1.
Glossary of vexillology
–
Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
Glossary of vexillology
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Contents
2.
National flag
–
A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
National flag
National flag
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The world's third tallest
flagpole flying a 270 kg (595 lb)
Flag of North Korea. It is 160 m (525 ft) in height, over
Kijŏng-dong ("Peace village") near
Panmunjom, the border of
North Korea and
South Korea.
National flag
–
Distribution of colours in national flags
3.
National ensign
–
Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
National ensign
–
National civil ensign of New Zealand flown from the stern of
Hikitia
National ensign
National ensign
4.
Star and crescent
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The star and crescent develops in the iconography of the Hellenistic period in Pontus, the Bosporan Kingdom, and notably Byzantium by the 2nd century BC. Coins with crescent and star symbols represented separately have a longer history, the star or Sun is often shown within the arc of the crescent, In numismatics in particular, the term crescent and pellet is used in cases where the star is simplified to a single dot. In Byzantium, the symbol became associated its patron goddess Artemis-Hecate, Ancient depictions of the symbol always show the crescent with horns pointing upward, and with the star placed inside the crescent. This arrangement is found on Sassanid coins beginning in the 5th or 6th century. The combination is found rarely in late medieval and early modern heraldry. It rose to prominence with its adoption as the flag and emblem of the Ottoman Empire and of some of its administrative divisions, and later in the 19th-century Westernizing tanzimat. The Ottoman flag of 1844 with a white ay-yıldız on a red background continues to be in use as the flag of the Republic of Turkey with minor modifications, other states formerly part of the Ottoman Empire also used the symbol, including Libya, Tunisia and Algeria. The same symbol was used in national flags introduced during the 20th century, including the flags of Azerbaijan, Pakistan, Malaysia, Singapore. Unicode introduced a star and crescent character in its Miscellaneous Symbols block, in Late Bronze Age Canaan, star and crescent moon motifs are also found on Moabite name seals. The depiction of the crescent-and-star or star inside crescent as it would develop in Bosporan Kingdom is difficult to trace to Mesopotamian art. An example of such an arrangement is found in the reconstruction of a fragmentary stele of Ur-Nammu discovered in the 1920s. Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontus used an eight rayed star with a crescent moon as his emblem, several possible interpretations of the emblem have been proposed. In most of these, the star is taken to represent the Sun, if any goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding, like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Hecate was considered the goddess of Byzantium because she was said to have saved the city from an attack by Philip of Macedon in 340 BC by the appearance of a bright light in the sky. To commemorate the event the Byzantines erected a statue of the known as the Lampadephoros. Some Byzantine coins of the 1st century BC and later show the head of Artemis with bow and quiver, the star and crescent symbol appears on some coins of the Parthan vassal kingdom of Elymais in the late 1st century AD. The same symbol is present in coins that are associated with Orodes I of Parthia
Star and crescent
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Queen
Purandokht, daughter of Khosrau II, the last woman and one of the last rulers on the throne of the Sassanid dynasty, 7th century.
Star and crescent
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A green star and crescent.
Star and crescent
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Byzantium, late 1st century AC. Obverse: Artemis. Reverse: ΒΥΖΑΝΤΙΝΩΝ, star & crescent.
Star and crescent
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Roman period limestone pediment from
Perge,
Turkey (
Antalya Museum)
5.
Pantone
–
Pantone Inc. is a corporation headquartered in Carlstadt, New Jersey. X-Rite Inc. a supplier of color measurement instruments and software, Pantone began in New York City in the 1950s as the commercial printing company of M & J Levine Advertising. In 1956, its founders, advertising executives brothers Mervin and Jesse Levine, for instance, a particular page might contain a number of yellows of varying tints. The idea behind the PMS is to allow designers to color match specific colors when a design enters production stage and this system has been widely adopted by graphic designers and reproduction and printing houses. Pantone recommends that PMS Color Guides be purchased annually, as their inks become yellowish over time, Color variance also occurs within editions based on the paper stock used, while interedition color variance occurs when there are changes to the specific paper stock used. The Pantone Color Matching System is largely a standardized color reproduction system, by standardizing the colors, different manufacturers in different locations can all refer to the Pantone system to make sure colors match without direct contact with one another. One such use is standardizing colors in the CMYK process, the CMYK process is a method of printing color by using four inks—cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. A majority of the printed material is produced using the CMYK process. Those that are possible to simulate through the CMYK process are labeled as such within the companys guides, however, most of the Pantone systems 1,114 spot colors cannot be simulated with CMYK but with 13 base pigments mixed in specified amounts. The Pantone system also allows for many special colors to be produced, such as metallics, while most of the Pantone system colors are beyond the printed CMYK gamut, it was only in 2001 that Pantone began providing translations of their existing system with screen-based colors. Screen-based colors use the RGB color model—red, green, blue—system to create various colors, the Goe system has RGB and LAB values with each color. Pantone colors are described by their allocated number, PMS colors are almost always used in branding and have even found their way into government legislation and military standards. In January 2003, the Scottish Parliament debated a petition to refer to the blue in the Scottish flag as Pantone 300, countries such as Canada and South Korea and organizations such as the FIA have also chosen to refer to specific Pantone colors to use when producing flags. US states including Texas have set legislated PMS colors of their flags and it has also been used in an art project by the Brazilian photographer Angelica Dass which applies Pantone to the human skin color spectrum. On September 5,2007, Pantone introduced the Goe System, Goe consisted of over 2,000 new colors in a new matching and numbering system. The Goe system was streamlined to use base colors and accommodate many technical challenges in reproducing colors on a press. The Pantone Goe system was discontinued in November 2013, in mid-2006 Pantone, partnering with Vermont-based Fine Paints of Europe, introduced a new line of interior and exterior paints. The color palette uses Pantones color research and trending and has more than 3,000 colors, in November 2015, Pantone partnered with Redland London to create a collection of bags inspired from Pantones authority on color
Pantone
–
A logo designed by the
Government of Singapore to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the nation's independence. The usage instructions for the logo described it as being in Pantone Red 032 and White.
Pantone
–
This article is about the corporation and its color space. For other uses, see
Pantone (disambiguation).
6.
RGB color model
–
The RGB color model is an additive color model in which red, green and blue light are added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors. The name of the model comes from the initials of the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Before the electronic age, the RGB color model already had a theory behind it. Thus an RGB value does not define the same color across devices without some kind of color management, typical RGB input devices are color TV and video cameras, image scanners, video games, and digital cameras. Typical RGB output devices are TV sets of technologies, computer and mobile phone displays, video projectors, multicolor LED displays. Color printers, on the hand are not RGB devices. This article discusses concepts common to all the different color spaces that use the RGB color model, to form a color with RGB, three light beams must be superimposed. Each of the three beams is called a component of color, and each of them can have an arbitrary intensity, from fully off to fully on. The RGB color model is additive in the sense that the three beams are added together, and their light spectra add, wavelength for wavelength. This is essentially opposite to the color model that applies to paints, inks, dyes. When the intensities for all the components are the same, the result is a shade of gray, darker or lighter depending on the intensity. When the intensities are different, the result is a colorized hue, a secondary color is formed by the sum of two primary colors of equal intensity, cyan is green+blue, magenta is red+blue, and yellow is red+green. The RGB color model itself does not define what is meant by red, green and blue colorimetrically, and so the results of mixing them are not specified as absolute, but relative to the primary colors. When the exact chromaticities of the red, green and blue primaries are defined, the normal three kinds of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells in the human eye respond most to yellow, green, and violet light. As an example, suppose that light in the range of wavelengths enters the eye. Light of these wavelengths would activate both the medium and long wavelength cones of the retina, but not equally—the long-wavelength cells will respond more, the difference in the response can be detected by the brain, and this difference is the basis of our perception of orange. Thus, the appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously. The first experiments with RGB in early color photography were made in 1861 by Maxwell himself, to reproduce the color photograph, three matching projections over a screen in a dark room were necessary
RGB color model
–
A representation of additive color mixing. Projection of
primary color lights on a screen shows secondary colors where two overlap; the combination of all three of red, green, and blue in equal intensities makes white.
