1.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
2.
National flag
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A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
3.
Civil ensign
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Civil ensign is the ensign used by civilian vessels to denote nationality. It can be the same or different from the state ensign and its also known as the merchant ensign or merchant flag. Some countries have civil ensigns for yachts, and even for specific yacht clubs. Most countries have one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. The civil ensigns that are different from the flag can be grouped into a number of categories. Several countries use red flags with, in most cases, either the national flag or the Union Flag in the canton. British overseas territories fly the plain Red Ensign or a Red Ensign with the colonial arms in the fly. Saudi Arabia puts its national flag in the canton of an otherwise-green flag, Ghana stopped using its Red Ensign in 2003 with the adoption of a new merchant shipping act, which made the Ghanaian flag the proper national colors for Ghana ships. Similarly, Sri Lanka stopped using its Red Ensign in 1969, several countries have civil ensigns that are very different from the national flag, for instance Malta and Luxembourg. Well-known examples are the Italian civil ensign showing the shield with the arms of the sea republics or the Polish civil ensign with the arms of Poland, most of these emblems were added to distinguish the ensign from similar flags of other countries or from other signal flags. In several countries there are two versions of the flag, a simpler one and a more elaborate one with the national arms. The simpler one is used as ensign, whereas the version with the arms is mainly used by the government. In Spain and Argentina the flag without the arms is only a variant for civil use, in El Salvador, the civil ensign also differs from the national flag in the proportions. France is a case, the overall proportion is the same. Civil and merchant ensigns Civil air ensign
4.
Ensign
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Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
5.
Triband (flag)
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The triband is one of the most common designs of flag, and is the design of some 30% of all current national flags. As the name suggests, the feature of the design of a triband is three parallel bands of colour. If the three bands have three different colors, the triband is a tricolour, in its simplest form, the triband consists of three equally sized horizontal or vertical stripes and nothing else. Examples of horizontal tribands include the flags of Austria and Germany. In each of these pairs, the second named flag is also a tricolour, diagonal tribands are less common, and often do not have stripes of equal areas or widths. An example is the flag of the Republic of the Congo, such flags are often not considered tribands by vexillologists, but rather are described as having a single diagonal stripe on a one- or two-coloured background. More complex tribands include flags charged or defaced with an emblem or flags with bands of unequal size, the most famous complex triband is arguably the national flag of Canada, which is charged with a maple leaf and has bands of uneven size. The ratio of the bands on this flag has led to the term Canadian pale to refer to any central vertical band on a triband which is twice the size of the bands on either side. Some tribands, such as the flag of the Gambia, are fimbriated and this means that between the stripes there are narrower stripes. This is sometimes done to increase contrast between multiple stripes or to follow the rule of tincture, though in cases the fimbriation also has specific symbolism. Below is a list of tribands organized by continent, some of them are charged, i. e. they have some additional symbol apart from the three simple coloured fields
6.
Five-pointed star
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A five-pointed star is a common ideogram used throughout the world. If the colinear edges are joined together a pentagram is produced and it has also become a symbol of fame or stardom in Western culture. Five-pointed stars are found on flags, generally in solid form, although some. The pentagram appears on two national flags, those of Ethiopia and Morocco. Five-pointed stars appear on the flag and in the symbolism of the United States. In the U. S. context, the stars allegedly symbolize the heavens, the five-pointed star is known as a symbol of fame or stardom. The Red Star is a star, coloured solidly in red. It is used to symbolize socialism and in particular communism and they live mainly in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. The five-pointed star is part of the symbol of the Ottoman Empire, in the Baháí Faith a five-pointed star referred to as a haykal represents the Manifestation of God, as described in the Súriy-i-Haykal. Strictly speaking the 5-pointed star is the symbol of our Faith, as used by the Báb, the five pointed star is a Serer religious, and symbolizes the Serer people of West Africa. In the Serer language, it is called Yoonir and it is regarded as symbol of the universe in the Serer creation myth, the Five pointed star has been a Muslim symbol for multiple Muslim works, most notably on flags. This might be a feature as part of the star and crescent to represent the caliphate, Five pointed stars are also used on various elevators to indicate the ground level or lobby of a building. Five pointed stars are used on various police, fire. The five pointed star may also be used to symbolize the human body as well as the five senses of human perception, the symbol of the Italian Marxist-Leninist terrorist group Brigate Rosse is a slightly modified five-pointed star. The Order of the Eastern Star, an organization associated with Freemasonry, employs a downward-pointing star as its symbol, with the five points colored blue, yellow, white, green. This emblem sometimes appears in the form of a pentagram, the Star and Crescent are the official symbols of Kappa Sigma comprising the fraternity badge. A green five-pointed star is a symbol of Esperanto
7.
Myanmar
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Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in South East Asia bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand. About one third of Myanmars total perimeter of 5,876 km, forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km along the Bay of Bengal, the countrys 2014 census revealed a much lower population than expected, with 51 million people recorded. Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometres in size and its capital city is Naypyidaw and its largest city and former capital city is Yangon. Early civilizations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma, the Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur. The British invaded Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the became a British colony. Myanmar became an independent nation in 1948, initially as a nation and then, following a coup détat in 1962. For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife, during this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election. While former military leaders still wield enormous power in the country, there is, however, continuing criticism of the governments treatment of the Muslim Rohingya minority and its poor response to the religious clashes. In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyis party won a majority in both houses, Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP stood at US$56.7 billion, the income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government. As of 2016, according to the Human Development Index, Myanmar had a level of human development. The renaming remains a contested issue, many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country. The countrys official name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form Union of Burma instead, in English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/. Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group, Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from Bamar, the colloquial form of the groups name
8.
Peace
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Peace is a lack of conflict and freedom from fear of violence between heterogeneous social groups. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace often involves compromise, Peace can be defined in a positive direction and in a negative sense. Positively, peace is a state of tranquility and stillness, however, in a negative sense, the term peace originates most recently from the Anglo-French pes, and the Old French pais, meaning peace, reconciliation, silence, agreement. But, Pes itself comes from the Latin pax, meaning peace, compact, agreement, treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of hostility, harmony. At a personal level, peaceful behaviors are kind, considerate, respectful, just, and tolerant of others beliefs and behaviors — tending to manifest goodwill. This latter understanding of peace can also pertain to an individuals introspective sense or concept of her/himself, as in being at peace in ones own mind, as found in European references from c.1200. In many languages, the word for peace is used as a greeting or a farewell, for example the Hawaiian word aloha. In English the word peace is used as a farewell, especially for the dead. Religious beliefs often seek to identify and address the problems of human life. Among pagan faiths, worship of personified Peace was organized in antiquity under the name Eirene in Greek-speaking areas and as Pax in Latin-speaking ones and her idols depicted a full-grown woman, usually with a horn of plenty and scepter and sometimes with a torch or olive leaves. Christians, who believe Jesus of Nazareth to be the Jewish Messiah called Christ, numerous pontifical documents on the Holy Rosary document a continuity of views of the Popes to have confidence in the Holy Rosary as a means to foster peace. Islam derived from the root word salam which literally means peace, muslims are called followers of Islam. Quran clearly stated Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah. Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah, hearts are assured and stated O you who have believed, and when you are told, Arise, then arise, Allah will raise those who have believed among you and those who were given knowledge, by degrees. And Allah is Acquainted with what you do, buddhists believe that peace can be attained once all suffering ends. They regard all suffering as stemming from cravings, aversions, or delusions, to eliminate such suffering and achieve personal peace, followers in the path of the Buddha adhere to a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths — a central tenet in Buddhist philosophy. Hindu texts contain the following passages, May there be peace in the heavens, peace in the atmosphere, let there be coolness in the water, healing in the herbs and peace radiating from the trees. Let there be harmony in the planets and in the stars, may everything in the universe be at peace
9.
Courage
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Courage is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. In some traditions, fortitude holds approximately the same meaning, more recently, courage has been explored by the discipline of psychology. An early Greek philosopher, Plato, set the groundwork for how courage would be viewed to future philosophers, Platos early writings found in Laches show a discussion on courage, but they fail to come to a satisfactory conclusion on what courage is. During the debate between three leaders, including Socrates, many definitions of courage are mentioned, Laches is an early writing of Platos, which may be a reason he does not come to a clear conclusion. In this early writing, Plato is still developing his ideas, in one of his later writings, The Republic, Plato gives more concrete ideas of what he believes courage to be. Civic courage is described as a sort of perseverance – preservation of the belief that has been inculcated by the law through education about what things, ideas of courage being perseverance also are seen in Laches. Plato further explains this perseverance as being able to persevere through all emotions, like suffering, pleasure, as a desirable quality, courage is discussed broadly in Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics, where its vice of shortage is cowardice and its vice of excess is recklessness. In the Roman Empire, courage formed part of the virtue of virtus. Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero lists the cardinal virtues does not name them such, Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind in harmony with reason and it has four parts, wisdom, justice, courage, temperance. In medieval virtue ethics, championed by Averroes and Thomas Aquinas and still important to Roman Catholicism, according to Thomas Aquinas, Among the cardinal virtues, prudence ranks first, justice second, fortitude third, temperance fourth, and after these the other virtues. Part of his justification for this hierarchy is that Fortitude without justice is an occasion of injustice, since the stronger a man is the more ready is he to oppress the weaker. On fortitudes general and special nature, Aquinas says, The term fortitude can be taken in two ways, secondly, fortitude may be taken to denote firmness only in bearing and withstanding those things wherein it is most difficult to be firm, namely in certain grave dangers. Therefore Tully says, that fortitude is deliberate facing of dangers, on this sense fortitude is reckoned a special virtue, because it has a special matter. For it is difficult to allay fear than to moderate daring, since the danger which is the object of daring and fear. Now to attack belongs to fortitude in so far as the latter moderates daring, therefore the principal act of fortitude is endurance, that is to stand immovable in the midst of dangers rather than to attack them. In both Catholicism and Anglicanism, courage is also one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, for Thomas Aquinas, Fortitude is the virtue to remove any obstacle that keeps the will from following reason. In order to true courage in Christianity it takes someone who displays the virtues of faith, hope. Courage is a virtue which Saint Augustine did not consider a virtue for Christians
10.
