1.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
2.
Civil flag
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A civil flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on nongovernmental installations or craft. The use of flags was more common in the past to denote buildings or ships not manned by the military. In some countries, the flag is the same as the war flag or state flag but without the coat of arms, such as in the case of Spain. In others, it is an alteration of the war flag, in Scandinavia, state and war flags can be double and triple-tailed variants of the Nordic Cross flag. Many countries, particularly those with a British heritage, still have distinctive civil flags for use at sea, many based on the Red Ensign
3.
State flag
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There are two separate meanings for the term of state flag in vexillology, the flag of the government of a sovereign state and the flag of an individual subnational state. A state flag is a variant of a national flag specifically designated and restricted by law or custom to use by a government or its agencies. For this reason they are referred to as government flags. Scandinavian countries also use swallowtailed state flags, to differentiate them from civil flags. In addition, some countries have state ensigns, separate flags for use by government ships such as guard vessels. For example, government ships in the United Kingdom fly the blue ensign, state flags should not be confused with the national flag as used by military organisations, these are referred to as war flags and naval ensigns. To avoid confusion with the first meaning of the term, however, such a flag would be more referred to as the flag of the state of X. For this usage, see also, Flags of the Australian states and territories Flags of Brazilian states Flags of the U. S. states Flags of German states Znamierowski, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
4.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
5.
Houston Ship Channel
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The Houston Ship Channel, in Houston, Texas, is part of the Port of Houston, one of the USs busiest seaports. The channel is the conduit for ocean-going vessels between Houston-area terminals and the Gulf of Mexico, and it serves a volume of inland barge traffic. The channel is a widened and deepened natural watercourse created by dredging Buffalo Bayou, major products, such as petrochemicals and Midwestern grain, are transported in bulk together with general cargo. The original watercourse for the channel, Buffalo Bayou, has its headwaters 30 miles to the west of the city of Houston, the navigational head of the channel, the most upstream point to which general cargo ships can travel, is at Turning Basin in east Houston. The channel has numerous terminals and berthing locations along Buffalo Bayou, the major public terminals include Turning Basin, Barbours Cut, and Bayport. Many private docks are there, as well, including the ExxonMobil Baytown Complex, the channel, periodically widened and deepened to accommodate ever-larger ships, is 530 feet wide by 45 feet deep by 50 miles long. The islands in the channel are part of the ongoing widening and deepening project. The islands are formed from soil pulled up by dredging, the channel has been used to move goods to the sea since at least 1836. Buffalo Bayou and Galveston Bay were dredged during the late 19th, by the mid 1900s the Port of Houston had established itself as the leading port in Texas eclipsing the natural harbors at Galveston and Texas City. The Turning Basin terminal in Harrisburg became the ports largest shipping point. On January 10,1910, residents of Harris County voted 16 to 1 to fund dredging the Houston ship channel to a depth of 25 feet for the amount of $1,250,000, which was then matched by federal funds. On June 14,1914 the first deepwater ship, steamship Satilla, arrived at the port of Houston, on November 10,1914, President Woodrow Wilson opened the Houston Ship Channel, part of the Port of Houston. The onset of World War I and the first mechanized wars thirst for oil greatly increased use of the ship channel, the United States Army Corps of Engineers increased the depth of the channel from 25 to 30 feet in 1922. The Public Works Administration provided $2,800,000 dollars for the project, now the channel and surrounding area support the second-largest petrochemical complex in the world. While much of the Houston Ship Channel is associated with heavy industry, the USS Texas saw service during both world wars, and is the oldest remaining example of a dreadnought-era battleship in existence. The nearby San Jacinto Monument commemorates the Battle of San Jacinto in which Texas won its independence from Mexico, the US Armys San Jacinto Ordnance Depot was located on the channel from 1941–1964. Currently, the channel is dredged to a depth of 43–45 feet, the channel was designated a National Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1987. The “Texas chicken” maneuver is known to mariners who regularly navigate large vessels on the Houston Ship Channel
6.
Republic of Texas
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The Republic of Texas was an independent sovereign country in North America that existed from March 2,1836, to February 19,1846. The citizens of the republic were known as Texians, the Mexican province of Tejas declared its independence from Mexico during the Texas Revolution in 1836. The United States recognized the Republic of Texas in March 1837, the Republic-claimed borders were based upon the Treaties of Velasco between the newly created Texas Republic and Antonio López de Santa Anna of Mexico. The republics southern and western boundary with Mexico continued to be disputed throughout the republics existence, Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its southern boundary, while Mexico insisted that the Nueces River was the boundary. However, the United States again inherited the southern and western border dispute with Mexico, Texas had been one of the Provincias Internas of New Spain, a region known historiographically as Spanish Texas. Though claimed by Spain, it was not formally colonized by them until competing French interests at Fort St. Louis encouraged Spain to establish permanent settlements in the area. Sporadic missionary incursions occurred into the area during the period from the 1690s–1710s, in 1762, France ceded to Spain most of its claims to the interior of North America, including its claim to Texas, as well as the vast interior that became Spanish Louisiana. During the years 1799 to 1803, the height of the Napoleonic Empire, Spain returned Louisiana back to France, starting in 1810, the territories of New Spain north of the Isthmus of Panama sought independence in the Mexican War of Independence. Many Americans fought on the side of Mexico against Spain in filibustering expeditions, one of these, the Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition consisted of a group of about 130 Americans under the leadership of Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara. Gutierrez de Lara initiated Mexicos secession from Spain with efforts contributed by Magee, bolstered by new recruits, and led Samuel Kemper, the expedition gained a series of victories against soldiers led by the Spanish governor, Manuel María de Salcedo. Their victory at the Battle of Rosillo Creek convinced Salcedo to surrender on April 1,1813, on April 6,1813, the victorious Republican Army of the North drafted a constitution and declared the independent Republic of Texas, with Gutiérrez as its president. Soon disillusioned with the Mexican leadership, the Americans under Kemper returned to the United States, the ephemeral Republic of Texas came to an end following the August 18,1813 Battle of Medina, where the Spanish Army crushed the Republican Army of the North. Since Mexican independence had been ratified by Spain shortly thereafter, Austin would later travel to Mexico City to secure the support of the new country in his right to settle. The establishment of Mexican Texas coincided with the Austin-led settlement, leading to animosity between Mexican authorities and ongoing American settlement of Texas, the First Mexican Empire was short lived, being replaced by a republican form of government in 1823. Following Austins lead, additional groups of settlers, known as Empresarios, in 1830, Mexican President Anastasio Bustamante outlawed American immigration to Texas, following several conflicts with the Empresarios over the status of slavery in the region. Angered at the interference of the Mexican government, the Empresarios held the Convention of 1832, on the eve of war, the American settlers in the area outnumbered Mexicans by a considerable margin. Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna revoked the 1824 Constitution of Mexico, the Texian leadership under Austin began to organize its own military, and hostilities broke out on October 2,1835 at the Battle of Gonzales, the first engagement of the Texas Revolution. In November,1835 a provisional government known as the Consultation was established to oppose the Santa Anna regime, on March 1,1836 the Convention of 1836 came to order, and the next day declared independence from Mexico, establishing the Republic of Texas
7.