RGB color model
–
The first permanent color photograph, taken by
J.C. Maxwell in 1861 using three filters, specifically red, green, and violet-blue.
RGB color model
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A photograph of
Mohammed Alim Khan (1880–1944),
Emir of Bukhara, taken in 1911 by
Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii using three exposures with red, green, and blue filters.
RGB color model
–
RGB
phosphor dots in a
CRT monitor
7.
Turkish language
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Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
Turkish language
–
Old Turkic inscription with the
Orkhon script (c. 8th century).
Kyzyl, Russia
Turkish language
–
Countries where Turkish is an official language
Turkish language
–
Road signs in
Prizren,
Republic of Kosovo. Official languages are:
Albanian (top),
Serbian (middle) and Turkish (bottom).
Turkish language
–
Map of the main subgroups of
Turkish dialects.
8.
Flag
–
A flag is a piece of fabric with a distinctive design that is used as a symbol, as a signaling device, or as decoration. National flags are patriotic symbols with varied wide-ranging interpretations, often including strong military associations due to their original, flags are also used in messaging, advertising, or for other decorative purposes. The study of flags is known as vexillology, from the Latin word vexillum, due to the use of flags by military units, flag is also used as the name of some military units. A flag is equivalent to a brigade in Arab countries, and in Spain, in antiquity, field signs or standards were used in warfare that can be categorized as vexilloid or flag-like. During the High Middle Ages flags came to be used primarily as a device in battle. Already during the medieval period, and increasingly during the Late Middle Ages. Regimental flags for individual units became commonplace during the Early Modern period, flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals, see, International maritime signal flags. One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolize a nation or country, some national flags have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include, The flag of Denmark, the Dannebrog, is attested in 1478, the flag of the Netherlands is the oldest tricolour. Its three colours of red, white and blue go back to Charlemagnes time, the 9th century, the coastal region of what today is the Netherlands was then known for its cloth in these colours. Maps from the early 16th century already put flags in these colours next to this region, a century before that, during the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the coastal signals for this area, with the three bands straight or diagonal, single or doubled. As state flag it first appeared around 1572 as the Princes Flag in orange–white–blue, soon the more famous red–white–blue began appearing, becoming the prevalent version from around 1630. Orange made a comeback during the war of the late 18th century. During World War II the pro-Nazi NSB used it, any symbolism has been added later to the three colours, although the orange comes from the House of Orange-Nassau. This use of orange comes from Nassau, which today uses orange-blue, not from Orange, however, the usual way to show the link with the House of Orange-Nassau is the orange pennant above the red-white-blue. It is said that the Dutch Tricolour has inspired many flags but most notably those of Russia, New York City, the national flag of France was designed in 1794. As a forerunner of revolution, Frances tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations, examples, Italy, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ireland, Haiti, Romania and Mexico. The Union Flag of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used, british colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history
Flag
–
ASEAN members'
national flags in
Jakarta
Flag
–
Setting up a flag could also possess the meaning of conquering something.
Jaan Künnap with the
flag of Estonia in the top of
Lenin Peak (7134 m) in 1989.
Flag
–
Bronze flag found in
Iran, 3rd millennium BC
Flag
–
Sujagi of
Eo Jae-yeon, captured in 1871
9.
Turkish national anthem
–
Notable in a patriotic piece of this nature is the absence of specific national references, as the anthem does not contain the words Turk or Turkey. The anthem is heard during state and military events, as well as during national festivals, bayrams, sporting events. Of the ten-stanza anthem, only the first two quatrains are sung, a total of 724 poems were submitted. The prize of the competition was later bestowed on a society of veterans, shortly thereafter, twenty-four composers participated in another competition arranged for the selection of a musical composition that would best suit the elected anthem. The Committee, which was able to convene in 1924 due to the 1919-1923 Turkish War of Independence. This early composition by Çağatay lasted only six years, the lyrics of the Turkish National Anthem consist of a long poem with 41 lines of verse. Only the first 8 lines are performed in official ceremonies, footnotes,1 A white crescent and star superimposed on a crimson background comprise the Turkish flag. 2 A white crescent and star superimposed on a crimson background comprise the Turkish flag, the poet elaborates upon this imagery by suggesting that the flag is not only being surly, but also coy. Specifically, he depicts the flag as a maiden with a face that is sulking in resentment of the invasion yet is nonetheless playing hard-to-get. That is, the coy flag is being playful about letting Turkish troops achieve ultimate victory and thus,3 Although the word used here, ırk, means race in contemporary Turkish, it had different associations in Ottoman Turkish. In Ottoman Turkish, it carries the connotations of generation, offspring. Also note that the poet was of Albanian and Uzbek origin, thus, the correct translation is Smile upon my heroic kinfolk, rather than Smile upon my heroic race. 5 There is a wordplay here that is difficult to replicate in English, the play is on the homophonic words hak, and Hakk. This allows the line to be perceived in Turkish as both my God-loving countrymen are deserving of freedom, and my justice-loving countrymen are deserving of freedom. The poet is thus expressing that his love for freedom and his vigor spent in its pursuit cannot be contained by anything known to humanity and would overflow even the largest Infinites. 8 There is a wordplay here on the word ulusun, which can be broken down into a root, ulu. The verb form of the ulu, means to howl, to cry out, to bellow, while the adjective form means grand, sublime. The suffix -sun serves to modify the adjective-form of this root to give it a second-person singular connotation, thus, the phrase ulu-sun may be interpreted in two ways, let it howl/bellow out
Turkish national anthem
–
Original manuscript written by Mehmet Âkif Ersoy
Turkish national anthem
–
An example of a common classroom display in Turkey, including the anthem at far right.
10.
Ottoman flag
–
The Ottoman Empire used a variety of flags, especially as naval ensigns, during its history. The star and crescent came into use in the half of the 18th century. A buyruldu from 1793 required that the ships of the Ottoman Navy were to use a red flag with the star, in 1844, a version of this flag, with a five-pointed star, was officially adopted as the Ottoman national flag. The decision to adopt a flag was part of the tanzimat which aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the laws and norms of contemporary European states. The familiar star and crescent design later became an element in the national flags of Ottoman successor states in the 20th century. The current flag of Turkey is very similar to the late Ottoman flag, however, the star and crescent symbol is slimmer, and the crescent itself is longer and more tapering. Specifically, there are legal standardizations that were introduced with the Turkish Flag Law on May 29,1936 The pre-modern Ottoman armies used the standard or tugh rather than flags. Such standards remained in use alongside flags until the 19th century, a depiction of a tugh is found in the Relation dun voyage du Levant by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort. War flags came into use by the 16th century, during the 16th and 17th centuries, Ottoman war flags often depicted the bifurcated Zulfiqar sword, often misinterpreted in Western literature as showing a pair of scissors. A Zulfiqar flag claimed to have used by Selim I is on exhibit in the Topkapı Museum. The crescent symbol appears in attributed to Tunis from as early as the 14th century. The adoption of star and crescent as the state started during the reign of Mustafa III and its use became well-established during Abdul Hamid I. According to Znamierowski, the red flag with white crescent and star was adopted in 1793, a buyruldu from that year states that the ships in the Ottoman navy have that flag, and various other documents from earlier and later years mention its use. The number of points in the star was not fixed. The white crescent with a star on a red field is depicted as the flag of a Turkish Man of War in Coltons Delineation of Flags of All Nations. Steenbergens Vlaggen van alle Natiën of the year shows a six-pointed star. A plate in Websters Unabridged of 1882 shows the flag with an eight-pointed star labelled Turkey, the five-pointed star seems to have been present alongside these variants from at least 1857. With the Tanzimat reforms in the 19th century, flags were redesigned in the style of the European armies of the day, the flag of the Ottoman Navy was made red, as red was to be the flag of secular institutions and green of religious ones
Ottoman flag
–
An early 19th-century example of a
Zulfikar flag (comparable flags had been in use since at least the early 16th century).