Pantone
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Pantone Inc. is a corporation headquartered in Carlstadt, New Jersey. X-Rite Inc. a supplier of color measurement instruments and software, Pantone began in New York City in the 1950s as the commercial printing company of M & J Levine Advertising. In 1956, its founders, advertising executives brothers Mervin and Jesse Levine, for instance, a particular page might contain a number of yellows of varying tints. The idea behind the PMS is to allow designers to color match specific colors when a design enters production stage and this system has been widely adopted by graphic designers and reproduction and printing houses. Pantone recommends that PMS Color Guides be purchased annually, as their inks become yellowish over time, Color variance also occurs within editions based on the paper stock used, while interedition color variance occurs when there are changes to the specific paper stock used. The Pantone Color Matching System is largely a standardized color reproduction system, by standardizing the colors, different manufacturers in different locations can all refer to the Pantone system to make sure colors match without direct contact with one another. One such use is standardizing colors in the CMYK process, the CMYK process is a method of printing color by using four inks—cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. A majority of the printed material is produced using the CMYK process. Those that are possible to simulate through the CMYK process are labeled as such within the companys guides, however, most of the Pantone systems 1,114 spot colors cannot be simulated with CMYK but with 13 base pigments mixed in specified amounts. The Pantone system also allows for many special colors to be produced, such as metallics, while most of the Pantone system colors are beyond the printed CMYK gamut, it was only in 2001 that Pantone began providing translations of their existing system with screen-based colors. Screen-based colors use the RGB color model—red, green, blue—system to create various colors, the Goe system has RGB and LAB values with each color. Pantone colors are described by their allocated number, PMS colors are almost always used in branding and have even found their way into government legislation and military standards. In January 2003, the Scottish Parliament debated a petition to refer to the blue in the Scottish flag as Pantone 300, countries such as Canada and South Korea and organizations such as the FIA have also chosen to refer to specific Pantone colors to use when producing flags. US states including Texas have set legislated PMS colors of their flags and it has also been used in an art project by the Brazilian photographer Angelica Dass which applies Pantone to the human skin color spectrum. On September 5,2007, Pantone introduced the Goe System, Goe consisted of over 2,000 new colors in a new matching and numbering system. The Goe system was streamlined to use base colors and accommodate many technical challenges in reproducing colors on a press. The Pantone Goe system was discontinued in November 2013, in mid-2006 Pantone, partnering with Vermont-based Fine Paints of Europe, introduced a new line of interior and exterior paints. The color palette uses Pantones color research and trending and has more than 3,000 colors, in November 2015, Pantone partnered with Redland London to create a collection of bags inspired from Pantones authority on color
11.
RGB color model
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The RGB color model is an additive color model in which red, green and blue light are added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors. The name of the model comes from the initials of the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Before the electronic age, the RGB color model already had a theory behind it. Thus an RGB value does not define the same color across devices without some kind of color management, typical RGB input devices are color TV and video cameras, image scanners, video games, and digital cameras. Typical RGB output devices are TV sets of technologies, computer and mobile phone displays, video projectors, multicolor LED displays. Color printers, on the hand are not RGB devices. This article discusses concepts common to all the different color spaces that use the RGB color model, to form a color with RGB, three light beams must be superimposed. Each of the three beams is called a component of color, and each of them can have an arbitrary intensity, from fully off to fully on. The RGB color model is additive in the sense that the three beams are added together, and their light spectra add, wavelength for wavelength. This is essentially opposite to the color model that applies to paints, inks, dyes. When the intensities for all the components are the same, the result is a shade of gray, darker or lighter depending on the intensity. When the intensities are different, the result is a colorized hue, a secondary color is formed by the sum of two primary colors of equal intensity, cyan is green+blue, magenta is red+blue, and yellow is red+green. The RGB color model itself does not define what is meant by red, green and blue colorimetrically, and so the results of mixing them are not specified as absolute, but relative to the primary colors. When the exact chromaticities of the red, green and blue primaries are defined, the normal three kinds of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells in the human eye respond most to yellow, green, and violet light. As an example, suppose that light in the range of wavelengths enters the eye. Light of these wavelengths would activate both the medium and long wavelength cones of the retina, but not equally—the long-wavelength cells will respond more, the difference in the response can be detected by the brain, and this difference is the basis of our perception of orange. Thus, the appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously. The first experiments with RGB in early color photography were made in 1861 by Maxwell himself, to reproduce the color photograph, three matching projections over a screen in a dark room were necessary
12.
Hexadecimal
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In mathematics and computing, hexadecimal is a positional numeral system with a radix, or base, of 16. It uses sixteen distinct symbols, most often the symbols 0–9 to represent values zero to nine, Hexadecimal numerals are widely used by computer system designers and programmers. As each hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits, it allows a more human-friendly representation of binary-coded values, one hexadecimal digit represents a nibble, which is half of an octet or byte. For example, a byte can have values ranging from 00000000 to 11111111 in binary form. In a non-programming context, a subscript is typically used to give the radix, several notations are used to support hexadecimal representation of constants in programming languages, usually involving a prefix or suffix. The prefix 0x is used in C and related languages, where this value might be denoted as 0x2AF3, in contexts where the base is not clear, hexadecimal numbers can be ambiguous and confused with numbers expressed in other bases. There are several conventions for expressing values unambiguously, a numerical subscript can give the base explicitly,15910 is decimal 159,15916 is hexadecimal 159, which is equal to 34510. Some authors prefer a text subscript, such as 159decimal and 159hex, or 159d and 159h. example. com/name%20with%20spaces where %20 is the space character, thus ’, represents the right single quotation mark, Unicode code point number 2019 in hex,8217. In the Unicode standard, a value is represented with U+ followed by the hex value. Color references in HTML, CSS and X Window can be expressed with six hexadecimal digits prefixed with #, white, CSS allows 3-hexdigit abbreviations with one hexdigit per component, #FA3 abbreviates #FFAA33. *nix shells, AT&T assembly language and likewise the C programming language, to output an integer as hexadecimal with the printf function family, the format conversion code %X or %x is used. In Intel-derived assembly languages and Modula-2, hexadecimal is denoted with a suffixed H or h, some assembly languages use the notation HABCD. Ada and VHDL enclose hexadecimal numerals in based numeric quotes, 16#5A3#, for bit vector constants VHDL uses the notation x5A3. Verilog represents hexadecimal constants in the form 8hFF, where 8 is the number of bits in the value, the Smalltalk language uses the prefix 16r, 16r5A3 PostScript and the Bourne shell and its derivatives denote hex with prefix 16#, 16#5A3. For PostScript, binary data can be expressed as unprefixed consecutive hexadecimal pairs, in early systems when a Macintosh crashed, one or two lines of hexadecimal code would be displayed under the Sad Mac to tell the user what went wrong. Common Lisp uses the prefixes #x and #16r, setting the variables *read-base* and *print-base* to 16 can also used to switch the reader and printer of a Common Lisp system to Hexadecimal number representation for reading and printing numbers. Thus Hexadecimal numbers can be represented without the #x or #16r prefix code, MSX BASIC, QuickBASIC, FreeBASIC and Visual Basic prefix hexadecimal numbers with &H, &H5A3 BBC BASIC and Locomotive BASIC use & for hex. TI-89 and 92 series uses a 0h prefix, 0h5A3 ALGOL68 uses the prefix 16r to denote hexadecimal numbers, binary, quaternary and octal numbers can be specified similarly
13.
CMYK color model
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The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four used in some color printing, cyan, magenta, yellow. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer, the K in CMYK stands for key because in four-color printing, cyan, magenta and yellow printing plates are carefully keyed, or aligned, with the key of the black key plate. Some sources suggest that the K in CMYK comes from the last letter in black and was chosen because B already means blue. Some sources claim this explanation, although useful as a mnemonic, is incorrect, the CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected, such a model is called subtractive because inks subtract brightness from white. In additive color models such as RGB, white is the combination of all primary colored lights. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite, white is the color of the paper or other background. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of the combination of cyan, magenta, with halftoning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced. To improve print quality and reduce moiré patterns, the screen for each color is set at a different angle. Common reasons for using black ink include, In traditional preparation of color separations, in some cases a black keyline was used when it served as both a color indicator and an outline to be printed in black. Because usually the black plate contained the keyline, the K in CMYK represents the keyline or black plate, also sometimes called the key plate. A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making it slower to dry, causing bleeding, adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks. Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored inks. When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY bedding is applied first, then a black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black. A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black, the amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix. CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time
14.
Japanese occupation of Burma
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The Japanese occupation of Burma was the period between 1942 and 1945 during World War II, when Burma was occupied by the Empire of Japan. The Japanese had assisted formation of the Burma Independence Army, and trained the Thirty Comrades, the Burmese hoped to gain support of the Japanese in expelling the British, so that Burma could become independent. In 1942 Japan invaded Burma and nominally declared the colony independent as the State of Burma on 1 August 1943, a puppet government led by Ba Maw was installed. However, many Burmese began to believe the Japanese had no intention of giving them real independence, by April 1945, the Allies had driven out the Japanese. Subsequently, negotiations began between the Burmese and the British for independence, under Japanese occupation,170,000 to 250,000 civilians died. Some Burmese nationalists saw the outbreak of World War II as an opportunity to extort concessions from the British in exchange for support in the war effort, other Burmese, such as the Thakin movement, opposed Burmas participation in the war under any circumstances. Aung San with other Thakins founded the Communist Party of Burma in August 1939, Aung San also co-founded the Peoples Revolutionary Party, renamed the Socialist Party after World War II. He was also instrumental in founding the Freedom Bloc by forging an alliance of Dobama Asiayone, ABSU, politically active monks, after Dobama Asiayone called for a national uprising, an arrest warrant was issued for many of the organisations leaders including Aung San, who escaped to China. Aung San briefly returned to Burma to enlist twenty-nine young men who went to Japan with him to military training on Hainan, China. When the Japanese occupied Bangkok in December 1941, Aung San announced the formation of the Burma Independence Army in anticipation of the Japanese invasion of Burma in 1942. For Japans military leadership, the conquest of Burma was a strategic objective upon the opening of hostilities with Britain. Occupation of Burma would interrupt a critical link to China. Also, the Japanese knew that rubber was one of the few militarily vital resources that the United States was not self-sufficient in and it was thought critical that the Allies be denied access to Southeast Asian rubber supplies if they were ever to accept peace terms favourable to Japan. The BIA formed a government in some areas of the country in the spring of 1942. While Colonel Suzuki encouraged the Thirty Comrades to form a provisional government, eventually, the Japanese Army turned to Ba Maw to form a government. During the war in 1942, the BIA had grown in an uncontrolled manner and it was reorganised as the Burma Defence Army under the Japanese but still headed by Aung San. While the BIA had been a force, the BDA was recruited by selection. When the Japanese declared Burma, in theory, independent in 1943 and it soon became apparent that Japanese promises of independence were merely a sham and that Ba Maw was deceived
15.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
16.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
17.