William H. Wharton
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William Harris Wharton was an early colonist, political leader, diplomat, senator and orator in Texas. Wharton was born in Virginia and was raised by a following the deaths of his parents. He graduated from the University of Nashville and was admitted to the Tennessee bar in 1826, Wharton moved to Texas, and on December 5,1827, married Sarah Ann Groce, the daughter of a wealthy landowner. Their only child was a son, John A. Wharton and they established a farm known as Eagle Island Plantation. Wharton served as a delegate to the Convention of 1832 from the District of Victoria, the convention had unanimously elected William Wharton to deliver the resolutions to the Coahuila y Tejas legislature in Saltillo and to the Mexican Congress in Mexico City. He later served as a delegate from the Columbia district to the Texas Consultation of 1835, Wharton entered military service during the Texas Revolution, serving as a colonel and judge advocate general. He participated in the siege of San Antonio de Bexar, shortly thereafter, he was appointed as one of three commissioners to the United States to secure aid for the Texians. After the revolution resulted in the formation of the Republic of Texas in 1836, Wharton supported Austins unsuccessful candidacy for president, Wharton served as a member of the new republics Senate from the District of Brazoria in 1836. In November, President Houston appointed Wharton as minister to the United States, hoping to secure political recognition, returning to Texas in 1837 by sea, Wharton was captured by a Mexican ship and carried to Matamoros, where he was imprisoned. He escaped and returned to Texas to be re-elected to the Texas Senate in 1838 and he introduced the Texas Lone Star flag to Congress on December 28, and may have designed it. Wharton accidentally shot and killed himself while dismounting from his horse near Hempstead in Waller County, Texas and he was buried at Restwood Memorial Park in Clute, Texas. Both Wharton County, Texas, and its county seat, Wharton, were named for him and his brother John Austin Wharton, list of Convention of 1832 delegates Davis, William C. Lone Star Rising, The Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic
8.
National flag
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A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
9.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
10.
Flags of the U.S. states and territories
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The flags of the U. S. states, territories and federal district exhibit a variety of regional influences and local histories, as well as different styles and design principles. Nonetheless, the majority of the states share the same design pattern consisting of the state seal superimposed on a monochrome background. The most recent current state flag is that of Utah, while the most recent current territorial flag is that of the Northern Mariana Islands. Modern U. S. state flags date from the 1890s, most U. S. state flags were designed and adopted between 1893 and World War I. Dates in parentheses denote when the current flag was adopted by the states legislature and these are the current flags of the federal district and territories of the United States. Dates in parenthesis denote when the district or territorys current flag was adopted by its respective political body, the U. S. national flag is the official flag for all islands, atolls, and reefs composing the United States Minor Outlying Islands. However, unofficial flags are in use on five of these nine areas, Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island. Maine and Massachusetts have ensigns differing from the flag for use at sea
11.
Flag of the United States
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The flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, the current design of the U. S. flag is its 27th, the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48-star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49-star version became official on July 4,1959, the 50-star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21,1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the version of the U. S. flag and has been in use for over 56 years. At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the flag contemporaneously known as the Continental Colors has historically been referred to as the first national flag. The name Grand Union was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the American flag, the flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign. However, an East India Company flag could have nine to 13 stripes. In any case, both the stripes and the stars have precedents in classical heraldry, Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment. The first official U. S. flag flown during battle was on August 3,1777, Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag, the 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a flag did not yet exist. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee, on May 10,1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. However, the term, Standard, referred to a standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag, the appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows, one arrangement features 13 five-pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle, the so-called Betsy Ross flag
12.
Pantone
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Pantone Inc. is a corporation headquartered in Carlstadt, New Jersey. X-Rite Inc. a supplier of color measurement instruments and software, Pantone began in New York City in the 1950s as the commercial printing company of M & J Levine Advertising. In 1956, its founders, advertising executives brothers Mervin and Jesse Levine, for instance, a particular page might contain a number of yellows of varying tints. The idea behind the PMS is to allow designers to color match specific colors when a design enters production stage and this system has been widely adopted by graphic designers and reproduction and printing houses. Pantone recommends that PMS Color Guides be purchased annually, as their inks become yellowish over time, Color variance also occurs within editions based on the paper stock used, while interedition color variance occurs when there are changes to the specific paper stock used. The Pantone Color Matching System is largely a standardized color reproduction system, by standardizing the colors, different manufacturers in different locations can all refer to the Pantone system to make sure colors match without direct contact with one another. One such use is standardizing colors in the CMYK process, the CMYK process is a method of printing color by using four inks—cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. A majority of the printed material is produced using the CMYK process. Those that are possible to simulate through the CMYK process are labeled as such within the companys guides, however, most of the Pantone systems 1,114 spot colors cannot be simulated with CMYK but with 13 base pigments mixed in specified amounts. The Pantone system also allows for many special colors to be produced, such as metallics, while most of the Pantone system colors are beyond the printed CMYK gamut, it was only in 2001 that Pantone began providing translations of their existing system with screen-based colors. Screen-based colors use the RGB color model—red, green, blue—system to create various colors, the Goe system has RGB and LAB values with each color. Pantone colors are described by their allocated number, PMS colors are almost always used in branding and have even found their way into government legislation and military standards. In January 2003, the Scottish Parliament debated a petition to refer to the blue in the Scottish flag as Pantone 300, countries such as Canada and South Korea and organizations such as the FIA have also chosen to refer to specific Pantone colors to use when producing flags. US states including Texas have set legislated PMS colors of their flags and it has also been used in an art project by the Brazilian photographer Angelica Dass which applies Pantone to the human skin color spectrum. On September 5,2007, Pantone introduced the Goe System, Goe consisted of over 2,000 new colors in a new matching and numbering system. The Goe system was streamlined to use base colors and accommodate many technical challenges in reproducing colors on a press. The Pantone Goe system was discontinued in November 2013, in mid-2006 Pantone, partnering with Vermont-based Fine Paints of Europe, introduced a new line of interior and exterior paints. The color palette uses Pantones color research and trending and has more than 3,000 colors, in November 2015, Pantone partnered with Redland London to create a collection of bags inspired from Pantones authority on color
13.
Symbol
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A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences, all communication is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to other ideas. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for STOP, on a map, a blue line might represent a river. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds, personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion, the variable x, in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space. In cartography, a collection of symbols forms a legend for a map The word derives from the Greek symbolon meaning token or watchword. It is an amalgam of syn- together + bole a throwing, a casting, the sense evolution in Greek is from throwing things together to contrasting to comparing to token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine. The meaning something which stands for something else was first recorded in 1590, later, expanding on what he means by this definition Campbell says, a symbol, like everything else, shows a double aspect. We must distinguish, therefore between the sense and the meaning of the symbol. The term meaning can only to the first two but these, today, are in the charge of science – which is the province as we have said, not of symbols. The ineffable, the unknowable, can be only sensed. Heinrich Zimmer gives an overview of the nature, and perennial relevance. Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. They are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own, in the book Signs and Symbols, it is stated that A symbol. Is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth, Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. This separates symbols from signs, as signs have only one meaning, human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture
14.