Ottoman flag
–
The
Şeyhülislam declaring a
Holy War against the
Entente Powers in 1914, with Ottoman Turkey flags placed in front of the podium.
Ottoman flag
–
The
Ottoman Navy on a postcard from
WWI, with an image of Sultan
Mehmed V.
11.
Tugh
–
A tug, or a sulde сүлд) is a pole with circularly arranged horse or yak tail hairs of varying colors arranged at the top. It was historically flown during the period of the Mongol Empire, and later adopted in derived Turco-Mongol and Turkic khanates, in the 18th century, it was also adopted by Slavic cavalry, under the name bunchuk. It is still used by units of the Polish military. A white-haired banner is used as a symbol, while the black banner was for wartime. Usage of the tail is symbolic because horses are so central to the Mongols livelihood. This is similar to the use of tail hairs for the morin khuur. The original white banner disappeared early in history, but the black one survived as the repository of Genghis Khans soul, the Mongols continued to honor the banner, and Zanabazar built a monastery with the special mission of flying and protecting the black banner in the 17th century. Around 1937, the black banner disappeared amidst the great purges of the nationalists, monks and intellectuals, the Nine White Banners was a peacetime emblem used exclusively by the Khans in front of their yurt. The central banner is larger in size than the rest and is placed in the center of the other eight, the modern Mongolian nine white banners are kept in the Government Palace in Ulaanbaatar. The Dörvön khölt khar sulde or the Four base black banners was used in wartime and it is made of black horse tail hairs and flown in the same fashion. According to the illustrated Japanese chronicle Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba, the banner of the Mongolian Yuan fleet that invaded Japan was black, the modern Mongolian black banners are kept in the Ministry of Defense. Within the Mongolian Armed Forces, the tug is used as the finial in military colours flagpoles. A history of India under the two first sovereigns of the house of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun, longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans,1854. Zdzislaw Zygulski, Ottoman Art in the Service of Empire, Hagop Kevorkian Series on Near Eastern Art & Civilization, Ефрона Монгол Улсын Төрийн Туг // MongolWiki Довідник з історії України. Jack Weatherford, Wind, First Year Course on Genghis Khan Photo reportage, a tribute ceremony to the Great Black Banners, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Tugh
–
A 19th century
Ottoman tugh
Tugh
–
Genghis Khan proclaimed Khagan of all Mongols. White banners can be seen on the right
Tugh
–
The black banner
Tugh
–
The Mongols besieging a city in the Middle East. The black banner can be seen behind the
trebuchet, 13th century
12.
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
–
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort was a French botanist, notable as the first to make a clear definition of the concept of genus for plants. The botanist Charles Plumier had been his pupil and accompanied him on his voyages, Tournefort was born in Aix-en-Provence and studied at the Jesuit convent there. It was intended that he enter the Church, but the death of his father allowed him to follow his interest in botany, after two years collecting, he studied medicine at Montpellier, but was appointed professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1683. During this time he travelled through Western Europe, particularly the Pyrenees and he was accompanied by the German botanist Andreas Gundelsheimer and the artist Claude Aubriet. His description of this journey was published posthumously, he himself having been killed by a carriage in Paris and his principal work was the 1694 Eléments de botanique, ou Méthode pour reconnaître les Plantes. The principal artist was Claude Aubriet who later became the principal artist at the Jardin des Plantes, Tournefort is often credited with being the first to make a clear distinction between genus and species. Though he did indeed cluster the 7,000 plant species that he described into around 700 genera, concepts of genus and species had been framed as early as the 16th century, and Kaspar Bauhin in particular consistently distinguished genera and species. Augustus Quirinus Rivinus had even advocated the use of binary nomenclature shortly before Tourneforts work was published, the word herbarium also seems to have been an invention of Tournefort, previously herbaria had been called by a variety of names, such as Hortus siccus. His herbarium collection of 6,963 specimens was housed in Paris, now part of the Muséum national dhistoire naturelle. Media related to Joseph Pitton de Tournefort at Wikimedia Commons KUL Digital version of Elemens de botanique ou methode pour connoitre les plantes 1694–1695
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
–
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
13.
Zulfiqar
–
Zulfiqar is the name of the legendary sword of Ali ibn Abi Talib which is said to have been given to him by Muhammad. Muhammad gave this sword to his cousin Ali in the Battle of Uhud. The sword was brought by Jibraeel as an order from Allah. Middle Eastern weapons are commonly inscribed with a quote mentioning Zulfiqar, the name is also variously transliterated as Dhulfiqar, Zulfiquar, Zulfikar, Thulfeqar, Zoulfikar, Zulfeqhar etc. The meaning of the name is unclear, the word ذو ḏu means lord, master, and the idafa construction master of. The meaning of فقار, on the hand, is unclear. It may be vocalized as either fiqār or faqār, Lane cites authorities preferring faqār and rejecting fiqār as vulgar, Zulfiqar was frequently depicted on Ottoman flags, especially as used by Janissaries cavalry, in the 16th and 17th centuries. Zulfiqar is also invoked in talismans. A common talismanic inscription or invocation is the statement, لا فتى إلا علي لا سيف إلا ذو الفقار lā fata ʾillā ʿAlī. Muhammad is said to then have given his own sword Dhu-l-Fiqar to Ali to replace the broken sword, in another variant, the exclamation is not due to Muhammad but to a voice on the battlefield. According to the Twelver Shia, Dhū al-Fiqār is currently in the possession of the Imam in occultation Muhammad al-Mahdi, in Qajar Iran, actual swords were produced based on the legendary double-pointed design. Thus, Higgins Collection holds a sabre with a wootz steel blade, dated to the late 19th century. The tip of this specimen is split in the blade plane, another 19th-century blade in the same collection features a split blade as well as saw-tooths along the edge, combining two possible interpretations of the name Dhu-l-Faqar. This blade is likely of Indian workmanship, and it was combined with an older Indian hilt, Zulfiqar and its phonetic variations has come into use as given name, as with former Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. The 58th Takavar Division of Shahroud is also named after the sword, in 2010, Iran revealed an attack boat dubbed the Zolfaghar. An Iranian main battle tank is named after the sword. During the Bosnian War, a Bosnian armys special unit was named Zulfikar
Zulfiqar
–
Zulfiqar (split-bladed sword), a representation of the sword of Ali, Mughal period India.
Zulfiqar
–
A stamped amulet, presumably made in India in the 19th century for a Shi'i patron. The amulet comprises magic squares, Qur'anic verses (including ayat al-kursi (2:255) running around the frame), divine or holy names, besides a depiction of Zulfiqar at the center.
Zulfiqar
–
10th Century and by far the earliest depiction, Zulfaqar with, and without the shield. The Fatimid depiction of
Ali 's sword as carved on the Gates of Old
Islamic Cairo, namely
Bab al-Nasr [
citation needed]
14.