Burmese Way to Socialism
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The Burmese Way to Socialism refers to the ideology of the Socialist government in Burma, from 1962 to 1988, when the 1962 coup détat was led by Ne Win and the military to remove U Nu from power. However, it may have served to increase stability and keep Burma from being as entangled in the Cold War struggles that affected other Southeast Asian nations. The Burmese Way to Socialism, by far, greatly increased poverty, isolation, Ne Wins later attempt to make the currency based in denominations divisible by 9, a number he considered auspicious, wiped out the savings of millions of Burmese. This resulted in the pro-democracy 8888 Uprising which was halted by the military. Under U Nu and the AFPFL-led coalition government, Burma had implemented socialist economic and welfare policies, Ne Win restored order during the period known as the Ne Win caretaker government. Elections were held in February 1960 and Ne Win handed back power to the victorious U Nu on 4 April 1960, over 400 communist sympathisers were arrested, of which 153 were deported to the Coco Island in the Andaman Sea. Among them was the NUF leader Aung Than, older brother of Aung San, newspapers like Botahtaung, Kyemon and Rangoon Daily were also closed down. Ne Wins caretaker government successfully established the situation and paved the way for new elections in 1960 that returned U Nus Union Party with a large majority. Ne Win had already succeeded in stripping the Shan Saophas of their powers in exchange for comfortable pensions for life in 1959. On the basis of the actual findings derived from study and appraisal it will develop its own ways. In its activities the Revolutionary Council will strive for self-improvement by way of self-criticism, having learnt from contemporary history the evils of deviation towards right or left the Council will with vigilance avoid any such deviation. The Revolutionary Council will diligently seek all ways and means whereby it can formulate, impacts of the Burmese Way to Socialism were multi-fold, affecting the economy, educational standards, and living standards of the Burmese people. Foreign aid organisations, like the American-based Ford Foundation and Asia Foundation, only permitted was aid from a government-to-government basis. Also, English language instruction was reformed and introduced in secondary schools, the government also implemented extensive visa restrictions for Burmese citizens, especially to Western countries. Instead, the government sponsored travel of students, scientists and technicians to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe to receive training, similarly, visas for foreigners were limited to 24 hours. Furthermore, freedom of expression was limited extensively, Foreign language publications were prohibited, as were newspapers that printed false propaganda news. The Press Scrutiny Board, which censors all publications to this day, was established by the RC through the Printers and Publishers Registration Act in August 1962. The RC set up the News Agency of Burma to serve as a distribution service in the country
18.
State Peace and Development Council
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The State Peace and Development Council was the official name of the military government of Burma, which seized power in 1988. On 30 March 2011, Senior General Than Shwe signed a decree that dissolved the Council. From 1988 to 1997, the SPDC was known as State Law and Order Restoration Council, in 1997, SLORC was abolished and reconstituted as the State Peace and Development Council. The powerful regional military commanders, who were members of SLORC, were promoted to new positions, the new regional military commanders were not included in the membership of the SPDC. The SPDC consisted of senior military officers. The members of the junta wielded a great deal more power than the cabinet ministers, the exception is the Defence Ministry portfolio, which was in the hands of junta leader Than Shwe himself. On 15 September 1993, it established the Union Solidarity and Development Association which was replaced by Union Solidarity, although the regime retreated from the totalitarian Burmese Way to Socialism of BSPP when it took power in 1988, the regime was widely accused of human rights abuses. It rejected the 1990 election results and kept Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest until her release on 13 November 2010. The council was dissolved on 30 March 2011, with the inauguration of the newly elected government, led by its former member and Prime Minister. SLORC was formed when the Burmese Armed Forces, commanded by General Saw Maung, on the day it seized power SLORC issued Order No. 1/1988 stating that the Armed Forces had taken over power and announced the formation of the SLORC. 2/1988, the SLORC abolished all Organs of State Power that were formed under the 1974 Burmese constitution, the SLORC also stated that the services of the Deputy Ministers in the previous Burma Socialist Programme Party government which it replaced were also terminated. The Orders that SLORC issued on the day of its takeover can be seen in the 19 September 1988 issue of The Working Peoples Daily, the first Chairman of SLORC was General Saw Maung, later Senior General, who was also the Prime Minister. He was removed as both Chairman of SLORC and Prime Minister on 23 April 1992 when General Than Shwe, later Senior General, on 15 November 1997, SLORC was abolished and reconstituted as the State Peace and Development Council. Most but not all members of the abolished SLORC were in the SPDC military regime, soldiers shot hundreds of protesters and killed an estimated 3,000 people in the following weeks. During the August and September demonstrations of 2007, at least 184 protesters were shot and killed, under the SPDC, the Burmese army engaged in military offensives against ethnic minority populations, committing acts that violated international humanitarian law. It has been alleged that the SPDC forcibly recruited children – some as young as 10 – to serve in its army, the UN Secretary-General named the SPDC in four consecutive reports for violating international standards prohibiting the recruitment and use of child soldiers. Children and Armed Conflict, Report of the Secretary-General,26 October 2006 UN Doc, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Myanmar to the Security Council,16 November 2007, UN Doc. Report of the Secretary-General on Children and armed conflict to the UN Security Council,21 December 2007, Report of the Secretary-General on children and armed conflict in Myanmar 1 June 2009 UN Doc
19.
Socialist state
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A socialist state or socialist republic refers to any state that is constitutionally dedicated to the establishment of socialism. Aside from the Communist states, a number of states have described their orientation as socialist in their constitutions. In such cases, the system and machinery of government is not specifically structured to pursue the development of socialism. The concept of a socialist state is related to state socialism. Specifically, the state would become an entity for production as opposed to a mechanism for political control. According to Friedrich Engels, Saint-Simon foreshadowed the classical Marxist notion of the development of the state in a socialist society, karl Marx understood the state to be an instrument of the class rule, dominated by the interests of the ruling class in any mode of production. This transitional stage would involve working-class interests dominating government policy, in the manner that capitalist-class interests dominate government policy under capitalism. Karl Marx described the Paris Commune as the prototype for a government of the future. Friedrich Engels noted that all officials, high or low, were only the wages received by other workers. In this way an effective barrier to place-hunting and careerism was set up, such a state would be a temporary affair, Engels argued. A new generation, he suggested, brought up in new and free social conditions, the Leninist conception of a socialist state is tied to Vladimir Lenins theory of the revolutionary party and organizational principles of democratic centralism. These ideas were adopted by Vladimir Lenin in 1917 just prior to the October Revolution in Russia and published in The State and Revolution, a central text for many Marxists. Vladimir Lenin argued that as socialism is replaced by communism, the state would wither away as strong centralized control progressively reduces as local communities gain more empowerment, as he put succinctly, So long as the state exists there is no freedom. When there is freedom, there will be no state, states run by Communist parties that adhere to Marxism–Leninism, or some variation thereof, refer to themselves as socialist states. The Soviet Union was the first to proclaim itself a socialist state in its 1936 Constitution, another well-known example is the Peoples Republic of China, which proclaims itself to be a socialist state in its 1982 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China. In the West, such states are known as communist states. This often includes at least the commanding heights of the economy to be nationalized, usually operated according to a plan of production, at least in the major production and social spheres. These Communist states often dont claim to have achieved socialism in their countries, rather, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea used to be a Marxist–Leninist state
20.
Ne Win
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Ne Win was a Burmese politician and military commander. He was Prime Minister of Burma from 1958 to 1960 and 1962 to 1974 and he founded the Burma Socialist Programme Party in 1962 and served as its chairman until 1988. He was the leader of Burma for 26 years. Ne Wins date of birth is not known with certainty, the English language publication Whos Who in Burma published in 1961 by Peoples Literature House, Rangoon, stated that Ne Win was born on 14 May 1911. Dr. Maung Maung stated in the Burmese version of his book Burma and General Ne Win, also published in English, however, in a book written in Burmese titled The Thirty Comrades, the author Kyaw Nyein gave Ne Wins date of birth as 10 July 1910. Kyaw Nyeins date of 1910 can be considered as the more plausible date, first, Kyaw Nyein had access to historical records and he interviewed many surviving members of the Thirty Comrades when he wrote the book in the mid-to late 1990s. In his book published around 1998, Kyaw Nyein lists the names of the members of the Thirty Comrades whom he had interviewed, although Ne Win was not one of them. )Secondly, when Ne Win died on 5 December 2002. According to Burmese custom, an age is their age upon their next birthday. Since Ne Win turned 92 in July 2002, when he died in December 2002 he was considered to be 93 years old. Ne Win, born Shu Maung, was born into an middle class Burmese Chinese family in a small village near Paungdale about 200 miles north of Rangoon. He spent two years at Rangoon University beginning in 1929, and took biology as his subject with hopes of becoming a doctor. In 1931 he was expelled from the university after he failed an exam, Ne Win eventually became Thakin Shu Maung, or a member of the nationalist organisation Dobama Asiayone. Other members of the group included Aung San and U Nu, in 1941 Ne Win, as a member of the Ba Sein-Tun Ok faction of the Dobama, was one of thirty young men chosen for military training by the Japanese operative Colonel Suzuki Keiji. Their leader was Aung San and they formed the Burma Independence Army, during military training on the Japanese-occupied Hainan Island, Shu Maung chose a nom de guerre, Bo Ne Win. In early 1942 the Japanese Army and the BIA entered Burma in the wake of the retreating British forces, Ne Wins role in the campaign was to organize resistance behind the British lines. The experience of the Japanese occupation of Burma worked to alienate the nationalists as well as the population at large, toward the end of the Second World War, on 27 March 1945 the Burma National Army turned against the Japanese following the British re-invasion of Burma. Following independence there were uprisings in the army and among ethnic minority groups, Ne Win immediately adopted a policy of creating Socialist militia battalions called Sitwundan under his personal command with the approval of U Nu. On 31 January 1949, Ne Win was appointed Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and given control of the army, replacing General Smith Dun
21.