Fredonian Rebellion
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The Fredonian Rebellion was the first attempt by Anglo settlers in Texas to secede from Mexico. The settlers, led by Empresario Haden Edwards, declared independence from Mexican Texas, the short-lived republic encompassed the land the Mexican government had granted to Edwards in 1825 and included areas that had been previously settled. In late December 1826, a group of Edwardss supporters took control of the region by arresting and removing from office several municipality officials affiliated with the established residents, supporters declared their independence from Mexico. Austin convinced tribal leaders to repudiate the rebellion, on January 31,1827, a force of over 100 Mexican soldiers and 250 militiamen from Austins colony marched into Nacogdoches to restore order. Haden Edwards and his brother Benjamin fled to the United States, Chief Richard Fields was killed by his own tribe. A local merchant was arrested and sentenced to death, but later paroled, the rebellion led Mexican President Guadalupe Victoria to increase the military presence in the area. As a result, several tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements. The Comanche abided by this treaty for many years, fearing that through the rebellion the United States hoped to gain control of Texas, the Mexican government severely curtailed immigration to the region from the US. This new immigration law was opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the Texas Revolution, in the words of one historian, the rebellion was premature, but it sparked the powder for later success. After winning independence in 1821, several of Spains colonies in the New World joined together to create a new country, the country divided itself into several states, and the area known as Mexican Texas became part of the border state Coahuila y Tejas. To assist in governing the area, the state created several departments. This department was subdivided into municipalities, which were governed by alcalde. A large portion of East Texas, ranging from the Sabine to the Trinity Rivers and from the Gulf Coast to the Red River, most residents of the municipality were Spanish-speaking families who had occupied their land for generations. An increasing number were English-speaking residents who had immigrated illegally during the Mexican War of Independence, many of the immigrants were adventurers who had arrived as part of various military filibustering groups which had attempted to create independent republics within Texas during Spanish rule. To better control the sparsely populated region, in 1824 the Mexican federal government passed the General Colonization Law to allow legal immigration into Texas. Under the law, each state would set its own requirements for immigration, after some debate, on March 24,1825, Coahuila y Tejas authorized a system granting land to empresario, who would recruit settlers for their particular colony. In addition, for every 100 families an empresario settled on Texas, they would receive 23,000 acres of land to cultivate, during the state governments deliberations, many would-be empresarios congregated in Mexico to lobby for land grants
15.
Nacogdoches, Texas
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Not to be confused with Natchitoches, Louisiana. Nacogdoches is a city situated in East Texas and the county seat of Nacogdoches County, Texas. The 2010 U. S. Census recorded the population to be 32,996. Nacogdoches is a city of the smaller Natchitoches, Louisiana. Nacogdoches is the home of Stephen F. Austin State University, local promotional literature from the Nacogdoches Convention & Visitors Bureau describes Nacogdoches as “the oldest town in Texas. ”Evidence of settlement at the same site dates back to 10,000 years ago. It is near or on the site of Nevantin, the village of the Nacogdoche tribe of Caddo Indians. Nacogdoches remained a Caddo Indian settlement until the early 19th century, in 1716 when Spain established a mission there, Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de los Nacogdoches. That was the first European construction in the area, the “town” of Nacogdoches got started after the French had vacated the region, and Spanish officials decided that maintaining the mission was too costly. In 1772 they ordered all settlers in the area to move to San Antonio, some were eager to escape the wilderness, but others had to be forced from their homes by soldiers. It was one of the original European settlements in the region, colonel Antonio Gil YBarbo, a prominent Spanish trader, emerged as the leader of the settlers, and in the spring of 1779, he led a group back to Nacogdoches. Later that summer, Nacogdoches received designation from Spain as a pueblo, or town, YBarbo, as lieutenant governor of the new town, established the rules and laws for local government. He laid out streets with the intersecting El Camino Real and La Calle del Norte/North Street as the central point, on the main thoroughfare, he built a stone house for use in his trading business. The house, or Old Stone Fort as it is known today, the city has been under more flags than the state of Texas, claiming nine flags. In addition to the Six Flags of Texas, it flew under the flags of the Magee-Gutierrez Republic, the Long Republic. People from the United States began moving to settle in Nacogdoches in 1820, however, the first newspaper published was in Spanish. An edition of the newspaper is preserved and shown at the local Museum, in 1832, the battle of Nacogdoches brought many local settlers together, as they united in their stand to support a federalist form of government. Their successful venture drove the Mexican military from east Texas, Thomas Jefferson Rusk was one of the most prominent early Nacogdoches Anglo settlers. A veteran of the Texas Revolution, hero of San Jacinto and he was president of the Texas Statehood Commission and served as one of the first two Texas U. S
16.
English Americans
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In the 2014 American Community Survey, English Americans are of the total population. Eight out of the ten most common surnames in the United States are of English origin or having possible mixed British Isles heritage, scotch-Irish Americans are for the most part descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English settlers who colonized Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century. The English were the top group, with 66% saying they were a good thing for the United States. Ben J. Wattenberg argues that this demonstrates an general American bias against Hispanics. English immigrants in the 19th century, as other groups. They began migrating in large numbers without state support, Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply American due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U. S. and their influence on the countrys population. While there may be reasons for this, after centuries of intermarriage and internal geographic mobility. For these reasons, no part of the pluralist American society is so difficult to describe as a separate entity as the English. The original 17th-century settlers were overwhelmingly English and it was conducted on August 2,1790. The ancestry of the 3,929,214 population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names in the very first United States official census and assigning them a country of origin. The estimate results indicate that people of English ancestry made up about 47. 5% of the population or 60. 9% of the European American population. Some 80. 7% of the total United States population was of European heritage, around 757,208 were of African descent with 697,624 being slaves. Of the remaining population, more than 75% was of British origin, in the 2000 census,24.5 million Americans reported English ancestry,8. 7% of the total U. S. population. This estimate is probably a serious undercount by over 30 million given that, in the 1980 census, as many as 80 million Americans may be wholly or partly of English ancestry. In 1980,23,748,772 Americans claimed wholly English ancestry, in 1860, an estimated 11 million or almost 35% of the population of the United States was wholly or primarily of English ancestry. The population has increased by almost ten times the numbers in 1860, in total, there are estimated to be around 678,000 British born expatriates in the United States with the majority of these being English. English Americans are found in numbers throughout America, particularly in the Northeast, South. Dark blue and purple colours indicate a percentage, highest in the east and west
17.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
18.