Scissors
–
They consist of a pair of metal blades pivoted so that the sharpened edges slide against each other when the handles opposite to the pivot are closed. Scissors are used for cutting various materials, such as paper, cardboard, metal foil, cloth, rope. A large variety of scissors and shears all exist for specialized purposes, hair-cutting shears and kitchen shears are functionally equivalent to scissors, but the larger implements tend to be called shears. Hair-cutting shears have specific blade angles ideal for cutting hair, using the incorrect scissors to cut hair will result in increased damage or split ends, or both, by breaking the hair. Kitchen shears, also known as scissors, are intended for cutting and trimming foods such as meats. Modern scissors are often designed ergonomically with composite thermoplastic and rubber handles which enable the user to either a power grip or a precision grip. The noun scissors is treated as a noun, and therefore takes a plural verb. Alternatively, it is referred to as a pair of scissors. In American English, a pair is singular and therefore takes a singular verb, in other forms of English, a pair does not take the singular. The word shears is used to similar instruments that are larger in size. Opinions vary geographically as to the size at which scissors become shears and it is most likely that scissors were invented around 1500 BC in ancient Egypt. The earliest known scissors appeared in Mesopotamia 3,000 to 4,000 years ago, spring scissors continued to be used in Europe until the 16th century. They entered common use in not only ancient Rome, but also China, Japan, and Korea, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, spring scissors were made by heating a bar of iron or steel, then flattening and shaping its ends into blades on an anvil. The center of the bar was heated, bent to form the spring, the Hangzhou Zhang Xiaoquan Company in Hangzhou, China, has been manufacturing scissors since 1663. William Whiteley & Sons Ltd. was producing scissors by 1760, the first trade-mark,332, was granted in 1791. The company is still manufacturing today, and is the oldest company in the West to do so. Pivoted scissors were not manufactured in large numbers until 1761, when Robert Hinchliffe produced the first pair of modern-day scissors made of hardened and polished cast steel. He lived in Cheney Square, London, and was reputed to be the first person who put out a signboard proclaiming himself fine scissor manufacturer, during the 19th century, scissors were hand-forged with elaborately decorated handles
Scissors
–
A pair of standard, large scissors
Scissors
Scissors
–
Shears from the 2nd century, northeastern
Turkey
Scissors
–
Left-handed (left) and right-handed (right) scissors
15.
Selim I
–
Selim I, known as Selim the Grim or Selim the Resolute, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. On the eve of his death in 1520, the Ottoman Empire spanned about 576,900 sq mi and his conquests dramatically shifted the empires geographical and cultural center of gravity away from the Balkans and toward the Middle East. Born in Amasya around 1470, Selim was the youngest son of Bayezid II, Selims mother was Gülbahar Hatun, a Turkish princess from the Dulkadir State centered around Elbistan in Maraş, her father was Alaüddevle Bozkurt Bey, the eleventh ruler of the Dulkadirs. Some academics state that Selims mother was a lady named Gülbahar Hatun, by 1512, Şehzade Ahmet was the favorite candidate to succeed his father. Bayezid, who was reluctant to continue his rule over the empire, angered with this announcement, Selim rebelled, and while he lost the first battle against his fathers forces, Selim ultimately dethroned his father. Selim ordered the purge of Bayezid to a far away sanjak, Selim put his brothers and nephews to death upon his accession in order to eliminate potential pretenders to the throne. His nephew Şehzade Murad, son of the heir to the throne Şehzade Ahmet. Selim I was described as tall, with broad shoulders. He was skilled in politics and was said to be fond of fighting, in 1494, at Trabzon, he married Hafsa Sultan. By 1510, he had conquered the whole of Iran and Azerbaijan, southern Dagestan, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Khorasan, Eastern Anatolia and he was a great threat to his Sunni Muslim neighbors to the west. In 1511, Ismail had supported a pro Shia/Safavid uprising in Anatolia, in 1514, Selim I attacked Ismails kingdom to stop the spread of Shiism into Ottoman dominions. Selim and Ismāil had been exchanging a series of belligerent letters prior to the attack, Selim I defeated Ismāil at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Ismāils army was more mobile and their soldiers were better prepared, Ismāil was wounded and almost captured in battle, and Selim I entered the Iranian capital of Tabriz in triumph on September 5, but did not linger. The Battle of Chaldiran was of significance, as the reluctance of Shah Ismail to accept the advantages of modern firearms. After the battle, Selim, referring to Ismail, stated that his adversary was, Always drunk to the point of losing his mind and totally neglectful of the affairs of the state. Selim then conquered the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, defeating the Mamluk Egyptians first at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, and then at the Battle of Ridanieh. This led to the Ottoman annexation of the sultanate, from Syria and Palestine in Sham, to Hejaz and Tihamah in the Arabian Peninsula. This permitted him to extend Ottoman power to the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina, rather than style himself the Ḥākimül-Ḥaremeyn, or The Ruler of The Two Holy Cities, he accepted the more pious title Ḫādimül-Ḥaremeyn, or The Servant of The Two Holy Cities
Selim I
–
Selim I
Selim I
–
Tughra
Selim I
–
Outline of the
Ottoman Empire, from the Theatro d'el Orbe de la Tierra de
Abraham Ortelius,
Anvers, 1602, updated from the 1570 edition.
Selim I
–
16th-century Ottoman miniature of the
Battle of Chaldiran.
16.
Bernard Picart
–
Bernard Picart, was a French engraver, son of Etienne Picart, also an engraver. He was born in Paris and died in Amsterdam and he moved to Antwerp in 1696, and then spent a year in Amsterdam before returning to France at the end of 1698. After his wife died in 1708, he moved to Amsterdam in 1711, most of his work was book-illustrations, including the Bible and Ovid. His most famous work is Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples du monde, israel calls Cérémonies an immense effort to record the religious rituals and beliefs of the world in all their diversity as objectively and authentically as possible. Although Picart had never left Europe, he relied on accounts by those who had and had access to a collection of Indian sculpture, the original French edition of Cérémonies comprises ten volumes of text and engravings. Israel notes also that Picart left Paris with Prosper Marchand, and collaborated on the Cérémonies with Jean-Frédéric Bernard, Picart, Marchand and Charles Levier belonged to a radical Huguenot coterie. The engravings had captions in French, English, German, the artists involved were Michel de Marolles, Bernard Picart, Jacques Favereau, Abraham van Diepenbeeck, and Cornelis Bloemaert. A facsimile of the Dutch version was published in 1968, a Jewel of a Thousand Facets. New York Review of Books Vol. LVII, number 11, online summary Hunt, Lynn, Margaret C. The Book That Changed Europe, Picart and Bernards Religious Ceremonies of the World, Hunt, Lynn and Margaret Jacob and Wijnand Mijnhardt. Bernard Picart and the First Global Vision of Religion, los Angeles, Getty Research Institute,2010. Religionsbilder der frühen Aufklärung, Bernard Picarts Tafeln für die Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples du monde, radical enlightenment, philosophy and the making of modernity, 1650-1750. OCLC44425436 Jacob, Margaret, Bernard Picart and the Turn to Modernity, De Achttiende eeuw, Bernard Picart and Jean Frederic Bernards Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the World on UCLA website
Bernard Picart
–
Bernard Picart (after
Jean-Marc Nattier, 1715)
Bernard Picart
–
Bernard Picart One of six copper plate engravings depicting Florida Indians (of 30 engravings total), Circa 1721, Volume One of "Cérémonies et Coutumes Religieuses de tous les Peuples du Monde" (Private Collection,
St. Augustine Beach,
Florida)
Bernard Picart
–
A celebration of the birth of a child (left). Yhe child's first bath (right). 1726
17.