Administrative divisions of Myanmar
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The regions can be described as ethnically predominantly Burman, while the states, the zones and Wa Division are ethnic minority-dominant. Yangon Region has the largest population and is the most densely populated, the smallest population is Kayah State. In terms of area, Shan State is the largest. States and regions are divided into districts and these districts consist of townships that include towns, wards ) and village-tracts. Village-tracts are groups of adjacent villages, the administrative structure of the states, regions and self-administering bodies is outlined in the new constitution adopted in 2008. Each state or region has a Regional Government or a State Government consisting of a Chief Minister, other Ministers, legislative authority would reside with the State Hluttaw or Regional Hluttaw made up of elected civilian members and representatives of the Armed Forces. Both divisions are considered equivalent, the distinction being that states have large ethnic minority populations and regions are mostly populated by the national majority Burmans. The constitution states that Naypyidaw shall be a Union Territory under the administration of the President. Day-to-day functions would be carried out on the Presidents behalf by the Naypyidaw Council led by a Chairperson, the Chairperson and members of the Naypyidaw Council are appointed by the President and shall include civilians and representatives of the Armed Forces. Self-Administered Zones and Self-Administered Divisions are administered by a Leading Body, the Leading Body consists of at least ten members and includes State or Regional Hlutttaw members elected from the Zones or Divisions and other members nominated by the Armed Forces. The Leading Body has both executive and legislative powers, a Chairperson is head of each Leading Body. On 10 October 1922, the Karenni States of Bawlake, Kantarawaddy, in 1940, Minbu divisions name was changed to Magwe, and Meiktila Divisions became part of Mandalay District. Karen State was also created from Amherst, Thaton, and Toungoo Districts of Tenasserim Division, Karenni State was separated from the Federated Shan States, and Shan State was formed by merging the Federated Shan States and the Wa States. In 1952, Karenni State was renamed Kayah State, in 1964, Rangoon Division was separated from Pegu Division, whose capital shifted to Pegu. In addition, Karen State was renamed Kawthule State, in 1972, the Hanthawaddy and Hmawbi districts were moved under Rangoon Divisions juridstiction. In 1974, after Ne Win introduced a constitution, Chin Special Division became a state, Kawthule States name was reverted to Karen State, and Mon State was separated from Tenasserim Division. Mon States capital became Moulmein, and Tenasserim Divisions became Tavoy, in addition, Rakhine Division was granted statehood. In 1989, after the coup détat by the military junta, after 1995, in Kachin State Mohnyin District was created out of Myitkyina District as part of the peace agreement with the Kachin Independence Army
22.
8888 Uprising
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Key events occurred on 8 August 1988, and therefore it is known as the 8888 Uprising. The protests began as a student movement and was organized largely by university students at the Rangoon Arts and Sciences University, since 1962, the country had been ruled by the Burma Socialist Programme Party regime as a one-party state, headed by General Ne Win. The catastrophic Burmese Way to Socialism had turned Burma into one of the worlds most impoverished countries, the 8888 uprising was started by students in Yangon on 8 August 1988. Student protests spread throughout the country, hundreds of thousands of ochre-robed monks, children, university students, housewives, doctors and people from all walks of life demonstrated against the regime. The uprising ended on 18 September, after a military coup by the State Law. Thousands of deaths have been attributed to the military during this uprising, during the crisis, Aung San Suu Kyi emerged as a national icon. When the military junta arranged an election in 1990, her party, but the military junta suppressed everything that could have developed from these democratic achievements. Part of the strategy was to place Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest, the State Law and Order Restoration Council would be a cosmetic change from the Burma Socialist Programme Party. Suu Kyis house arrest would be lifted no earlier than in 2010 when worldwide attention for her again during the making of the biographical film The Lady. Before the crisis, Burma had been ruled by the repressive, the country had a national debt of $3.5 billion and currency reserves of between $20 million and $35 million, with debt service ratios standing at half of the national budget. In November 1985, students gathered and boycotted the decision to withdraw Burmese local currency notes. Economic problems coupled with counter-insurgency required continuous involvement in the international market, Students were particularly angry at the governments decision as savings for tuition fees were wiped out instantly. Students from the Rangoon Institute of Technology ran riot through Rangoon, smashing windows, universities in Rangoon closed and sent students home. Meanwhile, larger protests in Mandalay involved monks and workers, with some burning government buildings, Burmese state media reported little on the protests, but information quickly spread through the students. With the re-opening of schools in late October 1987, underground groups in Rangoon, police later received threatening letters from underground groups, who organised small protests around the university campus. On 12 March 1988, students from the RIT were arguing with out-of-school youths inside the Sanda Win tea shop about music playing on a sound system, a drunken youth would not return a tape that the RIT students favoured. A brawl followed in one youth, who was the son of a BSPP official, was arrested. Students protested at a police department where 500 riot police were mobilised and in the ensuing clash, one student, Phone Maw, was shot
23.
State of Burma
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The State of Burma was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan, created in 1943 during the Japanese occupation of Burma in World War II. The Japanese Fifteenth Army under Lieutenant General Shojiro Iida quickly overran Burma from January – May 1942, the Japanese had also assisted formation of the Burma Independence Army, which aided the Japanese during their invasion. The BIA formed a government in some areas of the country in the spring of 1942. The head of the administration was Dr. Ba Maw. A Burma Independence Preparatory Committee chaired by Ba Maw was formed 8 May 1943 with a variety of respected members. On 1 August 1943, Burma was proclaimed the independent State of Burma, the new state quickly declared war on United Kingdom and the United States, and concluded a Treaty of Alliance with Japan. Ba Maw became Naingandaw Adipadi of Burma under the new constitution, the first cabinet of the State of Burma consisted of, Ba Maw, Prime Minister Thakin Mya, Deputy Prime Minister Ba Win, Minister of Home Affairs Thakin Nu, Minister of Foreign Affairs Dr. e. Kengtung and Mongpan, which had already given to Thailand. Ba Maw attended the Greater East Asia Conference in Tokyo from 5–6 November 1943, though now nominally independent, the power of the State of Burma to exercise its sovereignty was largely circumscribed by wartime agreements with Japan. The Imperial Japanese Army maintained a presence and continued to act arbitrarily. During 1943 and 1944, the Burma National Army made contacts with political groups inside Burma. Eventually, a front organization called the Anti-Fascist Organisation was formed with Thakin Soe as leader. Through the communists and the Japanese-sponsored Arakan Defence Army, the Burmese were eventually able to contact with the British Force 136 in India. The initial contacts were always indirect, Force 136 was also able to make contacts with members of the BNAs Karen unit in Rangoon. In December 1944, the AFO contacted the Allies, indicating their readiness to defect to the Allied cause by launching a national uprising which would include the forces of BNA. However, this was opposed by the British, who considering the timing to be unfavorable, the first BNA-led uprising against the Japanese occurred early in 1945 in central Burma. On 27 March 1945, the remainder of the BNA paraded in Rangoon, instead, the BNA openly declared war on the Japanese. Aung San and others subsequently began negotiations with Lord Mountbatten and officially joined the Allies as the Patriotic Burmese Forces, Japanese occupation of Burma Saharat Thai Doem Allen, Louis
24.
Green peafowl
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The green peafowl is a species of peafowl that is found in the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. It is also known as the Java peafowl, but this term is used to describe the nominate subspecies endemic to the island of Java in Indonesia. It is the closest relative of the Indian peafowl or blue peafowl, unlike the related Indian peafowl, the sexes of green peafowl are quite similar in appearance, especially in the wild. Both sexes have long tail coverts which cover the actual tail underneath. In the male this extends up to two meters and is decorated with eyespots or ocelli while in the female the coverts are green and much shorter, just covering the tail. Outside the breeding season, however, the train is moulted. The neck and breast feathers of both sexes are iridescent green and resemble scales, in the male, the scapulars, median and greater wing coverts are blue while the lesser coverts are green and form a triangle of scaly feathers on the shoulder when the wing is closed. The secondaries are black and in some subspecies the tertials are brown barred with a faint pattern. The female has blue lesser coverts and therefore lacks the triangle at the wing shoulder, females also have neck scales fringed with copper as well as more barring on the back as well as the primaries and alula. Both sexes have shafted crests, and are long-legged, heavy-winged and long-tailed in silhouette, the crest of the female has slightly wider plumes while those of the male are thinner and taller. The facial skin is double striped with a white to light blue, the dark triangle below the eye towards the eyebrow is bluish-green in the male and brown in the female. Green peafowl are generally more silent than Indian peafowl, the male of some subspecies, especially imperator, have a loud call of ki-wao, which is often repeated. The female has a loud call with an emphasis on the first syllable. The male may make a similar call. The males call from their roost sites at dawn and dusk, the male is 1. 8–3 m in total length but this includes its tail covert which itself measures 1. 4–1.6 m. The tail coverts are longer than those of the male Indian peafowl but are shorter than those of the arguses. The adult female is around half the length of the breeding male at 1–1.1 m in length. It has a large wingspan that averages around 1.2 m
25.
