hotel after the historic kingdom of Majapahit. It was once operated by the Mandarin Oriental hotel group, today it is called Hotel Majapahit and still operates as a hotel, although most of the interior of the building has been renovated. In 2014, Hotel Majapahit was officially recognized as a heritage landmark by the Ministry of Education. Asias legendary hotels, the romance of travel
35.
Surabaya
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Surabaya, is the capital of Jawa Timur, located on northeastern Java island and along the edge of the Madura Strait and the second-largest-city in Indonesia. At the 2010 census, the city had a population over 2, Surabaya was once the largest city in Dutch East Indies and virtually the center of trading in the nation, exceeding those of Batavia, competing with the likes of Shanghai and Hong Kong. It was said that the two powerful animals agreed for a truce and set boundaries, that the domain would be in the sea while the crocodiles domain would be on the land. However one day the shark swam into the estuary to hunt, this angered the crocodile. The Shark argued that the river was a water-realm which meant that it was shark territory, while the crocodile argued that the river flowed deep inland, a ferocious fight resumed as the two animals bit each other. Finally the shark was badly bitten and fled to the sea. The two animals are now used as the symbol, with the two facing and circling each other, as depicted in a statue appropriately located near the entrance to the city zoo. Alternate derivations proliferate, from the Javanese sura ing baya, meaning bravely facing danger, some people consider Jayabayas prophecy as being about the great war between native Surabayan people and foreign invaders at the start of the war of independence in 1945. Another story tells of two heroes who fought each other in order to be the king of the city, the two heroes were named Sura and Baya. These folk etymologies, though embraced enthusiastically by its people and city leaders, are unverifiable, the earliest record of Surabaya was in the 1225 book Zhu fan zhi written by Zhao Rugua, in which it was called Jung-ya-lu, the ancient name of Surabaya. At the estuary, the water is fresh. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Surabaya was a duchy and it entered a conflict with, and was later captured by, the more powerful Sultanate of Mataram in 1625 under Sultan Agung. It was one of Matarams fiercest campaigns, in which they had to conquer Surabayas allies, Sukadana and Madura, with this conquest, Mataram then controlled almost the whole of Java, with the exception of the Sultanate of Banten and the Dutch settlement of Batavia. The expanding Dutch East India Company took the city over from a weakened Mataram in November 1743, Surabaya became a major trading center under the Dutch colonial government, and hosted the largest naval base in the colony. Surabaya was also the largest city in the serving as the center of Javas plantation economy. However, by 1920 a census recorded that Batavia has overtaken Surabayas population size, in 1917, a revolt occurred among the soldiers and sailors of Surabaya, led by the Indies Social Democratic Association. The revolt was crushed and the insurgents given harsh sentences. Japan occupied the city in 1942, as part of the occupation of Indonesia, after Japanese surrender at the end of World War II Surabaya was seized by Indonesian nationalists
36.