Janissaries
–
The Janissaries were elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultans household troops, bodyguards and the first standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established during the reign of Murad I and they began as an elite corps of slaves made up of conscripted young Christian boys, and became famed for internal cohesion cemented by strict discipline and order. Unlike typical slaves, they were paid regular salaries, forbidden to marry or engage in trade, their complete loyalty to the Sultan was expected. By the seventeenth century, due to a increase in the size of the Ottoman standing army. Civilians bought their way into the corps in order to benefit from the socioeconomic status it conferred upon them. Consequently, the corps gradually lost its character, undergoing a process which has been described as civilianization. The corps was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 in the Auspicious Incident in which 6,000 or more were executed, the formation of the Janissaries has been dated to the reign of Murad I, the third ruler of the Ottoman Empire. From the 1380s to 1648, the Janissaries were gathered through the system which was abolished in 1638. This was the taking of non-Muslim boys, notably Anatolian and Balkan Christians, Jews were never subject to devşirme, according to the Encyclopedia Britannica, in early days, all Christians were enrolled indiscriminately. Later, those from Albania, Bosnia, and Bulgaria were preferred, the Janissaries were kapıkulları, door servants or slaves of the Porte, neither freemen nor ordinary slaves. They were subjected to strict discipline, but were paid salaries and pensions upon retirement, as such, they became one of the ruling classes of the Ottoman Empire, rivalling the Turkish aristocracy. The brightest of the Janissaries were sent to the palace institution, through a system of meritocracy, the Janissaries held enormous power, stopping all efforts at reform of the military. These boys were taken from their parents and given to Turkish families in the provinces to learn Turkish language and customs. The recruits were indoctrinated into Islam, forced into circumcision and supervised 24 hours a day by eunuchs and they were subjected to severe discipline, being prohibited from growing a beard, taking up a skill other than soldiering, and marrying. As a result, the Janissaries were extremely well-disciplined troops, and became members of the askeri class, most were non-Muslims, because it was not permissible to enslave a Muslim. The Janissary system was introduced in the 14th century, the Janissary Corps was a trained and loyal group of slaves to the sultan. In the late 16th century, a sultan gave in to the pressures of the Corps and permitted Janissary children to members of the Corps. They also became rent-seeking and sought protection of their special rights, according to paintings of the era, they were also permitted to grow beards
Janissaries
–
Janissaries
Janissaries
–
Janissary, before 1657
Janissaries
–
A Janissary
Ağa in the year 1768.
Janissaries
–
Registration of boys for the devşirme. Ottoman miniature painting from the Süleymanname, 1558.
18.
Ottoman cavalry
–
Sipahi were two types of Ottoman cavalry corps, including the fief-holding provincial timarli sipahi, which constituted most of the army, and the regular kapikulu sipahi, palace troops. Other types of cavalry which were not regarded sipahi were the irregular akıncı, the sipahi formed their own distinctive social classes, and were notably in rivalry with the Janissaries, the elite corps of the Sultan. It was also the given to several cavalry units serving in the French. The word is derived from Persian sepāhī, meaning soldier, the term is also transliterated as spahi and spahee, rendered in other languages as, spahiu, spahis, spahija or spahiya. The word sepoy is derived from the same Persian word sepāhī, the term refers to all freeborn Ottoman Turkish mounted troops other than akıncı and tribal horsemen in the Ottoman army. The word was used almost synonymously with cavalry, the provincial governors, or beys, were rotated every few years, preventing land inheritance. The provinces, or sanjaks, were not all equal since Anatolia, the entwinement of land, military, politics, economics and religion was a way of life. The timar system, where the sultan owned all land but individual plots of land, the sipahi did not inherit anything, preventing power centres from growing and threatening the supreme power structure. The locals on the timar used the land and all it produced, the Timarli Sipahi or timariot was the holder of a fief of land granted directly by the Ottoman sultan or with his official permission by beylerbeys. He was entitled to all of the income from that land, the peasants on the land were subsequently attached thereto. Timarli Sipahis status resembled that of the knights of medieval Europe, unlike medieval knights, they were not legally owners of their fiefs. The right to govern and collect taxes in a fief was merely given to a Timarli Sipahi by the Ottoman State. And in return, tımarli sipahis were responsible for security of the people in their timar, enlisting and training cebelu soldiers for the army. A timar was the smallest unit of land held by a Sipahi, providing a revenue of no more than 20,000 akçe. A ziamet was a unit of land, yielding up to 100,000 akçe. A has was the largest unit of land, giving revenues of more than 100,000 akçe, and was only held by the highest-ranking members of the military. A tîmâr Sipahi was obliged to provide the army with up to five armed retainers, a ziamet Sipahi with up to twenty, the sipahi were traditionally recruited among Turkic landowners, and thus, the non-Turkic provinces such as Arabia and Maghreb did not have sipahi. Recruitment of non-Turkic sipahi was banned with a 1635 ferman, in contrast to the Janissaries, Timarli Sipahis from that time onwards were Turks
Ottoman cavalry
–
A Sipahi, from a 16th-century Western engraving
Ottoman cavalry
–
Miniature depicting an Anatolian Timariot, dating to before 1657.
Ottoman cavalry
–
Timariot armour dating to 1480–1500
19.
Crescent
–
A crescent shape is a symbol or emblem used to represent the lunar phase in the first quarter, or by extension a symbol representing the Moon itself. It is used as the symbol for the Moon. It was also the emblem of Diana-Artemis, and hence represented virginity, in Roman Catholic Marian veneration, it is associated with the Virgin Mary. From its use as roof finial in Ottoman era mosques, it has become associated with Islam. The crescent symbol is used to represent the Moon, not necessarily in a particular lunar phase. When used to represent a waxing or waning lunar phase, crescent or increscent refers to the waxing first quarter, the crescent symbol was long used as a symbol of the Moon in astrology, and by extension of Silver in alchemy. The astrological use of the symbol is attested in early Greek papyri containing horoscopes, in the 2nd-century Bianchinis planisphere, the personification of the Moon is shown with a crescent attached to her headdress. Its ancient association with Ishtar/Astarte and Diana is preserved in the Moon representing the female principle, as such, it belongs to the class of figures known as lune in planar geometry. The tapering towards the points of intersection of the two arcs are known as the horns of the crescent, the word crescent is derived etymologically from the present participle of the Latin verb crescere to grow, technically denoting the waxing moon. Unicode encodes a crescent at U+263D and a decrescent at U+263E, the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs block provides variants with faces, FIRST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE at U+1F31B and LAST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE at U+1F31C. The crescent shape is used to represent the Moon, and the Moon deity Nanna/Sin from an early time, visible in Akkadian cylinder seals as early as 2300 BC. The crescent was used in the iconography of the Ancient Near East and was used transplanted by the Phoenicians in the 8th century BC as far as Carthage in modern Tunisia. The crescent and star also appears on coins of South Arabia. The combination of star and crescent also arises in the Ancient Near East, representing the Moon and Ishtar and it was inherited both in Sassanian and Hellenistic iconography. In the iconography of the Hellenistic period, the crescent became the symbol of Artemis-Diana, numerous depictions show Artemis-Diana wearing the crescent Moon as part of her headdress. The related symbol of the star and crescent was the emblem of the Mithradates dynasty in the Kingdom of Pontus and was used as the emblem of Byzantium. The crescent remained in use as an emblem in Sassanid Persia, in the Crusades it came to be associated with the Orient and was widely used in Crusader seals and coins. It was used as a charge by the later 13th century
Crescent
–
The Hindu god
Shiva is depicted with the decrescent moon over his head in his locks.
Crescent
–
An example of an artistic crescent — in this case a large circle with a smaller one removed.
Crescent
–
Taq-e Bostan, from the era of
Sassanid Empire of Persia (pre-Islamic era). Note the crescent above the arch.