Texas Revolution
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The Texas Revolution began when colonists in the Mexican province of Texas rebelled against the increasingly centralized Mexican government. After a decade of political and cultural clashes between the Mexican government and the large population of American settlers in Texas, hostilities erupted in October 1835. Texians disagreed on whether the goal was independence or a return to the Mexican Constitution of 1824. While delegates at the Consultation debated the wars motives, Texians, the Consultation declined to declare independence and installed an interim government, whose infighting led to political paralysis and a dearth of effective governance in Texas. An ill-conceived proposal to invade Matamoros siphoned much-needed volunteers and provisions from the fledgling Texas army, in March 1836, a second political convention declared independence and appointed leadership for the new Republic of Texas. Determined to avenge Mexicos honor, President Antonio López de Santa Anna vowed to personally retake Texas and his Army of Operations entered Texas in mid-February 1836 and found the Texians completely unprepared. Mexican General José de Urrea led a contingent of troops on the Goliad Campaign up the Texas coast, defeating all Texian troops in his path and executing most of those who surrendered. Santa Anna led a force to San Antonio de Béxar. On March 31, Houston paused his men at Groces Landing on the Brazos River, becoming complacent and underestimating the strength of his foes, Santa Anna further subdivided his troops. On April 21, Houstons army staged an assault on Santa Anna. The Mexican troops were routed, and vengeful Texians executed many who tried to surrender. Santa Anna was taken hostage, in exchange for his life, Mexico refused to recognize the Republic of Texas, and intermittent conflicts between the two countries continued into the 1840s. The annexation of Texas as the 28th state of the United States, in 1845, after a failed attempt by France to colonize Texas in the late 17th century, Spain developed a plan to settle the region. On its southern edge, along the Medina and Nueces Rivers, on the east, Texas bordered Louisiana. Following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, the United States also claimed the land west of the Sabine River, following the Mexican War of Independence, Texas became part of Mexico. Under the Constitution of 1824, which defined the country as a federal republic, Texas was granted only a single seat in the state legislature, which met in Saltillo, hundreds of miles away. Texas was very sparsely populated, with fewer than 3,500 residents, and only about 200 soldiers, in the hopes that an influx of settlers could control the Indian raids, the bankrupt Mexican government liberalized immigration policies for the region. Finally able to settle legally in Texas, Anglos from the United States soon vastly outnumbered the Tejanos, most of the immigrants came from the southern United States
19.
Republic of West Florida
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The Republic of West Florida was a short-lived republic in the western region of Spanish West Florida for several months during 1810. It was annexed and occupied by the United States later in 1810 and is today a part of the U. S. state of Louisiana. The Pearl River, with its branch that flowed into the Rigolets, a military expedition from the republic attempted but failed to capture the Spanish outpost at Mobile, which was situated between the Pearl and the Perdido River, farther to the east. Despite its name, none of the Republic of West Florida was within the borders of the state of Florida. In 1762, France signed a treaty with Spain that had effectively ceded all French lands west of the Mississippi River, plus the Isle of New Orleans. At the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, France ceded its lands east of the Mississippi River to Great Britain. Twenty years later, at the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War in 1783, the United States and Spain held long negotiations regarding the northern border of West Florida, concluding with Pinckneys Treaty in 1795. In 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded Louisiana and the island of New Orleans back to France and this cession did not include West Florida. In 1803, France then sold Louisiana and New Orleans to the United States. The U. S. claimed that West Florida was part of the Louisiana Purchase, there was an influx of Americans into West Florida in the early years of the 19th century. The population of the Baton Rouge District was almost exclusively Anglo-American with a number of Tory immigrants of the revolutionary period. Some of the Americans were land speculators eager to profit should the territory join the U. S, during the decade after 1803, the U. S. southern border was the scene of many minor frontier events that involved diplomatic relations with Britain, France and Spain. In order to resolve the problems along that border and gain control of ports for commerce, West Florida occupied the land from the Mississippi River to beyond the Mobile River and also separated the United States Orleans and Mississippi territories. In West Florida, from June to September 1810, many meetings of those who resented Spanish rule. Out of those meetings grew the West Florida rebellion and the establishment of the independent Republic of West Florida and its capital was located at St. Francisville, in present-day Louisiana on a bluff along the Mississippi River. The rebels unfurled the flag of the new republic, a white star on a blue field made by Melissa Johnson, wife of Major Isaac Johnson. After the successful attack, organized by Philemon Thomas, plans were made to take Mobile and Pensacola from the Spanish, reuben Kemper led a small force in an attempt to capture Mobile, but the expedition ended in failure. Upon learning of the revolt, Madison wanted to quickly to annex the district
20.
National League of Families POW/MIA Flag
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The National League of Families POW/MIA flag, also known as the POW/MIA flag, consists of a silhouette of a prisoner of war before a guard tower and barbed wire in white on a black field. “POW/MIA” appears above the silhouette and the words “You Are Not Forgotten” appear below in white on the black field. S, POW/MIAs, some of whom had been held captivity for as many as seven years. The flag is black, and bears in the center, in black and white, the emblem was designed by |Newton F. The leagues POW-MIA flag is the only flag displayed in the rotunda. The leadership of both houses of Congress hosted the ceremony in a demonstration of bipartisan congressional support. On August 10,1990, the 101st Congress passed U. S, beyond Southeast Asia, it has been a symbol for POW/MIAs from all U. S. wars. S. Civilians are free to fly the POW/MIA flag whenever they wish, there are red and white versions, which some say are to cover more recent military actions, but this is not official policy. There are black and red versions available as well, when displayed from a single flagpole, the POW/MIA flag should fly directly below, and be no larger than, the United States flag. If on separate poles, the U. S. flag should always be placed to the right of other flags
21.
Six flags over Texas
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This slogan has been incorporated into shopping malls, theme parks, and other enterprises. The six flags are shown on the reverse of the Seal of Texas. In 1997 the Texas Historical Commission adopted standard designs for representing the six flags, the first flag belonged to Spain, which ruled most of Texas from 1519 to 1685 and 1690 to 1821. There were two versions of the Spanish flag used during this period, both designs incorporate the castle and lion emblems of the Crown of Castile. This flag was used by Spain from 1793 to 1931, the second flag was the royal banner of the Kingdom of France from 1684 to 1690. In 1684, French nobleman René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, the colony was unsuccessful, and after La Salles murder, was soon abandoned. During this time, there was no official French flag, so a number of designs are used in displays of the six flags, later on in 1800, Spain ceded Louisiana to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. French Louisiana included northern sections of Texas and it remained in the hands of France until 1803, when France sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States. However, what would later be northern Texas was sold back to Spain years later, the third flag flown was the flag of Mexico. Mexicos independence was recognized by Spain in 1821, the Mexican flag displayed in the Austin Capitol is the one of the Mexican Republic of 1823 through 1864. This flag was in use in Texas until its independence from Mexico in 1836, the fourth flag belonged to the Republic of Texas from 1836 to 1845. The Republic had two national flags during its history, the first being the so-called Burnet Flag, the Lone Star Flag, the final national flag, became the state flag when Texas joined the United States as a U. S. state in 1845. The fifth and current flag is that of the United States of America, upon secession Texas abandoned this flag for its sixth, until readmission to the Union in 1865. The sixth flag belonged to the Confederate States of America from 1861 to 1865, during this time, the Confederacy had three national flags
22.