Indonesian National Revolution
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It took place between Indonesias declaration of independence in 1945 and the Dutch recognition of Indonesias independence at the end of 1949. The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the Year of National Awakening, the struggle lasted for over four years and involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces were able to control the towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra. In 1949 international pressure on the Netherlands became such that, together with the existing partial military stalemate, the revolution marked the end of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, except for Netherlands New Guinea. It also significantly changed ethnic castes, as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers and it did not significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the majority of the population, although a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated Volksraad in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule, others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, the occupation of Indonesia by Japan for three and a half years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, in Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra, the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, on 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set. For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese, under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee elected Sukarno as President, PROCLAMATION We, the people of Indonesia, hereby declare the independence of Indonesia. Matters which concern the transfer of power and other things will be executed by careful means, as the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. External power had shifted, it would be weeks before Allied Forces entered Indonesia, the resulting power vacuums in the weeks following the Japanese surrender, created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans. Many pemuda joined pro-Republic struggle groups, the most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded Giyugun and Heiho groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit, in the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations. To spread the message, pemuda set up their own radio stations and newspapers. On most islands, struggle committees and militia were set up, Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment, some wanted passionate armed struggle, others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the idea that this was a struggle to be led
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Battle of Surabaya
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The Battle of Surabaya was fought between pro-independence Indonesian soldiers and militia against British and British Indian troops as a part of the Indonesian National Revolution. The peak of the battle was in November 1945, the battle was the heaviest single battle of the revolution and became a national symbol of Indonesian resistance. Considered a heroic effort by Indonesians, the battle helped galvanise Indonesian,10 November is celebrated annually as Heroes Day. By the time the Allied forces arrived at the end of October 1945, fighting broke out on 30 October after the British commander, Brigadier A. W. S. Mallaby was killed in a skirmish. The British retaliated with a sweep that began on 10 November, under the cover of air attacks. Although the European forces largely captured the city in three days, the poorly armed Republicans fought for three weeks, and thousands died as the fled to the countryside. For the Dutch, it removed any doubt that the Republic was not simply a gang of collaborators without popular support, on 17 August 1945, Soekarno and Hatta declared the independence of Indonesia in Jakarta, two days after the Japanese emperors surrender in the Pacific. As the news about the independence declaration spread throughout the archipelago, in the following weeks, power vacuums existed, both from outside and within Indonesia, creating an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity. On 19 September 1945, a group of Dutch internees supported by the Japanese raised the Dutch flag outside the Hotel Yamato in Surabaya, East Java. This provoked nationalist Indonesian militia, who overran the Dutch and Japanese and tore off the part of the Dutch flag. The leader of the Dutch group, Mr Ploegman, was killed because of mass anger, the senior Japanese commander in Surabaya, Vice Admiral Shibata Yaichiro, threw his support for the Republicans and gave Indonesians ready access to arms. On 3 October, he surrendered to a Dutch Navy captain, Yaichiro ordered his forces to hand over their remaining weapons to the Indonesians. The Indonesians were expected to hand them to the newly-arrived Allied troops, British forces brought in a small Dutch military contingent which it termed the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration. In September and October 1945 a series of incidents took place involving pro-Dutch Eurasians, kyai and their students began to stream into Surabaya from Islamic boarding schools throughout East Java. The charismatic Bung Tomo made use of radio to encourage an atmosphere of fanatical revolutionary fervor across the city. Six thousand British Indian troops were sent into the city on 25 October to evacuate European internees, an apparent misunderstanding about the agreement between British troops in Jakarta and Mallabys troops in Surabaya was to have serious ramifications. Initially British troops were 6, 000-strong lightly armed Indian soldiers from the 49th Infantry Brigade of the 23rd Indian Division, Indonesian forces consisted of 20,000 soldiers from the newly formed Tentara Keamanan Rakyat and an estimated 100, 000–120,000 irregulars. TKR was formed by the members of Peta, a semi-military organisation during Japanese occupation
38.
Flag of Japan
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The national flag of Japan is a white rectangular flag with a red disc in the center. This flag is officially called Nisshōki in the Japanese language, but is commonly known as Hinomaru. The flag embodies Japans nickname as the Land of the Rising Sun, the Nisshōki flag is designated as the national flag in the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem, which was promulgated and became effective on August 13,1999. Although no earlier legislation had specified a flag, the sun-disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan. Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the Daijō-kan, the body of the early Meiji period. A sun-disc flag was adopted as the flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No.57 of Meiji 3. Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the years of the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II. The name of the country as well as the design of the flag reflect this importance of the sun. The ancient history Shoku Nihongi says that Emperor Monmu used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701, during the Meiji Restoration, both the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy became major symbols in the emerging Japanese Empire. Propaganda posters, textbooks, and films depicted the flag as a source of pride, in Japanese homes, citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays, celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government. Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular during the Second Sino-Japanese War and these tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag. Public perception of the flag varies. Historically, both Western and Japanese sources claimed the flag was a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese, since the end of World War II, the use of the flag and the national anthem Kimigayo has been a contentious issue for Japans public schools. Disputes about their use have led to protests and lawsuits, the flag is not frequently displayed in Japan due to its association with ultranationalism. To Okinawans, the flag represents the events of World War II, for some nations that have been occupied by Japan, the flag is a symbol of aggression and imperialism. The Hinomaru was used as a tool against occupied nations for purposes of intimidation, asserting Japans dominance, several military banners of Japan are based on the Hinomaru, including the sunrayed Naval Ensign. The Hinomaru also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public, the exact origin of the Hinomaru is unknown, but the rising sun seems to have had some symbolic meaning since the early 7th century. In 607, a correspondence that began with from the Emperor of the rising sun was sent to Chinese Emperor Yang of Sui
39.