Crescent
–
Coin of the Sassanid king
Kavadh II. Star and crescent can be found on most of Sassanian coins.
20.
Libro de conoscimiento
–
The Libro del Conosçimiento de todos los rregnos or Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms, also known as the Book of All Kingdoms, is an anonymous 14th-century Castilian geographical and armorial manual. The only explicit information is that the author claims to have been born in Castile in 1305. The books principal objective may have been as an armorial roll and its geographical features are closely related to those of the Medici Atlas. Also near-contemporary is the Catalan Atlas, four manuscripts of the work are known, designated Z, N, R and S. It is believed this was the manuscript that resurfaced in London in 1978, popularly known as Manuscript Z, currently held by the Bavarian State Library in Munich and this manuscript, written in the late 14th century, is replete with miniature illuminations drawn by an Aragonese illustrator. A facsimile was published in 1999, in the introduction to that edition, editor Lacarra doubts the original c.1350 dating, and proposes instead that the Libro was probably composed a bit later, probably around 1385. Manuscripts N and R are kept in the British Library, a further manuscript of the Libro was discovered in 1874 and compiled and published in 1877 in Madrid, by Marcos Jiménez de la Espada. This is the most complete of the extant copies, known as Manuscript S, in his introduction, the editor presented the book as an authentic travelogue of a Castilian Franciscan mendicant friar written around 1350. Marino, Nancy F.32, pp. 388–399 Riquer, Martin de La heráldica en el Libro del Conoscimiento y el problema de su datación, Dicenda, cuadernos de Filologia Hispanica, Book of Knowledge of All Kingdoms, Clements Robert,1912
Libro de conoscimiento
–
Title page illustration of the "Z" manuscript, with the
Coat of arms of Castile and León and the
Royal Bend of Castile of
Alfonso XI.
21.
Mustafa III
–
Mustafa III was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I and he was born in Edirne Palace. An energetic and perceptive ruler, Mustafa III sought to modernize the army, Mustafa III did secure the services of foreign generals to initiate a reform of the infantry and artillery. The Sultan also ordered the founding of Academies for Mathematics, Navigation and he was well talented and educated. He was an excellent poet, his poetry being written under the pseudonym of Cihangir and he died at Topkapi Palace, Constantinople. Esma Sultan, sister of Mustafa III Uluçay, Mustafa Çağatay
Mustafa III
–
Mustafa III
Mustafa III
–
Tughra
Mustafa III
–
Mustafa III in his royal robes.
22.
Abdul Hamid I
–
Abdülhamid I, Abdul Hamid I or Abd Al-Hamid I was the 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning over the Ottoman Empire from 1774 to 1789. He was born in Istanbul, a son of Sultan Ahmed III. Ahmed III abdicated in favor of his nephew Mahmud I, who was succeeded by his brother Osman III, as a potential heir to the throne, Abdül Hamid was imprisoned in comfort by his cousins and older brother, as was customary. During this period, he received his education from his mother Rabia Şermi. When his brother Mustafa III died, Abdül Hamid succeeded him on 21 January 1774, Abdül Hamids long imprisonment had left him indifferent to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissary Corps, the new Sultan told the Janissaries There are no longer gratuities in our treasury, as all of our soldier sons should learn. Despite his pacific inclinations, the Ottoman Empire was forced to renew the war with Russia almost immediately. This led to complete Turkish defeat at Kozludzha and the humiliating Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the Ottomans ceded territory to Russia, and also the right to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire. Abdülhamid now sought to reform the Empires armed forces and he enumerated the Janissary corps and tried to renovate it, and also the navy. He established a new artillery corps and he was also credited with the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School. Abdülhamid tried to strengthen Ottoman rule over Syria, Egypt, Russia repeatedly exploited its position as protector of Eastern Christians to interfere in the Ottoman Empire, and explicitly. Finally the Ottomans declared war against Russia in 1787, turkey held its own in the conflict, at first, but on 6 December 1788, Ochakov fell to Russia. It is said that this sad defeat broke Abdül Hamids spirit, in spite of his failures, Abdülhamid was regarded as the most gracious Ottoman Sultan. He personally directed the brigade during the Constantinople fire of 1782. He was admired by the people for his religious devotion, and was called a Veli. He also outlined a policy, supervised the government closely. Abdul Hamid informed the Mysori ambassadors that the Ottomans were still entangled and exhausted from the war with Russia and Austria
Abdul Hamid I
–
Abdul Hamid I
Abdul Hamid I
–
Tughra
Abdul Hamid I
–
The
Ottoman Army advances from
Sofia, its largest garrison in
Rumelia, in the year 1788.
23.
Selim III
–
Selim III was the reform-minded Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. The Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV, Selim was killed by a group of assassins subsequently after a Janissary revolt. Selim III was the son of Sultan Mustafa III and his wife Mihrişah Sultan and his mother Mihrişah Sultan originated in Georgia and when she became the Valide Sultan, she participated in reforming the government schools and establishing political corporations. His father Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III was very educated and believed in the necessity of reforms. Mustafa III attempted to create an army during the peacetime with professional. This was primarily motivated by his fear of a Russian invasion, during the Turko-Russian War he fell ill and died of a heart attack in 1774. Sultan Mustafa was aware of the fact that a reform was necessary. He declared new military regulations and opened maritime and artillery academies, Sultan Mustafa was very influenced by mysticism. Oracles predicted his son Selim would be a world-conqueror, so he organized a joyous feast lasting seven days, Selim was very well educated in the palace. Sultan Mustafa III bequeathed his son as his successor, however, Sultan Abdulhamid I took care of Selim and put great emphasis on his education. After Abdulhamids death Selim succeeded him on 7 April 1789, not yet 27 years old, Sultan Selim III was very fond of literature and calligraphy, many of his works were put on the walls of mosques and convents. He wrote many poems, especially about Crimeas occupation by Russia and he spoke Arabic and Persian fluently. Selim III was very religious, and very patriotic and he was a poet, a musician and very fond of fine arts. Selim was a modern man and a reformist ruler. He planned to modernize the Ottoman Empire, Prince Selim developed plans for modernizing the Ottoman Army. Selim came to the throne during the 1787–92 war with Austria and Russia and had to postpone serious reform efforts until its completion. Selim’s early efforts to modernize the Janissary corps created such opposition that thereafter he concentrated on creating a new European-style army, using modern weapons, officers and military experts sent by the different European powers trained in Constantinople and in a number of Anatolian provincial centers. This new force never numbered more than 10,000 active soldiers, under the guidance of European technicians, factories were erected to manufacture modern weapons and ammunition and technical schools were opened to train Ottoman officers
Selim III
–
Selim III
Selim III
–
Tughra
Selim III
–
Selim III receiving dignitaries at an audience at the Gate of Felicity,
Topkapı Palace.
Selim III
–
Ottoman troops desperately attempt to halt advancing Russians during the
Siege of Ochakov (1788).
24.