French colonization of Texas
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The French colonization of Texas began with Fort Saint Louis in present-day southeastern Texas. It was established in 1685 near Arenosa Creek and Matagorda Bay by explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle. He intended to found the colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River, the present-day town of Inez is near the forts site. The colony faced difficulties during its brief existence, including Native American raids, epidemics. From that base, La Salle led several expeditions to find the Mississippi River and these did not succeed, but La Salle did explore much of the Rio Grande and parts of east Texas. During one of his absences in 1686, the colonys last ship was wrecked, as conditions deteriorated, La Salle realized the colony could survive only with help from the French settlements in Illinois Country to the north, along the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers. His last expedition ended along the Brazos River in early 1687, although a handful of men reached Illinois Country, help never made it to Fort St. Louis. Most of the members of the colony were killed during a Karankawa raid in late 1688. Although the colony lasted only three years, it established Frances claim to possession of the region that is now Texas, the United States later claimed, unsuccessfully, this region as part of the Louisiana Purchase because of the early French colony. Spain learned of La Salles mission in 1686, the unsuccessful expeditions helped Spain to better understand the geography of the Gulf Coast region. When the Spanish finally discovered the remains of the French colony at Fort Saint Louis in 1689, they buried the cannons, years later, Spanish authorities built a presidio at the same location. When the presidio was abandoned, the site of the French settlement was lost to history, Fort Saint Louis was rediscovered by historians and excavated in 1996, and the area is now an archaeological site. In 1995, researchers located the ship La Belle in Matagorda Bay and they constructed a cofferdam, the first to be used in North America to excavate the ship as if in dry conditions. In 2000, excavations revealed three of the structures of the fort, as well as three graves of Frenchmen. By the late 17th century, much of North America had been claimed by European countries, Spain had claimed Florida as well as modern-day Mexico and much of the southwestern part of the continent. The northern and central Atlantic coast was claimed by Britain, the French feared that their territory was vulnerable to the expansionist aims of its neighbors. In 1681, French nobleman Robert Cavelier de La Salle launched an expedition down the Mississippi River from New France, instead, La Salle found a route to the Gulf of Mexico. Unless France established a base at the mouth of the Mississippi, Spain would have an opportunity to control the entire Gulf of Mexico, La Salle believed that the Mississippi River was near the eastern edge of New Spain
23.
New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
24.
Cross of Burgundy
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The Duchy of Burgundy was inherited by the House of Habsburg on the extinction of the Valois ducal line. The Spanish monarchs continued to use it in their own arms even after they lost their Burgundian lands. From 1506 to 1701 it was used by Spain as an ensign, and up to 1843 as the land battle flag. The emblem also continues to be used in a variety of contexts in a number of European countries and in the Americas, reflecting both the extent of Valois Burgundy and the former Habsburg territories. The banner strictly speaking dates back to the early 15th century and it represents the cross on which Andrew the Apostle was crucified. The design is a red saltire resembling two crossed, roughly-pruned branches, on a white field, in heraldic language, it may be blazoned argent, a saltire ragulée gules. Pedro de Ayala, writing in the 1490s, claims it was first adopted by a previous Duke of Burgundy to honour his Scottish soldiers. This must be a reference to the Scottish soldiers recruited by John the Fearless in the first years of the century, led by the Earl of Mar. Andrew was the saint of the dukes of Burgundy The year 1506 should be considered its theoretical earliest use in Spain. Philip, after his marriage to Joanna of Castile, became the first Habsburg King of Spain and used the Cross of Burgundy as an emblem as it was the symbol of the house of his mother, Mary of Burgundy. From the time of Philip and Joannas son, Emperor Charles V, nevertheless, the official field was still white. The Spanish monarchs – the Habsburgs and their successors the House of Bourbon – continued to use the Cross of Burgundy in various forms and it also remained in use in Spains overseas empire. In the First Carlist War the Burgundian banner, however, was a banner of the Regent Queens standing Army rather than Carlist. After 1843 the red Burgundian saltire kept on appearing on the new brand red-yellow army flag under a four-quartered Castilian, eventually, under the leadership of Manuel Fal Condé, the Cross of Burgundy became the Carlist badge in 1934. Users mostly have some direct or indirect relation to the historical Burgundy, though such connection can be very vague, the flying of this flag reminds people today of the impact Spain and its military had on world history for over 400 years. It was also used by Spanish military forces, in present-day Bolivia the Cross of Burgundy is the official flag of the department of Chuquisaca. The Flag of Alabama uses a modified representation of the Spanish Cross of Burgundy, an unmodified version of the cross was used in most of Alabama until the 19th century. The colors of the Flag of New Mexico are those of the yellow, Burgundy Flag of New Mexico Saint Patricks Flag Vexillology Flags of the World GeorgiaInfo
25.
Flag of Spain
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The flag of Spain, as it is defined in the Spanish Constitution of 1978, consists of three horizontal stripes, red, yellow and red, the yellow stripe being twice the size of each red stripe. Traditionally, the stripe was defined by the more archaic term of gualda. The origin of the current flag of Spain is the ensign of 1785. It was chosen by Charles III himself among 12 different flags designed by Antonio Valdés y Bazán, the flag remained marine for much of the next 50 years, flying over coastal fortresses, marine barracks and other naval property. During the Peninsular War the flag could also be found on marine regiments fighting inland, not until 1820 was the first Spanish land unit provided with one and it was not until 1843 that Queen Isabella II of Spain would make the flag official. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the scheme of the flag remained intact, with the exception of the Second Republic period. The flag used by the Spanish Armed Forces is the one that is used as the state flag. Military units, however, use an oblong, more square version charged with the name of the unit. The Spanish naval jack is hoisted at the prow of all Navy ships when docked or anchored in foreign waters. In national waters it is hoisted on Sundays, festivities and in presence of a warship as soon as it moors at the dock. The national flag is hoisted at the stern, when sailing, and from sunrise to sunset. The King of Spain uses a flag known as the Royal Standard, the Royal Standard of Spain consists of a crimson square with the Coat of arms of the King in the center. It is usually flown at the Kings official residence, the Palacio de la Zarzuela, other Spanish royal sites, displayed on his official car as small flags. It is regulated by Rule 2 of Royal Decree 527/2014,20 June, the Royal Guidon, the monarchs military personal ensign, is described by Rule 1 of Royal Decree 527/2014, an amendment to Title II, Rule 1 of Spanish Royal Decree 1511/1977. It is nearly identical to the Royal Standard except that the Royal Guidon has a Gold fringe and it is made of silks taffeta. The size of the guidon is 80 x 80 cm and it is the personal command ensign or positional flag of the monarch, and is carried nearby him. The heiress of the crown, the Princess of Asturias, has her own standard, the Standard of the Princess of Asturias is regulated by Royal Decree 284/2001 that modified the Title II of Spanish Royal Decree 1511/1977. The Standard of the Princess of Asturias consists of a blue square flag with the coat of arms of the Princess of Asturias in the center
26.