Constitution of Burma
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The Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar is the supreme law of Myanmar. The 2008 Constitution, the third and current constitution, was published in September 2008 after a referendum. The national government consisted of three branches, judicial, legislative and executive, approved in a 1973 referendum, the 1974 constitution was the second constitution to be written. It created a legislature called the Peoples Assembly, represented by members of the Burma Socialist Programme Party. Ne Win became the president at this time, upon taking power in September 1988, the military based State Law and Order Restoration Council suspended the 1974 constitution. The SLORC called a convention in 1993, but it was suspended in 1996 when the National League for Democracy boycotted it. The constitutional convention was called in 2004, but without the NLD. Burma remained without a constitution until 2008, on 9 April 2008, the military government of Burma released its proposed constitution for the country to be put to a vote in public referendum on 10 May 2008, as part of its roadmap to democracy. The constitution is hailed by the military as heralding a return to democracy, the legislative branch is the Union Assembly Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, which is a bicameral legislature consisting of the 440-seat Peoples Assembly and the 224-seat National Assembly. Military member delegates are reserved a maximum of 56 of 224 seats in the National Assembly and 110 seats of 440 in the Peoples Assembly and this is similar to former Indonesian and Thai constitutions. The revisions in state structure, including the creation of self-administering areas were not implemented until August 2010, there is no similar disqualification for any other public office. On 10 May 2008 a referendum was held to outline the framework of the country. The government did not allow Cyclone Nargis to delay the referendum took place as scheduled except in the delta areas affected by the cyclone. The referendum itself passed the 2008 Constitution, but was regarded as fraudulent by the opposition party. The SPDC reported a heavy turnout on both dates, with few voting irregularities, the ruling party and opposition parties have acknowledged that amendments are needed. The 2008 constitution reserves 25% of seats in parliament for members of the military, amendments were proposed to be voted on in a constitutional referendum in 2015, but after most of the proposed amendments were discarded, the referendum was postponed. The Myanmar Constitution has 15 chapters, chapters 4,5, and 6 concern the separation of powers between the legislature, judiciary, and executive. Due to over 50 years of rule, the Constitution of Burma is dominated by the military
26.
Burmese constitutional referendum, 2008
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A constitutional referendum was held in Myanmar on 10 May 2008 according to an announcement by the State Peace and Development Council in February 2008. According to the government, the new Constitution of Myanmar will ensure the creation of a discipline-flourishing democracy. The constitutional referendum law was enacted and a commission was set up on 26 February 2008. Reportedly, the law ensures the secret casting of votes and requires a public count of the ballots to prove it is fair, the draft constitution was published and the date of the referendum finally announced on 9 April 2008. Among the changes that the referendum seeks to make are, One quarter of all seats would be reserved for military officers. The Ministry of Home Affairs would fall exclusively under military control, anyone married to a person who was not a citizen of Myanmar would be barred from running for the office of president. Three weeks before the referendum, the front page of the press was headlined Lets Vote Yes for National Interest. Many songs, poems, cartoons and editorials urging people to vote yes were published in local and national news media, the opposition National League for Democracy called for people to vote no to the constitution. However, the N. L. D. claimed their campaign against the constitution was suppressed, with activists arrested. United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon called for the referendum to be postponed in full to concentrate on the national tragedy, massive fraud and intimidation was also reported. On 6 May 2008, the United States Congress passed a condemnation of the Myanmar constitution and referendum, after the first day of the referendum, the Democratic Promotion Organ of Burma and the Democratic Voice of Burma complained about election fraud. The Myanma Junta stated that the referendum would easily be supported, on 15 May 2008, the junta announced that the constitution had been approved by 92. 4% of voters, claiming a 99% turnout in the two-thirds of the region that had held the vote
27.
Pan-African colours
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The term Pan-African colours refers to two different sets of three colours, red, gold, and green, and red, black, and green. They are used in flags and other emblems of countries and territories in Africa. The Rastafarian movement and many Pan-African organisations also often employ the colours for their activities, green, gold and red are now found on the national flags of many African nations. The colour combination was borrowed from the flag of Ethiopia, the Ethiopian flag has influenced the flags of many Pan-African organizations and polities. Except for a period of occupation by Italy under the Fascists. As a result, the country drew the admiration of many independent states in Africa. The adoption of the Ethiopian national colours by many Pan-African entities is a consequence of this, the first African state to adopt a red, gold and green flag upon independence was Ghana in 1957. The UNIA flag was designated the official colours of Black Africans by the UNIA at its convention in Madison Square Garden on August 13,1920 in New York City, the World Encyclopedia of Flags, The Definitive Guide to International Flags, Banners, Standards and Ensigns
28.
Hanthawaddy Kingdom
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The Hanthawaddy Kingdom was the dominant kingdom that ruled lower Burma from 1287 to 1539 and from 1550 to 1552. The kingdom became independent of Sukhothai in 1330 but remained a loose federation of three major regional power centres, the Irrawaddy Delta, Bago, and Mottama. Its kings had little or no authority over the vassals, Mottama was in open rebellion from 1363 to 1388. The energetic reign of King Razadarit cemented the kingdoms existence, the war ended in a stalemate but it was a victory for Hanthawaddy as Ava finally gave up its dream of restoring the Pagan Empire. In the years following the war, Pegu occasionally aided Avas southern vassal states of Prome and Taungoo in their rebellions, after the war, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age whereas its rival Ava gradually went into decline. From the 1420s to the 1530s, Hanthawaddy was the most powerful, under a string of especially gifted monarchs — Binnya Ran I, Shin Sawbu, Dhammazedi and Binnya Ran II — the kingdom enjoyed a long golden age, profiting from foreign commerce. Its merchants traded with traders from across the Indian Ocean, filling the treasury with gold and silver, silk and spices. The kingdom also became a centre of Theravada Buddhism. It established strong ties with Sri Lanka and encouraged reforms that spread throughout the country. The powerful kingdoms end came abruptly, from 1534 onwards, it came under constant raids by the Taungoo Dynasty from Upper Burma. King Takayutpi could not marshal the kingdoms much greater resources and manpower against much smaller Taungoo, led by King Tabinshwehti, Taungoo captured Bago and the Irrawaddy Delta in 1538–9, and Mottama in 1541. The kingdom was briefly revived in 1550 after Tabinshwehti was assassinated, but the kingdom did not extend much outside the city of Bago. Bayinnaung quickly defeated the rebellion in March 1552, though Taungoo kings would rule all of Lower Burma well into the mid-18th century, the golden age of Hanthawaddy was fondly remembered by the Mon people of Lower Burma. In 1740, they rose up against a weak Taungoo Dynasty on its last legs, list of Hanthawaddy monarchs Hanthawaddy kings family tree Harvey, G. E. History of Burma, From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824, London, Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. New York and London, Cambridge University Press, the River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma
29.
Konbaung dynasty
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The Konbaung Dynasty, formerly known as the Alompra Dynasty, was the last dynasty that ruled Burma/Myanmar from 1752 to 1885. It created the second-largest empire in Burmese history and continued the reforms begun by the Toungoo dynasty. An expansionist dynasty, the Konbaung kings waged campaigns against Manipur, Arakan, Assam, the Mon kingdom of Pegu, subject to later wars and treaties with the British, the modern state of Burma can trace its current borders to these events. Throughout the Konbaung Dynasty, the capital was relocated several times for religious, political, the dynasty was founded by a village chief, who later became known as Alaungpaya, in 1752 to challenge the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom which had just toppled the Toungoo dynasty. By 1759, Alaungpayas forces had reunited all of Burma, and driven out the French, Alaungpayas second son, Hsinbyushin, came to the throne after a short reign by his elder brother, Naungdawgyi. He continued his fathers expansionist policy and finally took Ayutthaya in 1767, realising the need to modernise, the Konbaung rulers tried to enact various reforms with limited success. Mindon also tried to reduce the tax burden by lowering the income tax and created a property tax. In addition, the duties on foreign exports stifled the burgeoning trade, Konbaung kings extended administrative reforms begun in the Restored Toungoo Dynasty period, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. They tightened control in the lowlands and reduced the privileges of Shan chiefs. They also instituted reforms that increased government income and rendered it more predictable. Money economy continued to gain ground, in 1857, the crown inaugurated a full-fledged system of cash taxes and salaries, assisted by the countrys first standardised silver coinage. Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism, in 1760, Burma began a series of wars with Siam that would last well into the middle of the 19th century. By 1770, Alaungpayas heirs had temporarily defeated Siam, subdued much of Laos, with the Burmese preoccupied for another two decades by another impending invasion by the Chinese, the Siamese recovered their territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855 but after decades of war, in the defence of its realm, the dynasty fought four wars successfully against the Qing Dynasty of China which saw the threat of the expansion of Burmese power in the East. The Qing Dynasty then opened up its markets and restored trading with Burma in 1788 after reconciliation, thenceforth peaceful and friendly relations prevailed between China and Burma for a long time. Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, Bodawpaya acquired western kingdoms of Arakan, Manipur and Assam, europeans began to set up trading posts in the Irrawaddy delta region during this period. Konbaung tried to maintain its independence by balancing between the French and the British, in the end it failed, the British severed diplomatic relations in 1811, and the dynasty fought and lost three wars against the British Empire, culminating in total annexation of Burma by the British. The British decisively defeated the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese War, Burma was forced to cede Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim, and pay a large indemnity of one million pounds
30.