Tanzimat
–
The Tanzimât, literally meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the ethnic groups of the Empire. Though many changes were made to improve civil liberties, many Muslim residents of the empire saw this as foreign influence on the world of Islam and this perception complicated reformist efforts made by the state. Most of the changes, such as uniforms, were aimed at changing the mindset of imperial administrators. Many of the officials that were affiliated with the government were encouraged to wear a western style of dress. Many of the reforms were attempts to adopt successful European practices, the reforms were heavily influenced by the Napoleonic Code and French law under the Second Empire as a direct result of the increasing number of Ottoman students being educated in France. This policy officially began with the Edict of Gülhane of 1839, the ambitious project was launched to combat the slow decline of the empire that had seen its borders shrink and its strength weaken in comparison to the European powers. There were internal as well as reasons for the reforms. Internally, the Ottoman Empire hoped that, by getting rid of the millet system and this change was also meant to increase the legitimacy of Ottoman rule. Another major hope was that by being open to various demographics. There was fear of internal strife between Muslims and non-Muslims, and allowing more freedom to all was supposed to diminish this threat. Giving more rights to the Christians was considered likely to reduce the danger of intervention on their behalf. Externally, the Ottomans were growing scared of an intervention of the European powers in Ottoman affairs. After the Crimean War, which was caused by Russias incursion into the Ottoman Empire in the 1850s and they thought that the Great Powers would accept the Tanzimat as long as reforms were ongoing, leaving them to act as enforcers of these goals. The Tanzimât reforms began under Sultan Mahmud II, on November 3,1839, Sultan Abdülmecid issued a hatt-i sharif or imperial edict called the Edict of Gülhane or Tanzimât Fermânı. This was followed by several statutes enacting its policies, in the edict the Sultan stated that he wished to bring the benefits of a good administration to the provinces of the Ottoman Empire through new institutions. Noble Decree or Imperial Rescript of Gülhane, was the first major reform in the Tanzimat reforms under the government of sultan Abdulmecid, the decree, named after the rosehouse on the grounds of the Topkapi Palace, abolished tax farming. It also created a system of taxation with salaried tax collectors
Tanzimat
–
Mustafa Reşid Pasha, the principal architect of the
Edict of Gülhane (The Ottoman Imperial Edict of Reorganization, proclaimed on November 3rd, 1839)
Tanzimat
25.
Ottoman Navy
–
During its long existence, it was involved in many conflicts and signed a number of maritime treaties. At its height, the Navy extended to the Indian Ocean, for much of its history, the Navy was led by the position of the Kapudan Pasha. This position was abolished in 1867, when it was replaced by the Minister of the Navy, after the end of the Ottoman Empire and the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the Navys tradition was continued under the modern Turkish Naval Forces. In 1091 Tzachass fleet raided the islands of Samos and Rhodes in the Aegean Sea, in 1095 Tzachass fleet raided the strategic port city and Gulf of Adramyttium on the Aegean coast of Anatolia and the city of Abydos on the Dardanelles Strait. Seljuq sultan of Rûm Alaeddin Keykubad I conquered Alaiye and formed a naval arsenal there, alanya became the homeport of the Seljuk fleet in the Mediterranean Sea. Keykubad I later formed a fleet in the Black Sea based in Sinope, the conquest of the island of Kalolimno in the Sea of Marmara in 1308 marked the first Ottoman naval victory. The Ottoman fleet made its first landings on Thrace in 1321, in 1373 the first landings and conquests on the Aegean shores of Macedonia were made, which was followed by the first Ottoman siege of Thessaloniki in 1374. The first Ottoman conquest of Thessaloniki and Macedonia were completed in 1387, between 1387 and 1423 the Ottoman fleet contributed to the territorial expansions of the Ottoman Empire on the Balkan peninsula and the Black Sea coasts of Anatolia. Following the first conquests of Venetian territories in Morea, the first Ottoman-Venetian War started, albania was reconquered by the Ottoman fleet with landings between 1448 and 1479. In 1453 the Ottoman fleet participated in the conquests of Constantinople, Gökçeada. In 1462 the Ottoman fleet conquered the Genoese islands of the northern Aegean Sea and this was followed by the Ottoman-Venetian War of 1463-1479. In the following period the Ottoman fleet gained more territory in the Aegean Sea, until 1499 this was followed by further expansion on the Black Sea coasts and on the Balkan peninsula. By 1503 the Ottoman fleet raided the northeastern Adriatic coasts of Italy, and completely captured the Venetian lands on Morea, the Ionian Sea coast and the southeastern Adriatic Sea coast. According to Katib Celebi a typical Ottoman fleet in the century consisted of 46 vessels whose crew was 15,800 men, roughly two-thirds were oarsmen. Starting from the conquest of Syria in 1516, the Ottoman fleet of Selim I started expanding the Ottoman territories towards the Levant, in 1527 the Ottoman fleet participated in the conquest of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia and Bosnia. In 1529 the Ottoman fleet under Salih Reis and Aydın Reis destroyed the Spanish fleet of Rodrigo Portundo near the Isle of Formentera, the joint fleet was commanded by Charles Vs top admiral, Andrea Doria. In 1543 the Ottoman fleet participated with French forces in the Siege of Nice, afterwards, Francis I of France enabled the Ottoman fleet to overwinter in the French harbor of Toulon. This unique Ottoman occupation of Toulon allowed the Ottomans to attack Habsburg Spanish and Italian ports, matrakçı Nasuh, a 16th-century Ottoman Janissary, polymath and swordmaster, reportedly participated in the occupation of Toulon
Ottoman Navy
–
The
Battle of Zonchio in 1499.
Ottoman Navy
–
1844 to 1923
Ottoman Navy
–
The Ottoman admiral
Hayreddin Barbarossa defeated the
Holy League of
Charles V under the command of
Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza in 1538.
Ottoman Navy
–
The Ottoman fleet during the
Capture of Tunis at
La Goulette in 1574.
26.
Pashalik
–
Eyalets, also known as beylerbeyliks or pashaliks, were a primary administrative division of the Ottoman Empire. From 1453 to the beginning of the century the Ottoman local government was loosely structured. The Empire was at first divided into provinces called eyalets, presided over by a Pasha of three tails, the Grand Vizier was responsible for nominating all the high officers of State, both in the capital and the provinces. Between 1861 and 1866, these Eyalets were abolished, and the territory was divided for administrative purposes into Vilayets. The eyalets were subdivided into districts called livas or sanjaks, each of which was under the charge of a Pasha of one tail, with the title of Mira-lira and these provinces were usually called pashalics by Europeans. The pasha was invested with powers of government within his province. The term eyalet is sometimes translated province or governorate, depending on the rank of the governor, they were also sometimes known as pashaliks, beylerbeyliks, and kapudanliks. Pashaluk or Pashalik is the word derived from pasha, denoting the quality. In European sources, the word pashalic generally referred to the eyalets, the term eyalet began to be applied to the largest administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire instead of beglerbegilik from the 1590s onward, and it continued to be used until 1867. Murad I instituted the great division of the sultanate into two beylerbeyiliks of Rumelia and Anatolia, in circa 1365, with the eastward expansion of Bayezid’s realms in the 1390s, a third eyalet, Rûm Eyalet, came into existence, with Amasya its chief town. This became the seat of government of Bayezid’s youngest son, Mehmed I, in 1395, Bayezid I executed the last Shishmanid Tsar of Bulgaria, and annexed his realm to Rumelia Eyalet. In 1461, Mehmed II expelled the last of the Isfendyarid dynasty from Sinop, the Isfendyarid principality became a district of Anatolia Eyalet. A list dated 1527 shows eight eyalets, with Egypt, Damascus, Diyarbekir, the last eyalet, however, did not survive as an administrative entity. Süleyman’s conquests in eastern Turkey, Iraq and Hungary also resulted in the creation of new eyalets, the former principality of Dulkadir became the Dulkadir Eyalet at some time after its annexation in 1522. After the Iranian campaign of 1533–6, the new eyalets of Erzurum, Van, Sharazor, in 1541 came the creation of Budin Eyalet from part of the old Kingdom of Hungary. In 1580 Bosnia, previously a district of Rumelia, became an eyalet in its own right, similar considerations led to the creation of the Kanije Eyalet from the districts adjoining this border fortress, which had fallen to the Ottomans in 1600. At the same time, on the shore of the Black Sea. The purpose of this reorganisation, and especially the creation of the eyalet of Özi was presumably to improve the defences of the Black Sea ports against the Cossacks, by 1609, according to the list of Ayn Ali, there were 32 eyalets
Pashalik
–
1730 map
Pashalik
–
1849 map
Pashalik
–
The 1803
Cedid Atlas, showing the Middle Eastern Eyalets
Pashalik
–
Eyalets in the 17th century
27.