Flag of Mexico
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The flag of Mexico is a vertical tricolor of green, white, and red with the national coat of arms charged in the center of the white stripe. The form of the coat of arms was most recently revised in 1968, but the design has been used since 1821. Red, white, and green are the colors of the liberation army in Mexico. The central emblem is the Mexican coat of arms, based on the Aztec symbol for Tenochtitlan and it recalls the legend of an eagle sitting on a cactus that signaled to the Aztecs where to found their city, Tenochtitlan. A ribbon in the colors is at the bottom of the coat of arms. Throughout history, the flag has changed several times, as the design of the coat of arms and the length-width ratios of the flag have been modified. The coat of arms is derived from an Aztec legend that their gods told them to build a city where they spot an eagle on a nopal eating a serpent, which is now Mexico City. The current law of symbols, Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem. The current national flag is used as the Mexican naval ensign by ships registered in Mexico. Before the adoption of the first national flag, various flags were used during the War of Independence from Spain, the Standard became the initial symbol of the rebel army during the Mexican War of Independence. Various other Standards were used during the war, josé María Morelos used a flag with an image of the Virgin to which was added a blue and white insignia with a crowned eagle on a cactus over a three-arched bridge and the letters V. V. M. The Revolutionary Army also used a flag featuring the white, blue. The first use of the modern colors—green, white and red—was in the flag of the unified Army of the Three Guarantees after independence from Spain was won. While similar to the flag that is used today, the eagle in these arms is not holding a serpent in his talons. Variants of this flag appeared in this period also included a naval flag that had the tricolor pattern. The military also used a square flag, but the eagle was larger than on the national flag. The national flag was officially decreed by Agustín de Iturbide in November 1821 and this flag was no longer used upon the abolishment of the empire. The first national flag was established in 1821, the first year of Mexican recognized sovereignty, the imperial government that was set up chose a tricolor flag of green, white and red and charged with the national coat of arms
27.
Republic of the Rio Grande
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The Republic of the Rio Grande was an independent nation that insurgents against the Central Mexican Government sought to establish in northern Mexico. The rebellion lasted from January 17 to November 6,1840, after a decade of strife, Mexico won its independence from the Kingdom of Spain in 1821. After a failed attempt at a monarchy, Mexico adopted a new constitution and this new constitution established los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, or the United Mexican States, as a federal republic. During the war for independence, many rebels were driven to Coahuila and Nuevo León, in 1833, General Antonio López de Santa Anna was elected to his first term as president and was, at the time of his election, in support of the federal republic. However, after members of government angered Santa Annas political allies. Santa Anna suspended the constitution, disbanded Congress and made himself the center of power in Mexico, States were converted into departments without political or fiscal autonomy by replacing elected governors with appointed ones and substituting state assemblies for juntas under Santa Annas policies. On November 3,1838, one of the leaders, Antonio Canales, issued a pronunciamiento against the government. In January 1839, Antonio Canales summoned a convention at the office of the Justice of the Peace in Laredo where the Constitution of 1824 was unanimously approved. Canales immediately began building an army and scoured the countryside looking for recruits, among those recruits were Texan Colonels Reuben Ross and Samuel Jordan. Intending to use the property of the church and convents to pay volunteers, Canales amassed an army of vaqueros along the Rio Grande River, Cane Indians. On October 3, Canales and his army marched to the town of Mier, during the battle, Colonels Reuben Ross and Samuel Jordan charged at the centralist forces and encircled them in a hacienda, where the Mexican army was forced to surrender. Three hundred and fifty centralist soldiers who were taken prisoner ultimately defected and enlisted in Canales’ army, after the battle, Canales was seen as a hero throughout Northern Mexico and many towns began to support his cause. Within a few days, recruits, supplies, and cash were being sent to him, Canales lingered in Mier for forty days before heading to Matamoros, a port town where another Centrist force was residing. In twenty-eight days, his one man army reached the town only to find Mexican General Valentin Canalizo there with fifteen-hundred troops. Outmanned, Canales decided to withdraw and attack General Mariano Arista at Monterrey instead, Colonel Ross, appalled by this withdrawal, left Canales’ army, taking fifty Texans with him. At Monterrey, General Canales sends three hundred cavalry under the command of Colonel José Antonio Zapata to lure Arista out of town, while Arista left the town unguarded to engage with Zapata, General Canales’ army took a convent on the outskirts of town. However, on December 27, General Arista sent spies to Canales’ army, upon discovering this the next morning, Canales and the remnants of his army fled the battle. On January 17,1840 a meeting was held at the Oreveña Ranch near Laredo, however, those states own congresses and governments never took any action to support the insurgents, and requested the help of the Central government in Mexico City to aid the local state armies
28.
Flags of the Confederate States of America
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Three successive designs served as the official national flag of the Confederate States of America during its existence from 1861 to 1865. These include flags displayed in states, cities, towns and counties, schools, colleges and universities, private organizations and associations, and by individuals. The state flag of Mississippi features the Confederate armys battle flag in the canton, or upper left corner, the only current U. S. state flag to do so. The state flag of Georgia is very similar to the first national flag of the Confederacy, the Stars and Bars, the first official national flag of the Confederacy, often called the Stars and Bars, was flown from March 4,1861, to May 1,1863. It was designed by German/Prussian artist Nicola Marschall in Marion, Alabama, the Stars and Bars flag was adopted March 4,1861, in the first temporary national capital of Montgomery, Alabama, and raised over the dome of that first Confederate capitol. Marschall also designed the Confederate army uniform, one of the first acts of the Provisional Confederate Congress was to create the Committee on the Flag and Seal, chaired by William Porcher Miles, a congressman and Fire-Eater from South Carolina. The committee asked the public to submit thoughts and ideas on the topic and was, as historian John M. Coski puts it, overwhelmed by requests not to abandon the old flag of the United States. Miles had already designed a flag that became known as the Confederate Battle Flag. But given the support for a flag similar to the U. S. flag. The Stars and Bars was also criticized on grounds for its resemblance to the U. S. flag. Many Confederates disliked the Stars and Bars, seeing it as symbolic of a federal power the Confederate states were seceding from in order to preserve the institution of slavery. As early as April 1861, a month after the adoption, some were already criticizing the flag, calling it a servile imitation. In January 1862, George William Bagby, writing for the Southern Literary Messenger, every body wants a new Confederate flag, Bagby wrote, also stating that The present one is universally hated. It resembles the Yankee flag and that is enough to make it unutterably detestable, the editor of the Charleston Mercury expressed a similar view, stating that It seems to be generally agreed that the Stars and Bars will never do for us. They resemble too closely the dishonored Flag of Yankee Doodle … we imagine that the Battle Flag will become the Southern Flag by popular acclaim. Thompson stated in April 1863 that he disliked the flag on account of its resemblance to that of the abolition despotism against which we are fighting. Over the course of the use by the Confederacy, additional stars were added to the flags canton. This reflected the Confederacys claims of having admitted Kentucky and Missouri into the Confederacy, the first showing of the 13-star flag was outside the Ben Johnson House in Bardstown, Kentucky, the 13-star design was also in use as the Confederate navys battle ensign
29.