British rule in Burma
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The annexed territories were designated the minor province, British Burma, of British India in 1862. After the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885, Upper Burma was annexed, and the following year and this arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma began to be administered separately by the Burma Office under the Secretary of State for India and Burma. British rule was disrupted during the Japanese occupation of much of the country during the Second World War, Burma achieved independence from British rule on 4 January 1948. They were administered separately by the British with a Burma Frontier Service, the Frontier Areas were inhabited by ethnic minorities such as the Chin, the Shan, the Kachin and the Karenni. By 1931 Burma had 8 divisions, split into a number of districts, in Danuphyu, south of Ava, the Burmese general Maha Bandula was killed and his armies routed. The 1826 Treaty of Yandabo formally ended the First Anglo-Burmese War, the longest, fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian casualties. The campaign cost the British five million sterling to 13 million pounds sterling that led to a severe economic crisis in British India in 1833. After 25 years of peace, the British and Burmese fighting started afresh, King Mindon tried to readjust to the thrust of imperialism. He enacted administrative reforms and made Burma more receptive to foreign interests, but the British effected the Third Anglo-Burmese War, which lasted less than two weeks during November 1885. British troops entered Mandalay on 28 November 1885 and Burma was attached to the British Empire on 1 January 1886, Burmese armed resistance continued sporadically for several years, and the British commander had to coerce the High Court of Justice to continue to function. The British decided to all of Upper Burma as a colony. The new colony of Upper Burma was attached to the Burma Province on 26 February 1886, Rangoon, having been the capital of British Lower Burma, became the capital of the province. It was also one of the first Southeast Asian countries to receive Buddhism, before the British conquest and colonisation, the ruling Konbaung Dynasty practised a tightly centralised form of government. The king was the executive, with the final say on all matters. The country had two codes of law, the Rajathat and Dammathat, and the Hluttaw, the centre of government, was divided into three branches—fiscal, executive, and judicial. In theory the king was in charge of all of the Hluttaw but none of his orders got put into place until the Hluttaw approved them, thus checking his power. Further dividing the country, provinces were ruled by governors who were all appointed by the Hluttaw, conflict began between Myanmar and the British when the Konbaung Dynasty decided to expand into Arakan in the state of Assam, close to the British possessions in India. This close contact led to the first Anglo-Burmese War, which the British won with the aid of the Siamese, Myanmar was forced to cede Assam and other northern provinces
31.
Presidencies and provinces of British India
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Provinces of India, earlier Presidencies of British India and still earlier, Presidency towns, were the administrative divisions of British governance in the subcontinent. Collectively, they were called British India, in one form or other they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods. During 1612–1757, the East India Company set up factories in several locations, mostly in coastal India and its rivals were the merchant trading companies of Holland and France. By the mid-18th century, three Presidency towns, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta had grown in size, during the period of Company rule in India, 1757–1858, the Company gradually acquired sovereignty over large parts of India, now called Presidencies. However, it increasingly came under British government oversight, in effect sharing sovereignty with the Crown. At the same time it gradually lost its mercantile privileges, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Companys remaining powers were transferred to the Crown. In the new British Raj, sovereignty extended to a few new regions, increasingly, however, unwieldy presidencies were broken up into Provinces. In 1608, the English East India Company established a settlement at Surat, and it was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal. Company rule in Bengal, however, ended with the Government of India Act 1858 following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 and these rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for British suzerainty. British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population, in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of the area, in addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan, the latter also including East Bengal, present-day Bangladesh. The term British India also applied to Burma for a time period, starting in 1824, a small part of Burma. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma commenced being administered as a separate British colony, British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka, which was a British Crown colony, or the Maldive Islands, which were a British protectorate. It also included the Colony of Aden in the Arabian Peninsula, the original seat of government was at Allahabad, then at Agra from 1834 to 1868. Bombay Presidency, East India Companys headquarters moved from Surat to Bombay in 1687, the East India Company, which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on the east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a trading outpost in Madras in 1639, meanwhile, in eastern India, after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal, the Company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Emperor Aurengzeb forced the Company out of Hooghly, by the mid-18th century the three principal trading settlements, now called the Madras Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency were each administered by a Governor. After Robert Clives victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in 1772, the Company also obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal and thereby full sovereignty of the expanded Bengal Presidency
32.
The Straits Times
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The Straits Times is an English-language daily broadsheet newspaper based in Singapore currently owned by Singapore Press Holdings. It is the countrys highest-selling paper, with a current Sunday Times circulation of nearly 365,800, after Singapore became independent from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, the paper became more focused on the island leading to the creation of the New Straits Times for Malaysian readers. There is a specific Myanmar and Brunei edition published, with a newsprint circulation of 5,000 and 2,500 respectively, SPH also publishes two other English-language dailies, the broadsheet The Business Times and The New Paper tabloid. The Straits Times is a member of the Asia News Network, the Straits Times was started by an Armenian, Catchick Moses. Mosess friend, Martyrose Apcar, had intended to start a local paper, to fulfil his friends dream, Moses took over and appointed Robert Carr Woods as editor. On 15 July 1845, The Straits Times was launched as an eight-page weekly, the subscription fee then was Sp. $1.75 per month. In September 1846, he sold the paper to Robert Woods because the press proved unprofitable to run, on 20 February 1942, five days after the British had surrendered to the Japanese, The Straits Times became known as The Shonan Times and The Syonan Shimbun. This name change lasted until 5 September 1945, when Singapore returned to British rule, the Straits Times functions with 16 bureaus and special correspondents in major cities worldwide. The paper itself is published in five segments, the section focuses on Asian and international news, with sub-sections of columns and editorials. The Home section focuses on news with 5 weekly sections, Education on Monday, Mind and Body on Tuesday, Digital on Wednesday, Community on Thursday. The sports and finance pages, are separated into a different section themselves, there is a classified ads and job listing section, followed by a separate lifestyle, Style, entertainment and the arts section that is titled Life. The newspaper also publishes special editions for primary and secondary schools in Singapore, the primary-school version contains a special pull-out, titled Little Red Dot and the secondary-school version contains a pull-out titled In. The Straits Times is the only English language newspaper with an active Internet forum in Singapore, a separate edition The Sunday Times is published on Sundays. A specific Myanmar and Brunei edition of this paper was launched on 25 Mar 2014 and 30 October 2014 and it is published daily with local newspaper printers on licence with SPH. This paper is distributed on ministries, businesses, major hotels, airlines, bookshops and supermarkets on major cities and it will focus local, circulation of the Myanmar edition currently stands at 5,000 and 2,500 for the Brunei edition. The Straits Times is currently the largest circulating newspaper in Myanmar. Launched on 1 January 1994, The Straits Times website was free of charge and granted access to all the sections, on 1 January 2005, the online version began requiring registration and after a short period became a paid-access-only site. Currently, only people who subscribe to the online edition can read all the articles on the Internet, a free section, featuring a selection of news stories, is currently available at the site
33.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
34.
Reuters
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Reuters /ˈrɔɪtərz/ is an international news agency headquartered in London, England. It is a division of Thomson Reuters, until 2008, the Reuters news agency formed part of an independent company, Reuters Group plc, which was also a provider of financial market data. Since the acquisition of Reuters Group by the Thomson Corporation in 2008, Reuters transmits news in English, French, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Urdu, and Chinese. The Reuter agency was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in Britain at the London Royal Exchange, Paul Reuter worked at a book-publishing firm in Berlin and was involved in distributing radical pamphlets at the beginning of the Revolutions in 1848. Upon moving to England, he founded Reuters Telegram Company in 1851, headquartered in London, the company initially covered commercial news, serving banks, brokerage houses, and business firms. The first newspaper client to subscribe was the London Morning Advertiser in 1858, Reuters agency built a reputation in Europe and the rest of the world as the first to report news scoops from abroad. Reuters was the first to report Abraham Lincolns assassination in Europe, for instance, in 1872, Reuters expanded into the far east, followed by South America in 1874. Both expansions were made possible by advances in overland telegraphs and undersea cables, in 1883, Reuters began transmitting messages electrically to London newspapers. In 1923, Reuters began using radio to transmit news internationally, in 1925, The Press Association of Great Britain acquired a majority interest in Reuters, and full owners some years later. During the world wars, The Guardian reported that Reuters came under pressure from the British government to national interests. In 1941 Reuters deflected the pressure by restructuring itself as a private company, the new owners formed the Reuters Trust. In 1941, the PA sold half of Reuters to the Newspaper Proprieters Association, the Reuters Trust Principles were put in place to maintain the companys independence. At that point, Reuters had become one of the major news agencies. In 1961, Reuters scooped news of the erection of the Berlin Wall, in 1981, Reuters began making electronic transactions on its computer network, and afterwards developed a number of electronic brokerage and trading services. Reuters was floated as a company in 1984, when Reuters Trust was listed on the stock exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange. Reuters published the first story of the Berlin Wall being breached in 1989, share price grew during the dotcom boom, then fell after the banking troubles in 2001. In 2002, Brittanica wrote that most news throughout the world came from three major agencies, the Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse, Reuters merged with Thomson Corporation in Canada in 2008, forming Thomson Reuters. In 2009, Thomson Reuters withdrew from the LSE and the NASDAQ, instead listing its shares on the Toronto Stock Exchange, the last surviving member of the Reuters family founders, Marguerite, Baroness de Reuter, died at age 96 on 25 January 2009
35.
Flags of the World
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Flags of the World is an Internet-based vexillological association and resource. Its principal project is the Internets largest website devoted to vexillology, containing information about all kinds of flags. The mailing list began as a group in about September 1993, while the website was founded by Giuseppe Bottasini in late 1994. FotW became the 56th member of the FIAV in 2001, both the website and the mailing list operate in the English language, though there are members from around the world and as such information from many languages is translated and included. The mailing list is monitored by the FOTW Listmaster, while work on the website is coordinated by the FOTW Editorial Director, the website is updated once a week with fresh material, some mirrors update monthly. Due to the amount of material there is an editing backlog. There are also some mirrors that have not been updated for varying periods of time, the source for material on the FOTW website are contributions to the FOTW mailing list, which has over 1000 members, of which some 100 are active contributors. The mailing list has notable minorities of Portuguese, French, Dutch, a staff of three unpaid volunteers manages and moderates the list. An affiliated Flags of the World Facebook group has established, inaugurated by Edward Mooney. As of November 2016 the group is run and moderated by a team of ten administrators, FOTW displays standardized flag images in GIF format, usually at a height of 216 pixels. While the GIF file format is capable of displaying 256 colours, the organizations flag is a design by Mark Sensen, which was selected over 10 challengers in a poll of FOTW mailing list members and was adopted 8 March 1996. Since then, March 8 has been regarded as FOTWs Flag day, Sensen described its symbolism, White on the hoist stands for peace, blue on the fly for progress. The six colours of the stars are the colours used in flags. The stars help to make one bigger symbol, the way the stars are all connected to each other represents the Internet. The flag is used as a rare representation of the Internet on a flag. List of flags List of flags by country Gallery of country flags Flags of the World Dictionary of Vexillology Flag Days Of The World FOTW mailing list
36.