Constitution of Indonesia
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The Constitution of Indonesia is the basis for the government of the Indonesia. The constitution was written in June, July and August 1945 and it was abrogated by the Federal Constitution of 1949 and the Provisional Constitution of 1950, but restored on 5 July 1959. The 1945 Constitution then set forth the Pancasila, the five nationalist principles devised by Sukarno and it provides for a limited separation of executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The governmental system has been described as presidential with parliamentary characteristics, the Japanese invaded the Netherlands East Indies in 1942, defeated the Dutch colonial regime, and occupied it for the duration of the Second World War. Indonesia then fell under the jurisdiction of the Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army, based in Saigon, on 29 April 1945, the 16th Army established Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, for Java. The 25th Army later established a BPUPKI for Sumatra, No such organisation existed for the remainder of Indonesia. The BPUPKI in Java, when established, consisted of 62 members and it was chaired by Dr Radjiman Wedyodiningrat. The future president Sukarno and vice-president Mohammad Hatta were among its members and they met in the building that had been used by the Dutch colonial quasi-parliament, the Volksraad in central Jakarta. It held two sessions,29 May –1 June and 10–17 July 1945, the first session discussed general matters, including the philosophy of the state for future independent Indonesia, Pancasila. The philosophy was formulated by nine members of BPUPKI, Soekarno, Hatta, Yamin, Maramis, Soebardjo, Wahid Hasjim, Muzakkir, Agus Salim and Abikoesno. The outcome was something of a compromise, and included an obligation for Muslims to follow syariah Islamic law, the second session produced a provisional constitution made up of 37 articles,4 transitory provision and 2 additional provision. The nation would be a state and a republic. On 26 July 1945, the Allies called for the surrender of Japan in the Potsdam Declaration. The Japanese authorities, realising they would lose the war, began to make firm plans for Indonesian independence. On 6 August, a bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. On 7 August, the Nanpo Gun headquarters announced that an Indonesian leader could enact a body called the Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, the dropping of a second atomic bomb, on Nagasaki, on 9 August prompted the Japanese to surrender unconditionally on 15 August 1945. Sukarno and Hatta declared independence on 17 August 1945, and the PPKI met the following day, in the meeting chaired by Sukarno, the 27 members, including Hatta, Supomo, Wachid Hasjim, Sam Ratulangi and Subardjo, began to discuss the proposed constitution article by article. The Committee made some changes, including the removal of 7 words from the text of Jakarta Charter which stated the obligation for Muslims to follow syariah Islamic law
40.