Louis-Michel Aury
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Louis-Michel Aury was a French privateer operating in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean during the early 19th century. Aury was born in Paris, France, in about 1788 and he served in the French Navy as a sailor on a ship stationed in the French colonies of the West Indies, but from 1802 he crewed on privateer ships. By 1810 he had accumulated enough money to become the master of his own vessel. Aury decided to support the Spanish colonies of South America in their fight for independence from Spanish rule, in April 1813 he sailed from North Carolina on his own privateer ship with Venezuelan Letters of Marque to attack Spanish ships. Aury established a base there in September 1816. One of Aurys privateers had captured a Spanish vessel from Tampico, learning this, Gen. Francisco Mina and Col. Henry Perry resolved to make a descent upon the place, and Aury agreed to transport them. They sailed from Galveston April 6,1817, and the town was taken without a fight, the three commanders squabbled, and Aury left with his ships for Galveston. However, while Aury was away, the pirate Jean Lafitte had taken control of the base at Galveston, on his return to Texas, Aury made an ill-fated attempt to establish another base at Matagorda Bay. MacGregor left the island on September 4, and Aury sailed into the port of Fernandina on September 17,1817, Aury surrendered the island to U. S. forces under the command of Commodore J. D. Henley and Major James Bankhead on December 23,1817. Aury remained over two months as an unwelcome guest, Bankhead occupied Fernandina and President James Monroe vowed to hold it in trust for Spain and this episode in Floridas history became known as the Amelia Island Affair. On 4 July 1818 Aury captured Old Providence Island in the western Caribbean with the help of 400 men and 14 ships and he found the island populated by white English-speaking Protestants and their slaves. Under orders of Aury, Agostino Codazzi established the Fort Libertad on Saint Catherine Island. In 1820 Guatemala City was still the capital of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, so Central America was seen as yet under the sway of Spain, on 21 April 1820, the watch-tower at Capiro in Trujillo Port announced the approach of a Colombian flotilla. The ports garrison, commanded by Jose M. Palomar, at once made preparations for the impending attack. The following day Commodore Aury moved the flotilla to the mouth of the Guaimoreto River, the attack started at 9 AM and lasted until 2 PM. The firing ceased when the flotilla was ordered out to sea, a portion of the land force then attempted to enter the town by the rear, but was detected and driven out. During the night of the 24th, the Aury vessels dropped out of sight, on the 25th the flotilla appeared off the port of Omoa and for several days attempted to land. Commodore Aury failed and left the area on the 6th of May, others claim that the flag was modeled on the Argentine flag, but introduced by Commodore Louis-Michel Aury
30.
Jean Lafitte
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Jean Lafitte was a French pirate and privateer in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 19th century. He and his brother, Pierre, spelled their last name Laffite. The latter has become the common spelling in the United States, Lafitte is believed to have been born either in Basque-France or the French colony of Saint-Domingue. By 1805, he operated a warehouse in New Orleans to help disperse the goods smuggled by his brother Pierre Lafitte, after the United States government passed the Embargo Act of 1807, the Lafittes moved their operations to an island in Barataria Bay, Louisiana. By 1810, their new port was successful, the Lafittes pursued a successful smuggling operation. Later, in return for a pardon for the smugglers, Lafitte. The Lafittes became spies for the Spanish during the Mexican War of Independence and moved to Galveston Island, Texas, Lafitte continued attacking merchant ships as a pirate around Central American ports until he died circa 1823, trying to capture Spanish vessels. Speculation about his life and death continues among historians, a number of details about Jean Lafittes early life remain obscure - often they contradict each other. He and his brother Pierre alternately claimed to have born in Bayonne. Ramsay says, this was a convenient time to be a native of France, other contemporary accounts claim that Lafitte was born in Orduna, Spain or in Westchester, New York. Ramsay speculates that Lafitte was born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, in the late 18th century, adult children of the French planters in Saint-Domingue often resettled along the Mississippi River in La Louisiane, especially in its largest city of New Orleans. He has found families with the surname Lafitte in Louisiana documents dating as early as 1765, according to Ramsay, Lafitte, his elder brother Pierre, and his widowed mother migrated from Saint-Domingue to New Orleans in the 1780s. In approximately 1784, his mother married Pedro Aubry - a New Orleans merchant -, Pierre was raised by extended family elsewhere in Louisiana. According to Ramsay, as a man, Lafitte likely spent much time exploring the wetlands. In later years, he was described as having an accurate knowledge of every inlet from the Gulf than any other man. His elder brother Pierre became a privateer, he may have operated from Saint-Domingue, Lafitte likely helped his brother to sell or trade the captured merchandise. By 1805 he was thought to be running a warehouse in New Orleans, the biographer William C. Davis reports a different childhood for Lafitte. According to his book, Lafitte was born in or near Pauillac, France, the couple had six children, including at least three daughters
31.
Spanish Texas
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Spanish Texas was one of the interior provinces of the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1690 until 1821. Spain had claimed ownership of the territory, which comprised part of the present-day U. S, in 1690, Alonso de León escorted several Catholic missionaries to east Texas, where they established the first mission in Texas. When native tribes resisted the Spanish invasion of their homeland, the returned to Mexico. Two years later in 1718, the first civilian settlement in Texas, the new town quickly became a target for raids by the Lipan Apache. The raids continued periodically for almost three decades, until in 1749 when Spanish settlers and the Lipan Apache peoples made peace, but the treaty angered the enemies of the Apache, and resulted in raids on Spanish settlements by the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai tribes. Fear of Indian attacks and the remoteness of the area from the rest of the Viceroyalty discouraged settlers from moving to Texas and it remained one of the least-populated by immigrants provinces. The threat of attacks did not decrease until 1785, when Spain, the Comanche tribe later assisted in defeating the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes, who had continued to cause difficulties for settlers. France formally relinquished its claim to its region of Texas in 1762, the inclusion of Spanish Louisiana into New Spain meant that Texas was no longer essentially a buffer province. The easternmost Texas settlements were disbanded, with the population relocating to San Antonio, however, in 1799 Spain gave Louisiana back to France, and in 1803 Napoléon Bonaparte sold the territory, known as the Louisiana Purchase, to the United States. The U. S. claims on the vast Spanish territories west of the Sabine River into Santa Fe de Nuevo México province, during the Mexican War of Independence from 1810–1821, Texas experienced much turmoil. Governor Manuel María de Salcedo was overthrown by rebels in 1810, three years later, the Republican Army of the North, consisting primarily of Indians and Americans, again overthrew the Texas government and executed Salcedo. The Spanish response was brutal, and by 1820 fewer than 2000 Hispanic citizens remained in Texas. Spain was forced to relinquish its control of New Spain in 1821, with Texas becoming a province of the newly formed nation of Mexico, the Spanish left a deep mark on Texas. Their European livestock caused mesquite to spread inland while farmers tilled and irrigated the land, the Spanish language provided the names for many of the rivers, towns, and counties that currently exist, and Spanish architectural concepts still flourish. Although Texas eventually adopted much of the Anglo-American legal system, many Spanish legal practices were retained, including the concept of a homestead exemption, Spanish Texas was a colonial province within the northeastern mainland region of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. On its southern edge, Tejas was bordered by the province of Coahuila, the boundary between the provinces was set at the line formed by the Medina River and the Nueces River,100 miles northeast of the Rio Grande. On the east, Texas bordered La Louisiane, although Spain claimed that the Red River formed the boundary between the two, France insisted that the border was the Sabine River,45 miles to the west. After Mexican independence from Spain, it was within Coahuila y Tejas from 1824 to 1835, although Alonso Álvarez de Pineda claimed Texas for Spain in 1519, the area was largely ignored by Spain until the late seventeenth century
32.