Flag of Afghanistan
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The flag of Afghanistan has had more changes since the start of the 20th century than has that of any other country in the world. Afghanistan has had 21 different flags since the first flag when the Hotaki dynasty which made Afghanistan independent was established in 1709, the current flag was adopted by the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in 2013. This flag is similar to the one flown in Afghanistan during the monarchy between 1930 and 1973, the difference is the addition of the shahadah at the top of the coat of arms in the center. This flag consists of three stripes of the black, red, and green. This has been present on most flags of Afghanistan in the last twenty years, the center emblem is the classical emblem of Afghanistan with a mosque with its mihrab facing Mecca. The current Afghan flag, together with the flag of Cambodia, hold the distinction of being the only two state flags to feature a building
37.
Flag of Armenia
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The national flag of Armenia, the Armenian Tricolour, consists of three horizontal bands of equal width, red on the top, blue in the middle, and orange on the bottom. The Armenian Supreme Soviet adopted the current flag on 24 August 1990, on 15 June 2006, the Law on the National Flag of Armenia, governing its usage, was passed by the National Assembly of Armenia. Throughout history, there have many variations of the Armenian flag. In ancient times, Armenian dynasties were represented by different symbolic animals displayed on their flags, in the twentieth century, various Soviet flags represented the Armenian SSR. The meanings of the colors are interpreted in different ways. For example, red stands for the blood of the 1.5 million Armenians killed in the Armenian Genocide, blue is for the Armenian pure sky, the blue emblematizes the will of the people of Armenia to live beneath peaceful skies. The orange emblematizes the creative talent and hard-working nature of the people of Armenia, in 2012, the Armenian National Institute of Standards issued specifications about the construction and colors on the national flag. Todays tricolor flag bears little resemblance to the earliest Armenian flags, in ancient times, armies went into battle behind carvings mounted on poles. The carvings might represent a dragon, an eagle, a lion or some object of the gods. With the advent of Christianity, the Armenian empire adopted many different flags representing various dynasties, the Artaxiad Dynastys flag, for instance, consisted of a red cloth displaying two eagles gazing at each other, separated by a flower. After Armenia was split between the Persian and the Ottoman Empires, the idea of an Armenian flag ceased to exist for some time, alishans first design was very similar to todays Armenian flag, a horizontal tricolor. However, it looked more like a variation of the current flag of Bulgaria. While in France, Alishan also designed a flag, identified today as the Nationalist Armenian Flag. It too was a tricolor, but unlike the previous design and its colors were red, green, and blue, from left to right, representing the rainbow that Noah saw after landing on Mount Ararat. In 1828, Persian Armenia was annexed to the Russian Empire after the last Russo-Persian War, when the Russian Empire collapsed, Russian Armenia declared its independence and joined the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, together with Georgia and Azerbaijan. This unified state hardly lasted a year and was soon dissolved, since the Republic was short-lived, it did not use any flags or symbols. Nevertheless, some consider a horizontal gold, black, and red tricolor, similar to that of the German flag but arranged differently. The federation was dissolved on May 26,1918, when Georgia declared its independence as the Democratic Republic of Georgia
38.
Flag of Azerbaijan
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The flag of Azerbaijan is a horizontal tricolour featuring three equally sized fesses of blue, red, and green, with a white crescent and an eight-pointed star in the center. The tricolour replaced an earlier design used by the Azerbaijan SSR, the blue symbolizes Azerbaijans Turkic heritage, the red stands for progress, and the green represents Islam. The official colors and size were adopted on February 5,1991 and this flag was used from November 9,1918 to 1920, when Azerbaijan was independent, and it was revived with slight variations on February 5,1991. The nickname for the flag is Üçrəngli Bayraq, which means The Tricolour Flag, the flag is referred to in the Constitution and mentioned two times in the national anthem. On land, the flag is used as the civil, state and war flag, at sea, it is used as the civil, state, the flag also has official status in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. A presidential decree declared November 9, the date when in 1918 this flag was adopted as the flag of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. The national flag of Azerbaijan consists of three stripes of equal width, from top to bottom, light blue, red. In the center are a crescent and eight-pointed star. Upper stripe is blue, middle stripe is red, and the one is green. Width of the flag constitutes half of its length, further specifications of the national flag were detailed in the Presidential Decree On the National Flag of the Republic of Azerbaijan issued on February 5,1991. The ratio was kept at 1,2, which was used in the Soviet era, each stripe is one-third of the total height of the flag and extends the full length. The star and crescent were placed in a box that has a ratio of 3,4, the outside diameter of both the crescent and the red inside circle intersects with the diameter of the star. The diameter of the star is one-sixth the height of the flag, the flag is also described in the technical specification AZS 001-2006. Published by the State Committee on Standardization, Metrology and Patents of the Republic of Azerbaijan in 2006, the colors of the national flag are green, red, sky blue, and white. Exact specifications for its colors were issued in the 2004 decree On the Rules of the National Flag of the Republic of Azerbaijan, in the middle of the flag, and appearing on both front and back, are a white crescent and an eight-pointed star. According to historian Nasib Nasibli, Ali bey Huseynzade, one of the ideologists of Azerbaijans independence, while the crescent and star are typically seen as markers of Islam, some historians and researchers disagree about why an eight-pointed star is used on the flag of Azerbaijan. Fatali Khan Khoyski points to the eight letters in the word Azerbaijan as written in Arabic, the eight points of the star are also thought to stand for the eight Turkic peoples of Azerbaijan. The problem is there are only seven Turkic peoples, Azeris, Ottomans, Jagatais, Tatars, Kipchaks, Selijuks and its possible the Kipchaks actually reflect two peoples, the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, which would make eight
39.
Flag of Bahrain
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The national flag of Bahrain consists of a white band on the left, separated from a red area on the right by five triangles that serve as a serrated line. The five white triangles symbolize the 5 pillars of Islam and it is sometimes mistaken for the flag of Qatar, but that flag is maroon, not red, has more points, and normally has a much greater length-to-width ratio. The white color comprises 13⁄40 of the area, while the red color comprises 27⁄40 of the area. The color specification is red, Pantone 186 c / CMYK C0 – M90 – Y80 – K5 The flag is used on land and at sea as a national, civil and war ensign. In 2002, the King of Bahrain Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, article II, The King shall have his own flag, for which a royal order shall be issued to determine its shape, measures, and places. Article III, The Flag of the Kingdom of Bahrain shall be hoisted on the Royal Court, Palaces, governmental buildings, public establishments, embassies, Bahraini bureaus abroad, and Bahraini ships. Article V, The Flag shall be hoisted on governmental buildings, public institutions during public holidays, article VI, The Flag of the Kingdom of Bahrain shall not be hoisted on vehicles, except on the official protocol vehicles. Article VII, The Flag of the Kingdom of Bahrain shall be hoisted half mast at the state of mourning, article VIII, The Flag of the Kingdom of Bahrain shall not be used for commercial purposes. The earliest known flags of Bahrain were plain red, in 1932, a serrated edge was added to the flag in order to differentiate it from those of its neighbours. The flag originally had twenty-eight white points, but this was reduced to eight in 1972, on 14 February 2002, the number was again reduced to five, so that each of the points could stand for one of the Five Pillars of Islam
40.
Flag of Bangladesh
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The national flag of Bangladesh was adopted officially on 17 January 1972. It consists of a red disc on top of a green field, the red disc represents the sun rising over Bengal, and also the blood of those who died for the independence of Bangladesh. The green field stands for the lushness of the land of Bangladesh, the flag is based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, which had a yellow map of the country inside the red disc. In 1972 this map was removed from the flag, one reason given was the difficulty for rendering the map correctly on both sides of the flag. The civil ensign and naval ensign place it in the canton of a red or white field, the flag was made from clothes donated by Bazlur Rahman Lasker, the owner of Apollo Tailors, Dhaka New Market. A map of East Pakistan was first traced on a paper from an atlas by Hasanul Haq Inu, Yousuf Salahuddin Ahmed and Enamul Haq, at Enamuls room in Quaid-I Azam Hall. Later the map was painted in the red circle by Shib Narayan Das, according to CIA World Fact Book, the green used in the flag represent the lushness of the green landscape of the country. On January 13,1972 the flag was modified, the map from the center was removed and the red disk was moved towards the hoist. The red in the center is symbolic representation of the blood Bengalis shed in Bangladesh Liberation War, the red circle will have a radius of one-fifth of the length of the flag. Its centre will be placed on the point of the perpendicular drawn from the nine-twentieth part of the length of the flag. The green base of the flag will be of Procion Brilliant Green H-2RS50 parts per 1000, the red circular part will be of Procion Brilliant Orange H-2RS60 parts per 1000. Depending on the size of the building the flag sizes will be 10 ft ×6 ft,5 ft ×3 ft,2 1⁄2 ft ×1 1⁄2 ft. The size of the flag for cars is 12 1⁄2 in ×7 1⁄2 in, the national flag of Bangladesh is flown on all working days on important government buildings and offices, e. g. the president house, legislative assembly buildings, etc. Birthday of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, any other day notified by the Government of Bangladesh. Following days are notified by the government, National Mourning Day of Bangladesh on 15 August, list of Bangladeshi flags National symbols of Bangladesh Bangladesh at Flags of the World Farooq, AKM. In Islam, Sirajul, Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia, National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh
41.