Sukarno
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Sukarno was the first President of Indonesia, serving in office from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of his countrys struggle for Independence from the Netherlands and he was a prominent leader of Indonesias nationalist movement during the Dutch colonial period, and spent over a decade under Dutch detention until released by the invading Japanese forces. Sukarno and his fellow nationalists collaborated to support for the Japanese war effort from the population. Upon Japanese surrender, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945 and he led Indonesians in resisting Dutch re-colonization efforts via diplomatic and military means until the Dutch acknowledgment of Indonesian independence in 1949. The early 1960s saw Sukarno veering Indonesia to the left by providing support and protection to the Indonesian Communist Party to the irritation of the military and he also embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of anti-imperialism, with aid from the Soviet Union and China. The 30 September Movement led to the destruction of the PKI and his replacement in 1967 by one of his generals, Suharto, the spelling Soekarno, based on Dutch orthography, is still frequently used, mainly because he signed his name in the old spelling. Sukarno himself insisted on a u, not oe, but said that he had told in school to use the Dutch style. He said that it was too difficult to change his signature, official Indonesian presidential decrees from the period 1947–1968, however, printed his name using the 1947 spelling. The Soekarno–Hatta International Airport which serves near Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, Indonesians also remember him as Bung Karno or Pak Karno. Like many Javanese people, he had one name. He is sometimes referred to in accounts as Achmad Sukarno. The first name was added by a British journalist, who felt his readers would be confused over someone with just a single name. He was originally named KusnoJavanese pronunciation, following Javanese custom, he was renamed after surviving a childhood illness. After graduating from a primary school in 1912, he was sent to the Europeesche Lagere School in Mojokerto. Subsequently, in 1916, Sukarno went to a Hogere Burgerschool in Surabaya, where he met Tjokroaminoto, in 1920, Sukarno married Tjokroaminotos daughter Siti Oetari. In 1921, he began to study engineering at the Technische Hoogeschool te Bandoeng. During his study in Bandung, Sukarno became romantically involved with Inggit Garnasih, the wife of Sanoesi, Inggit was 13 years older than Sukarno. In March 1923, Sukarno divorced Siti Oetari to marry Inggit, Sukarno later divorced Inggit and married Fatmawati
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Fatmawati
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Fatmawati is a National Hero of Indonesia. As the first Indonesian First Lady, She was the wife of Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia. She constructed the first flag flown by Indonesia, Fatmawati was born on 5 February 1923 in Bengkulu to Hasan Din and Chadijah. One of her ancestors was a princess of a Minangkabau kingdom, when she met Sukarno she was a teenager and he was married to a 53-year-old woman named Inggit. Unsurprisingly, Sukarnos wife was unwilling to release her husband but, Sukarno rationalised the need for his new wife by stating his desire to have a child to carry on his name. In 1943 Fatmawati became the wife of Sukarno and the following year gave birth to his first child. Sukarno named his child Guntur meaning thunder, in 1945 she was his wife when Indonesia declared independence. The flag of the new country was sewn by Fatmawati, and she was not his first wife, as he had married several times before. However, all his previous wives had been divorced in accordance with state law, Fatmawati was therefore his only wife at that time. There was a movement to reform womens rights in Indonesia. Fatmawati was not initially in favour of reforming these laws until she found out about her husbands intentions to marry again, moreover, this time Sukarno had decided that he did not want to divorce Fatmawati but intended to have two wives. Fatmawati objected when her husband took Hartini, his new wife, Sukarno married another woman from Java in 1953 and Fatmawati moved out of the presidential palace and lived separately in Jakarta. As part of the settlement Fatmawati was allowed to keep the title of First Lady and this development was a major blow to the growing womens movement. Fatmawati decided that she was going to divorce the President, the womens organisation consoled and advised Fatmawati and they tried to encourage her to return to the palace and reestablish her rights. Sukarno himself was annoyed by this development although his new wife understood Fatmawatis anger, Sukarno returned and had her thrown out of the meeting and exiled to Bogor. In 1953 Fatmawati became concerned about the plight of children with tuberculosis and she founded the Ibu Soekarno Foundation to fund a hospital. The following year a hospital was opened with the assistance of government funding and this was called the Madam Soekarno Hospital and Fatmawati laid the foundation stone in 1954. The birth of the hospital was a long one, the construction of the new building was halted by financial problems and it was not until 1961 that the hospital opened
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Palace