Civil ensign
–
Civil ensign is the ensign used by civilian vessels to denote nationality. It can be the same or different from the state ensign and its also known as the merchant ensign or merchant flag. Some countries have civil ensigns for yachts, and even for specific yacht clubs. Most countries have one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. The civil ensigns that are different from the flag can be grouped into a number of categories. Several countries use red flags with, in most cases, either the national flag or the Union Flag in the canton. British overseas territories fly the plain Red Ensign or a Red Ensign with the colonial arms in the fly. Saudi Arabia puts its national flag in the canton of an otherwise-green flag, Ghana stopped using its Red Ensign in 2003 with the adoption of a new merchant shipping act, which made the Ghanaian flag the proper national colors for Ghana ships. Similarly, Sri Lanka stopped using its Red Ensign in 1969, several countries have civil ensigns that are very different from the national flag, for instance Malta and Luxembourg. Well-known examples are the Italian civil ensign showing the shield with the arms of the sea republics or the Polish civil ensign with the arms of Poland, most of these emblems were added to distinguish the ensign from similar flags of other countries or from other signal flags. In several countries there are two versions of the flag, a simpler one and a more elaborate one with the national arms. The simpler one is used as ensign, whereas the version with the arms is mainly used by the government. In Spain and Argentina the flag without the arms is only a variant for civil use, in El Salvador, the civil ensign also differs from the national flag in the proportions. France is a case, the overall proportion is the same. Civil and merchant ensigns Civil air ensign
Civil ensign
–
United Kingdom
28.
Osman I
–
Osman Gazi, sometimes transliterated archaically as Othman, was the leader of the Ottoman Turks and the founder of the Ottoman dynasty. He and the dynasty bearing his name later established and ruled the nascent Ottoman Empire, the state, while only a small principality during Osmans lifetime, transformed into a world empire in the centuries after his death. It existed until the abolition of the sultanate in 1922, or alternatively the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 or the abolition of the caliphate in 1924, due to the scarcity of historical sources dating from his lifetime, very little factual information is known about him. Not a single written source survives from Osmans reign, the Ottomans did not record the history of Osmans life until the fifteenth century, more than a hundred years after his death. Because of this, it is challenging for historians to differentiate between fact and myth in the many stories told about him. One historian has gone so far as to declare it impossible. According to later Ottoman tradition, Osmans ancestors were descendants of the Kayı tribe of Oğuz Turks, the Ottoman principality was just one of many Anatolian beyliks that emerged in the second half of the thirteenth century. Situated in the region of Bithynia, Osmans principality was particularly well-placed to launch attacks on the vulnerable Byzantine Empire, some scholars have argued that Osmans original name was Turkish, probably Atman or Ataman, and was only later changed to the Arabic ʿOsmān. An early Arabic source mentioning him also writes ط rather than ث in one instance, Osman may thus have adopted the more prestigious Muslim name later in his life. He was most likely born around the middle of the century, possibly in 1254/5. According to Ottoman tradition, Osmans father Ertuğrul led the Turkic Kayı tribe west from Central Asia into Anatolia and he then pledged allegiance to the Sultan of the Anatolian Seljuks, who granted him dominion over the town of Söğüt on the Byzantine frontier. This connection between Ertuğrul and the Seljuks, however, was invented by court chroniclers a century later. Osman became chief, or Bey, upon his father’s death, nothing is known for certain about Osmans early activities, except that he controlled the region around the town of Söğüt and from there launched raids against the neighboring Byzantine Empire. The first datable event in Osmans life is the Battle of Bapheus in 1301 or 1302, Osman appears to have followed the strategy of increasing his territories at the expense of the Byzantines while avoiding conflict with his more powerful Turkish neighbors. These early victories and exploits are favorite subjects of Ottoman writers and these legends have been romanticized by the poetical pens which recorded them in later years. The Ottoman writers attached great importance to this legendary, dreamlike conception of the founder of their empire, Osman I had a close relationship with a local religious leader of dervishes named Sheikh Edebali, whose daughter he married. A story emerged among later Ottoman writers to explain the relationship between the two men, in which Osman had a dream while staying in the Sheikhs house. The story appears in the late fifteenth-century chronicle of Aşıkpaşazade as follows, He saw that a moon arose from the holy mans breast, a tree then sprouted from his navel and its shade compassed the world
Osman I
–
Ottoman miniature painting depicting Osman I
Osman I
–
An imagined portrait of Osman I
Osman I
–
Illustration of Osman rallying Gazi warriors into battle.
Osman I
–
Türbe (tomb) of Osman Gazi in
Bursa
29.
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
–
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey, usually referred to simply as the TBMM or Parliament, is the unicameral Turkish legislature. It is the body given the legislative prerogatives by the Turkish Constitution. It was founded in Ankara on 23 April 1920 in the midst of the Turkish War of Independence. The parliament was fundamental in the efforts of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkey has had a history of parliamentary government before the establishment of the current national parliament. There were two parliamentary governments during the Ottoman period in what is now Turkey, the First Constitutional Era lasted for only two years, elections being held only twice. The Second Constitutional Era is considered to have begun on 23 July 1908, freedom to hold meetings and establish political parties was recognized, and the government was held responsible to the assembly, not to the sultan. During the two eras of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman parliament was called the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire and was bicameral. The upper house was the Senate of the Ottoman Empire, the members of which were selected by the sultan, the lower chamber of the General Assembly was the Chamber of Deputies of the Ottoman Empire, the members of which were elected by the general public. After World War I, the victorious Allied Powers sought the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire through the Treaty of Sèvres, the political existence of the Turkish nation was to be completely eliminated under these plans, except for a small region. Nationalist Turkish sentiment rose in the Anatolian peninsula, engendering the establishment of the Turkish national movement, the political developments during this period have made a lasting impact which continues to affect the character of the Turkish nation. The Sultanate was abolished by the newly founded parliament in 1922 and he also stated that the members of the dispersed Ottoman Chamber of Deputies could also participate in the assembly in Ankara, to increase the representative power of the parliament. These elections were held as planned, in the style of the elections of the preceding Chamber of Deputies and this Grand National Assembly, established on national sovereignty, held its inaugural session on 23 April 1920. From this date until the end of the Turkish War of Independence in 1923, the Liberal Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt at a multiparty democracy was made until 1945. The multi-party period in Turkey was resumed by the founding of the National Development Party, by Nuri Demirağ, under the constitution of 1961, the Grand National Assembly was a bicameral parliament with over 600 members, the newly established upper house being the Senate of the Republic. Following the 1980 military coup, the Senate was dissolved and the Turkish parliament again became unicameral under the current constitution approved in a referendum in 1982. To avoid a hung parliament and its political fragmentation, a party must win at least 10% of the national vote to qualify for representation in the parliament. As a result of this threshold, only two won seats in the legislature after the 2002 elections and three in 2007. The 2002 elections saw every party represented in the previous parliament ejected from the chamber and this rather high threshold has been internationally criticised, but a complaint with the European Court for Human Rights was turned down
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
–
Grand National Assembly of Turkey Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
–
President Atatürk and his colleagues leaving the building of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (today the Museum of the Republic) after a meeting for the seventh anniversary of the foundation of the
Republic of Turkey (1930).
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
–
Eighteen
female deputies joined the
Turkish Parliament with the 1935 general elections
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