Flag of Bhutan
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The national flag of Bhutan is one of the national symbols of Bhutan. The flag is based upon the tradition of the Drukpa Lineage of Tibetan Buddhism and features Druk, the basic design of the flag by Mayum Choying Wangmo Dorji dates to 1947. A version was displayed in 1949 at the signing of the Indo-Bhutan Treaty, the Bhutanese subsequently redesigned their flag to match the measurements of the flag of India, which they believed fluttered better than their own. Other modifications such as changing the red color to orange led to the current design. The National Assembly of Bhutan codified a code of conduct in 1972 to formalize the design and establish protocol regarding acceptable flag sizes. Historically Bhutan is known by names, but the Bhutanese call the country Druk after the name of the Bhutanese thunder dragon. The monastery that Tsangpa Gyare built that year was named Druk Sewa Jangchubling, the Druk school later split into three lineages. One of these three, Drukpa, was founded by Tsangpa Gyares nephew and spiritual heir Önrey Dharma Sengye, the nation itself would also later become known as Druk. This legend offers one explanation for how the symbolism of the came to form the basis of the national flag of Bhutan. The current flag is divided diagonally from the lower corner, with the upper triangle yellow. Centred along the line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side. The dragon is holding a norbu, or jewel, in each of its claws, the background colours of the flag, yellow and orange, are identified as Pantone 116 and 165 respectively. Equivalents of these shades and the white of the Druk are specified by other codes according to particular matching systems as indicated below. The dimensions of the flag must maintain a 3,2 ratio. The following sizes have been declared standard by the Government of Bhutan,21 ft ×14 ft 12 ft ×8 ft 6 ft ×4 ft 3 ft ×2 ft 9 in ×6 in, for car flags. The orange half signifies Buddhist spiritual tradition, particularly the Drukpa Kagyu, Druk, the Thunder Dragon, spreads equally over the line between the colors. The white color of Druk signifies the purity of inner thoughts and this report is therefore a significant primary source for information about the history of the Bhutanese flag. But in the description of the flag from 1949, the document is not in accord with photos of the flag
42.
Flag of Brunei
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The flag of Brunei has a centered crest of Brunei on a yellow field cut by black and white diagonal stripes. The yellow field represents the sultan of Brunei, the crest consists of a crescent facing upwards, joined with a parasol, with hands on the sides. Black and white stripes run across the flag, the crescent symbolizes Islam, the parasol symbolizes monarchy, and the hands at the side symbolize the benevolence of the government. The black and white stripes represent Bruneis chief ministers who were once joint-regents and then – after the sultan came of age – senior advisors, the Pengiran Bendahara, on the crescent is the national motto in Arabic, “Always render service with Gods guidance”. Below this is a banner inscribed with Brunei Darussalam, the flag in its present form, except for the crest, has been in use since 1906 when Brunei became a British protectorate, following the signing of an agreement between Brunei and Great Britain. Even though Brunei was only nominally independent after this, Bruneians retained certain symbols like the flag, the crest was superimposed in 1959 after the promulgation of the Constitution of 29 September 1959. The design was retained when the country gained independence on 1 January 1984 as Brunei Darussalam. The standard of Her Majesty the Raja Isteri is light yellow, the Perdana Wazir has also a personal standard granted to him by His Majesty the Sultan. The standard is white superimposed in the centre with the state crest in light yellow, the crest is supported by si kikil, a kris crossed by its sheath. The personal standards of the Pengiran Bendahara, Pengiran Digadong, Pengiran Pemancha and Pengiran Temenggong are white, green, black, the Sultan had also bestowed personal flags to lesser officials known as Pengiran Cheteria and to Pengiran and other subjects. Their personal standards incorporate the state crest in red on a background at the top left corner of the flags. Brunei at Flags of the World National Flag and Crest Government of Brunei Darussalam National Flag and Crest, Prime Ministers Office Flag and Crest Description History Brunei Flag
43.
Flag of Cambodia
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The national flag of Cambodia in its present form was originally adopted in 1948 and readopted in 1993, after the Constituent Assembly election in 1993 and restoration of the monarchy. Since around 1850, the Cambodian flag has featured a depiction of Angkor Wat in the centre, the current flag, with a blue border and red central was adopted following Cambodias independence in 1948. It was used until 9 October 1970, when a new flag was introduced for Lon Nols Khmer Republic that lasted until the takeover of the Khmer Rouge in 1975. The subsequent state of Democratic Kampuchea, which existed from 1975 to 1979, the Peoples Republic of Kampuchea was established in 1979, after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. The Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation revived the flag adopted by the Khmer Issarak in the days of resistance for the new state. This flag had the colour pattern as the DK flag. When the PRK renamed itself as State of Cambodia in 1989, the UNTAC flag was used during the 1992–1993 transitional period along with the flag of the SOC within Cambodia. In 1993, the 1948 Cambodian flag was readopted, the current Cambodian flag, together with the flag of Afghanistan, hold the distinction of being the only two state flags to feature a building. Red and blue are traditional colours of Cambodia, the flag used today is the same as that established in 1948, although the older flag is sometimes said to have used a red outline for Angkor Wat while the current flag uses black specifically. Since that time, five other intervening designs have been used, almost all made use of the image of the temple of Angkor Wat in one form or another. This famous temple site, which dates from the 12th century, was built by the Mahidharapura monarchs and it has five towers, but these were not always all depicted in the stylised version used on flags. The monarchy was restored in September 1993, the 1948 flag having been readopted in June of that year, the Royal Standard of the King of Cambodia is the personal flag of the Cambodian monarch. It was officially adopted in 1993, but its use dates back to 1941. It is also considered among the symbols of Cambodia. List of Cambodian flags 3. http, //flagscorner. com/cambodia-flag/ Cambodia at Flags of the World
44.
Flag of China
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The flag of the Peoples Republic of China is a red field charged in the canton with five golden stars. The design features one large star, with four stars in a semicircle set off towards the fly. The red represents the communist revolution, the five stars and their relationship represent the unity of the Chinese people under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, sometimes, the flag is referred to as the Five-star Red Flag. The flag was designed by Zeng Liansong, a citizen from Wenzhou, the design competition received 2,992 entries, and Zengs design was put into a pool of 38 finalists. After several meetings and slight modifications, Zengs design was chosen as the national flag, the first flag was hoisted by the Peoples Liberation Army on a pole overlooking Beijings Tiananmen Square on October 1,1949, at a ceremony announcing the founding of the Peoples Republic. Other flags used in the Peoples Republic of China use a red background to symbolize the revolution in conjunction with other symbols, the flag of the Peoples Liberation Army uses the gold star with the Chinese characters 8-1. The flag of the Communist Party of China replaces all of the stars with the party emblem, due to government regulations, cities and provinces of China cannot have their own flags, the only sub-national flags that exist are those of the Hong Kong and Macau Special Administrative Regions. Despite this, at least two cities have adopted flags after the law was passed, the cities of Kaifeng and Shangrao adopted their flags in March 2006 and March 2009 respectively. This implies that the law is repealed or not enforced. On July 4,1949, the working group of the Preparatory Committee of the New Political Consultative Conference created a notice to submit designs for the national flag. Zeng Liansong was working in Shanghai at the time the announcement came out, in the middle of July, he sat down in his attic for multiple nights to come up with designs. His inspiration for the current design comes from the stars shining in the night sky and he thought of a Chinese proverb longing for the stars, longing for the moon, which shows yearning. Later, he realized that the CPC was the savior of the Chinese people. The idea of four small stars came from On the Peoples Democratic Dictatorship a speech by Mao Zedong, yellow also implies that China belongs to the Chinese people, a yellow race. After working out the details of the placement of the stars and their sizes, as of August 20, a total of 2,992 designs were sent to the flag committee, which included input from committee members themselves, such as Guo Moruo and Tan Kah Kee. From August 16 to 20, the designs were viewed at the Beijing Hotel and these designs are collected into a book named A Reference of National Flag Designs. This book was submitted to the newly established Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference for further discussion. However, Zengs design was not included until Tian Han nominated it again, in the morning of September 23, the representatives of the CPPCC discussed the national flags, but came to no conclusion
45.
Flag of Cyprus
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The national flag of Cyprus came into use on August 16,1960, under the Zurich and London Agreements, whereby a constitution was drafted and Cyprus was proclaimed an independent state. The flag was designed by art teacher İsmet Güney, the flag deliberately chose peaceful and neutral symbols in an attempt to indicate harmony between the rival Greek and Turkish communities, an ideal that has not yet been realized. In 1963 Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot communities separated because of Cypriot intercommunal violence, the state flag features a map of the entirety of the island, with two olive branches below on white. The olive branches signify peace between the Turks and Greeks, the map on the flag is a copper-orange colour, symbolizing the large deposits of copper ore on the island, from which it may have received its name. Before the flag of Cyprus was introduced, the flags of Greece, the current flag was created as the result of a design competition in 1960. Under the constitution, the flag should not include blue or red colours. All participants deliberately avoided use of four elements in an attempt to make the flag neutral. The winning design was based on a proposal by İsmet Güney, the design was chosen by Makarios III, the first President of the Republic, with the consent of Fazil Küçük, the first Vice-President. Under the constitution of Cyprus, the flag of Cyprus may be flown by state institutions, public corporations, state institutions, public bodies and corporations may fly the flag of Cyprus along with both the flag of Greece and the flag of Turkey. Private citizens may fly the flag of Cyprus alongside either the Greek flag, following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus and the establishment of the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Turkish-Cypriots use the Flag of Northern Cyprus. In the design of August 1960, the colour of the map is copper, both the crest and the two olive-tree leaves are olive green. The background is white with the 3,5 ratio, Flags produced on Cyprus often differ from the original specifications, both regarding the size of the map and the colours used. The government announced in October 2005, that it would take steps to start from scratch and it is possible that any future Cyprus settlement will include the adoption of a new flag. Ismet Guney Cyprus Flag of Northern Cyprus Cyprus at Flags of the World Flags in Cyprus Cyprus Flag and Emblem - Cyprus Government Web Portal
46.
Flag of East Timor
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The national flag of East Timor was adopted in 2002. It is the same as the flag originally adopted when the country declared its independence from Portugal in 1975, nine days before being invaded by Indonesia. At midnight on 19 May 2002, and during the first moments of Independence Day the next day, the United Nations flag was lowered, as per the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, the yellow triangle represents the traces of colonialism in East Timors history. One triangle is black and its height is equal to one-third of the length overlapped to the yellow triangle, in the centre of the black triangle there is a white star of five ends, meaning the light that guides. The white star has one of its ends turned towards the side end of the flag. The remaining part of the flag is red, a different flag had been suggested by the representatives of the Timorese political parties and organisations during the first East Timorese National Convention held in April 1998 in Portugal. This flag was originally the flag of CNRT Conselho Nacional de Resistência Timorense, because of CNRTs popularity, there was a consensus of the participants of the Convention to adopt their flag as a temporary flag for East Timor. It was replaced by the design of 1975 in 2002. East Timor at Flags of the World
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