Mexican Texas
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Tejas, in English history books usually referred to as Mexican Texas, was a province of Mexico between 1821 and 1836. Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821 in its war of independence, initially, Mexican Texas operated very similarly to Spanish Texas. However, the 1824 Constitution of Mexico set up a federal structure, the settler population was overwhelmingly outnumbered by the indigenous tribes. To increase settler numbers, Mexico enacted the General Colonization Law in 1824, the first empresarial grant had been made under Spanish control to Stephen F. Austin, whose settlers, known as the Old Three Hundred, settled along the Brazos River in 1822. The grant was ratified by the Mexican government. Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority from the United States of America, while others came from Mexico, after concerns over attitudes of US citizens in Tejas, the Law of April 6,1830 outlawed further immigration of US citizens to Texas. Several new presidios were established in the region to monitor immigration, angry colonists held a convention in 1832 to demand that US citizens be allowed to immigrate. A convention the following year proposed that Texas become a separate Mexican state, the first violent incident occurred on June 26,1832, at the battle of Velasco. On March 2,1836, Texians declared their independence from Mexico, the Texas Revolution ended on April 21,1836, when Santa Anna was taken prisoner following the Battle of San Jacinto. Although Texas then governed itself as the Republic of Texas, Mexico refused to recognize its independence, in 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain after the brutal and destructive Mexican War for Independence. Its territory included much of the former New Spain, including Spanish Texas, the victorious rebels issued a provisional constitution, the Plan de Iguala. This plan reaffirmed many of the ideals of the Spanish Constitution of 1812, initially, there was disagreement over whether Mexico should be a federal republic or a constitutional monarchy. The first monarch, Agustin I, abdicated in March 1823, in July, a new national provisional government named Luciano Garcia as the political chief of Texas. On November 27,1823, the people of Mexico elected congressional representatives, Texas was represented in congress by Erasmo Seguin. A new Mexican constitution was adopted on October 4,1824, making the country a republic with nineteen states. The constitution was modelled on the constitution of the United States of America, but the Mexican constitution made Roman Catholicism the official, because it was sparsely populated, Texas was combined with Coahuila to create the state of Coahuila y Tejas. The Congress did allow Texas the option of forming its own state as soon as it feels capable of doing so, the capital of Texas moved from San Antonio to Monclova and then to Saltillo. Along with the states of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León, Coahuila y Tejas was under a military organization
33.
Lorenzo de Zavala
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Lorenzo de Zavala, born Manuel Lorenzo Justinian de Zavala y Sáenz, was a Mexican physician from Yucatán who became a gifted career politician, diplomat and author. Zavala had an intellect and was fluent in many languages. He was closely involved in drafting the constitution for the First Federal Republic of Mexico in 1824 after it won independence from Spain, since his youth Zavala was an indefatigable believer in the principle of democratic representative government. As a young man he founded several newspapers and wrote extensively, while imprisoned, he studied medicine and after his release he practiced medicine for two years before entering politics. Over his career he served in different capacities including the Spanish Cortes in Madrid representing Yucatán. He became Mexicos Minister of Finance, and served as Ambassador to France, in 1829, when the Mexican government was overthrown, Zavala was forced into exile and moved to the United States for two years. He wrote a book about U. S. political culture during this time, with his diplomatic experience and linguistic skills, Zavala was well received by foreign governments. After exile he returned to Mexico and was appointed as Minister to France, while serving in Paris, Zavala saw that Mexican President Santa Anna was becoming a military-backed dictator, ignoring the Mexican Constitution that Zavala had helped write. Zavala resigned his position in protest and spoke out against Santa Anna, after this schism, Zavala could not return home and fled to Texas, then a Mexican territory, where he owned land. Some Mexicans consider Zavala a traitor to his homeland for supporting Texas independence, in modern-day Texas, there is a county and a city named for him, as well as many schools and public buildings including the Texas State Archives and Library Building in Austin. Zavala was born on October 3,1788, in the town of Tecoh, Yucatán, Zavalas parents were criollos and his grandfather moved to the Yucatán peninsula from Peru. Zavalas father, born in 1725, was a notary— a legal representative in Spanish-speaking countries, Zavala was educated in Mérida, Yucatáns provincial capital, in the Tridentine Seminary of San Ildefonso. There he studied the curriculum of Latin, morals, scholastic theology. His writings were critical of the Spanish officials, and he was imprisoned at age 26 for three years by the Spanish Crown, while incarcerated, Zavala learned the English language and studied medical textbooks to an extent that qualified him to practice medicine upon his release. He practiced medicine for two years, then political events compelled him to return to politics, Zavala became part of a group to draft the constitution of the Federal Republic of Mexico. In 1824, he was elected as President of the Constitutional Congress and was the first to sign the Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824 and he served in the Mexican senate from 1824 to 1826. He was appointed Minister of Finance in 1829, but served only 6 months before the government was overthrown and he fled to the United States entering a self-imposed exile. Zavala traveled in the northeast U. S. and wrote about U. S. political system, the book was mainly a panegyric, but did point out the hypocrisy of the U. S. for allowing slavery despite professing lofty ideals of freedom
34.
South Texas
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South Texas is a region of the U. S. state of Texas that lies roughly south of -- and sometimes including -- San Antonio. The southern and western boundary is the Rio Grande, and to the east it is the Gulf of Mexico, the population of this region is about 4.67 million according to the 2013 census estimates. The southern portion of region is often referred to as the Rio Grande Valley. The eastern portion along the Gulf of Mexico is also referred to as the Coastal Bend, many South Texas residents Exclude San Antonio, as San Antonio is southern Central Texas. The Rio Grande serves as the western and southern boundaries and separates Texas from Mexico, the eastern portion of South Texas is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico. This region of Texas consist of 41 counties, South Texas terrain is flat, lying on the coastal plain. South Texas is so vast, there are even subregions, the very southern tip of South Texas, called the Rio Grande Valley, has fertile soils and is known for its citrus production. The eastern portion of South Texas is often referred to as the Coastal Bend, here, coastal marshes, estuaries. The western and central parts are known as the South Texas Plains or the brush country, mesquite trees and crop fields dominate the land. The fastest growing county in South Texas is Guadalupe County, growing by 5. 64% from 2010 to 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas includes the Houston division. However, Houston is most accurately classified as being within Southeast Texas, the area along the Mexican border is generally semi-arid, while the area from the coast inland to just west of San Antonio has a humid subtropical climate. South Texas weather is affected by the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains to the west, the Gulf of Mexico to the east, moisture from the Pacific is cut off by the Mexican Sierra Madre Occidental and Oriental mountain ranges. Temperatures reach freezing only a few times in the winter and snowfall is rare, summers in this zone are hot and humid, with daily averages above 90 °F. Night-time temperatures are around 85 °F in summer. The region of South Texas includes the ranch country and the wetter Rio Grande Valley. Considered to be the southernmost tip of the American Great Plains region, the coastal areas are warm most of the year due to currents of the Gulf of Mexico, but can get cold in winter if a strong front comes in, occasionally causing snow at sea level. Rain in the region is more abundant than in the inland region. Inland, where it is drier, ranches dominate the landscape, characterized by thick, spiny brush, the winters in the inland region are cooler and drier, as Arctic air can make it into the region, but snow is rare due to the lack of humidity. Summers are for the most part hot and dry, but at times can be humid if winds come off the warmer Gulf of Mexico, tornadoes can occur in this region, but less frequently than in other parts of the state
35.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
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