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A palace is a grand residence, especially a royal residence, or the home of a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name Palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome which housed the Imperial residences, in many parts of Europe, the term is also applied to ambitious private mansions of the aristocracy. Many historic palaces are now put to uses such as parliaments, museums, hotels. The word is sometimes used to describe a lavishly ornate building used for public entertainment or exhibitions. The word palace comes from Old French palais, from Latin Palātium, the original palaces on the Palatine Hill were the seat of the imperial power while the capitol on the Capitoline Hill was the religious nucleus of Rome. Long after the city grew to the seven hills the Palatine remained a residential area. Emperor Caesar Augustus lived there in a purposely modest house only set apart from his neighbours by the two trees planted to flank the front door as a sign of triumph granted by the Senate. His descendants, especially Nero, with his Golden House, enlarged the house, the word Palātium came to mean the residence of the emperor rather than the neighbourhood on top of the hill. Palace meaning government can be recognized in a remark of Paul the Deacon, AD790 and describing events of the 660s, When Grimuald set out for Beneventum, he entrusted his palace to Lupus. At the same time, Charlemagne was consciously reviving the Roman expression in his palace at Aachen, in the 9th century, the palace indicated the housing of the government too, and the constantly travelling Charlemagne built fourteen. In the Holy Roman Empire the powerful independent Electors came to be housed in palaces and this has been used as evidence that power was widely distributed in the Empire, as in more centralized monarchies, only the monarchs residence would be a palace. In modern times, the term has been applied by archaeologists and historians to large structures that housed combined ruler, court, in informal usage, a palace can be extended to a grand residence of any kind. The earliest known palaces were the residences of the Egyptian Pharaohs at Thebes, featuring an outer wall enclosing labyrinthine buildings. Other ancient palaces include the Assyrian palaces at Nimrud and Nineveh, the Minoan palace at Knossos, the Brazilian new capital, Brasília, hosts modern palaces, most designed by the citys architect Oscar Niemeyer. The Alvorada Palace is the residence of the Brazils president. The Planalto Palace is the official workplace, the Jaburu Palace is the official residence of Brazils vice-president. In Canada, Government House is a given to the official residences of the Canadian monarchy. The use of the term Government House is a custom from the British Empire
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Soul
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In many religious, philosophical and mythological traditions, the soul is the incorporeal essence of a living being. Depending on the system, a soul can either be mortal or immortal. In Judeo-Christianity, only human beings have immortal souls, for example, the Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas attributed soul to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal. Other religions hold that all organisms have souls, as did Aristotle, while some teach that even non-biological entities possess souls. The latter belief is called animism, Greek philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, understood that the soul must have a logical faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. Anima mundi is the concept of a world soul connecting all living organisms on planet Earth, the Modern English word soul, derived from Old English sáwol, sáwel, was first attested in the 8th-century poem Beowulf v.2820 and in the Vespasian Psalter 77.50. Further etymology of the Germanic word is uncertain, the Koine Greek word ψυχή psychē, life, spirit, consciousness, is derived from a verb meaning to cool, to blow, and hence refers to the breath, as opposed to σῶμα, meaning body. Vulgate, et nolite timere eos qui occidunt corpus animam autem non possunt occidere sed potius eum timete qui potest et animam et corpus perdere in gehennam. Authorized King James Version And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul, vulgate Creavitque Deus cete grandia, et omnem animam viventem atque motabilem. KJV And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, Paul of Tarsus used ψυχή and πνεῦμα specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש nephesh and רוח ruah. The ancient Greeks used the word alive for the concept of being ensouled, the soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual breath that animates the living organism. Francis M. Cornford quotes Pindar by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, the soul is active and reveals an award of joy or sorrow drawing near in dreams. Erwin Rohde writes that an early pre-Pythagorean belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the essence of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being, Socrates says that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is reborn in subsequent bodies and Plato believed this as well, however. Thymos is located near the chest region and is related to anger, eros is located in the stomach and is related to ones desires. Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a caste system. According to Platos theory, the soul is essentially the same thing as a states class system because, to function well
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Spirituality
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Modern spirituality typically includes a belief in a supernatural realm, personal growth, a quest for an ultimate/sacred meaning, religious experience, or an encounter with ones own inner dimension. The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, the term spirituality originally developed within early Christianity, referring to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit. The term spirit means animating or vital principle in man and animals and it is derived from the Old French espirit which comes from the Latin word spiritus and is related to spirare. In the Vulgate the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma, the term spiritual, matters concerning the spirit, is derived from Old French spirituel, which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes from spiritus or spirit. The term spirituality is derived from Middle French spiritualité, from Late Latin spiritualitatem, there is no single, widely agreed definition of spirituality. A survey of reviews by McCarroll e. a. dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twenty-seven explicit definitions and this causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically, i. e. it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the shape, in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha. Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, Spirituality is sometimes associated with philosophical, social, or political movements such as liberalism, feminist theology, and green politics. Some argue spirituality is intimately linked to resolving mental health issues, managing substance abuse, marital functioning, parenting, words translatable as spirituality first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages. In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God, to be driven by the Holy Spirit, in the 11th century this meaning changed. Spirituality began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, in the 13th century spirituality acquired a social and psychological meaning. In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made higher and lower forms of spirituality, A spiritual man is one who is Christian more abundantly. The word was associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning. Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th century, mixing Christian ideas with westen esoteric traditions and elements of Asian, especially Indian, Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organisations and institutions. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field, the Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an individuals intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth, in the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking. A major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society, which searched for secret teachings in Asian religions and it aims to present Hinduism as a homogenized ideal of Hinduism with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity
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Palm sugar
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Palm sugar was originally made from the sap of the Palmyra palm, the date palm or the sugar date palm. Now it is made from the sap of Arenga pinnata and the nipa palm. Palm sugar is often labelled under various other names reflecting the different species of palm utilised and its wide production area across Africa. Palm sugar is produced by tapping the sap from the inflorescence of the tree and boiling it down to produce a syrup, in some instances the tree itself is tapped rather than the flowering spikes, but this is an isolated production method. Often the distinction is made between coconut sugar and palm sugar, but this reflects the different species from which the sugar is sourced. The differences are semantic, as all the sugars under their various names are produced from the sucrose-rich sap of a palm species. In Thai cuisine, palm sugar is used in sweets and desserts
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Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
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Indonesian cuisine
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Indonesian cuisine is one of the most vibrant and colourful cuisines in the world, full of intense flavour. Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences, Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important. Indonesia cuisine may include rice, noodle and soup dishes in local modest shops to street-side snacks, rendang top the list as the number one, followed closely by nasi goreng in number two, and satay in number fourteen. Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has different influences. The cuisines of Eastern Indonesia are similar to Polynesian and Melanesian cuisine, elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine, foods such as noodles, meat balls, and spring rolls have been completely assimilated. Throughout its history, Indonesia has been involved in due to its location. Additionally, Indonesia’s indigenous techniques and ingredients were influenced by India, the Middle East, China, Spanish and Portuguese traders brought New World produce even before the Dutch came to colonise most of the archipelago. The Indonesian islands The Moluccas, which are famed as the Spice Islands, also contributed to the introduction of native spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, to Indonesian, Indonesian cuisine often demonstrates complex flavour, acquired from certain ingredients and bumbu spices mixture. Indonesian dishes have rich flavours, most often described as savory, hot and spicy, seven main Indonesian cooking methods are frying, roasting, grilling, sautéing, roasted, boiling and steaming. Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, Satay, today, some popular dishes that originated in Indonesia are now common to neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Singapore. Indonesian dishes such as satay, beef rendang, and sambal are favoured in Malaysia, soy-based dishes, such as variations of tofu and tempeh, are also very popular. Tempeh is regarded as a Javanese invention, a adaptation of soy-based food fermentation and production. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in ways to tempeh but using a variety of bases, created by different fungi. Indonesian traditional meals usually consists of steamed rice as staple, surrounded by vegetables and soup, in a typical family meal, the family members gather around the table filled with steamed rice and several other dishes. Each dish is placed in a separate communal large plate or in bowls, each of these dishes has its own serving spoons, used only to take parts of the dishes from the communal plate into ones own personal plate. Each of the members has their own personal plate that is first filled with steamed rice. Usually the oldest family member or the husband has the right to initiate the meal, each of them take some portion of dishes from the communal plates into their own individual plates. On their personal plate, the rice will soon be surrounded by two, three or more dishes, vegetables and fish or meat, and maybe some fried dishes, sambal
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