1.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
2.
National flag
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A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
3.
State ensign
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Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
4.
Naval ensign
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Naval ensign is the ensign used by Navy vessels to denote nationality. It can be the same or different from the civil ensign and its also known as the war ensign. A large version of the naval ensign which is flown on a warships mast just before going into battle is called a battle ensign, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. Most countries have one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. Some naval ensign differ in shape from the flag, such as the Nordic naval ensigns which have tongues. Naval ensigns that are different from the ensign and the national flag
5.
Ukrainian language
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Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
6.
Romanisation of Ukrainian
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The romanization or Latinization of Ukrainian is the representation of the Ukrainian language using Latin letters. Ukrainian is natively written in its own Ukrainian alphabet, which is based on the Cyrillic script, methods of romanization include transliteration, representing written text, and transcription, representing the spoken word. In contrast to romanization, there have been several proposals for a native Ukrainian Latin alphabet, usually based on those used by West Slavic languages. Transliteration is the representation of text using another writing system. Also called scientific transliteration, this system is most often seen in publications on Slavic languages. It is purely phonemic, meaning each character represents one unit of sound. It was codified in the 1898 Prussian Instructions for libraries, or Preußische Instruktionen and it was later adopted by the International Organization for Standardization, with minor differences, as ISO/R9. Representing all of the diacritics on computers requires Unicode, Latin-2, Latin-4. Other Slavic based romanizations occasionally seen are those based on the Slovak alphabet or the Polish alphabet, the ALA-LC Romanization Tables, published by the American Library Association and Library of Congress. Used to represent bibliographic information by US and Canadian libraries, by the British Library since 1975, the latest 1997 revision is very similar to the 1905 version. Requires Unicode for connecting diacritics—these are used in bibliographies and catalogues, British Standard 2979,1958, from BSI, is used by the Oxford University Press. A variation is used by the British Museum and British Library, a modified version is also mentioned in the Oxford Style Manual. Requires only ASCII characters if optional separators are not used, the Soviet Unions GOST, COMECONs SEV, and Ukraines Derzhstandart are government standards bodies of the former Eurasian communist countries. They published a series of systems for Ukrainian, which were replaced by ISO9,1995. ISO9 is a standard from the International Organization for Standardization and it supports most national Cyrillic alphabets in a single transliteration table. Each Cyrillic character is represented by one unique Latin character. This was originally derived from the Scholarly system in 1954, and is meant to be usable by readers of most European languages, the 1995 revision considers only graphemes and disregards phonemic differences. So, for example, г is always represented by the g, ґ is represented by g̀
7.
Constitution of Ukraine
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The Constitution of Ukraine is the nations fundamental law. The constitution was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on 28 June 1996, the constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible. Other laws and other legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special procedure is vested exclusively with the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, since 1996 the public holiday Constitution Day is celebrated 28 June. Until June 8,1995, Ukraines supreme law was the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR, on June 8,1995, President Leonid Kuchma and Speaker Oleksandr Moroz signed the Constitutional Agreement for the period until a new constitution could be drafted. 254/96-BP ratifying the constitution, nullifying previous constitutions and the Agreement was ceremonially signed and promulgated in mid-July 1996. However, according to a ruling of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, Ukraine was the last of the post-Soviet states that adopted its own constitution. The Constitution of Ukraine is divided into 15 chapters, General Principles Human and Citizens Rights, Freedoms, referendums Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine President of Ukraine Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. In addition amendments to Chapter I — General Principles, Chapter III — Elections, on December 8,2004, the parliament passed Law No. The law was approved with a 90 percent majority simultaneously with other measures aimed at resolving the 2004 presidential election crisis. It was signed almost immediately in the chamber by the outgoing President Leonid Kuchma. These amendments weakened the power of the President of Ukraine, he/she lost the power to nominate the Prime Minister of Ukraine, the President could only appoint the Minister of Defence and Foreign Minister. The President also lost the right to dismiss members of the Cabinet of Ukraine, if no coalition in parliament could be formed to appoint a Prime Minister, the President would have no choice but to call new parliamentary elections. The 2004 constitutional amendments were passed in the Parliament only with limited consultation and discussion between political forces, in the context of the Orange Revolution and they therefore attracted criticism from several internal and external bodies. The amendments took force unconditionally on January 1,2006, the remaining amendments took force on May 25,2006, when the new parliament assembled after the 2006 elections. On October 1,2010, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine overturned the 2004 amendments, the Court had started to consider the case on the political reform in 2004 under a motion from 252 coalition lawmakers regarding the constitutionality of this reform of July 14,2010. The 2010 nullification decision was highly controversial, as Constitutional Courts are bound by the Constitution and do not stand above it, such decisions raise important questions of democratic legitimacy and the rule of law
8.
Revolutions of 1848
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It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history. The revolutions were essentially democratic in nature, with the aim of removing the old feudal structures, the revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread to most of Europe. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation between their respective revolutionaries, the uprisings were led by shaky ad hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of monarchy in Denmark. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, the states that would make up the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. The revolutions arose from such a variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout the first half of the 19th century, both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments. Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes, a popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants, large swaths of the nobility were discontented with royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, additionally, an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia, planned but not actually carried out, occurred in Greater Poland. Next, the middle classes began to agitate, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, working in Brussels, had written Manifesto of the Communist Party at the request of the Communist League. Following the March insurrection in Berlin, they began agitating in Germany, the middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their participations in the revolutions, however, differed, while much of the impetus came from the middle classes, much of the cannon fodder came from the lower. The revolts first erupted in the cities, the population in French rural areas had risen rapidly, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in the feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled laborers toiled from 12 to 15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, traditional artisans felt the pressure of industrialization, having lost their guilds. Revolutionaries such as Karl Marx built up a following, the situation in the German states was similar
9.
Lviv Town Hall
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The city of Lviv, Ukraine has had a series of town hall buildings since approximately 1357. These have for centuries been recognized landmarks of the community, the first town hall in Lviv appeared shortly after the city government rights. The building was made of wood and soon it burned down, after the fire the construction of a stone town hall was started. By the end of the age the Lviv city hall was a conglomeration of buildings. The middle part of the building was its oldest part, dating from the 14th century, the western part was built in the years 1491-1504. The dominant feature of the composition was the tallest tower, topped by a mannerist shako, a new tower was laid in 1827 and built between 1830 and 1835 following a Viennese Classical style. Authors of the project were architects Y, the City Hall is a four-story building with a patio, and features a town hall clock tower. In 1848 during the events in Lviv city center the original clock tower collapsed. In 1851 the building was repaired, since 1939 the building houses the Lviv city council
10.
West Ukrainian People's Republic
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The West Ukrainian Peoples Republic was a short-lived republic that existed in late 1918 and early 1919 in eastern Galicia. It included the cities of Lviv, Przemyśl, Kolomyia and Stanislaviv and claimed parts of Bukovina, politically, the Ukrainian National Democratic Party dominated the legislative assembly, guided by varying degrees of Greek Catholic, liberal and socialist ideology. Other parties represented included the Ukrainian Radical Party and the Christian Social Party, the coat of arms of the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic was Azure, a lion rampant Or. The colours of the flag were blue and yellow, according to the Austro-Hungarian census of 1910, the territory claimed by the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic had about 5.4 million people. Of these,3,291,000 were Ukrainians,1,351,000 were Poles,660,000 were Jews, the cities and towns of this largely rural region were mostly populated by Poles and Jews, while the Ukrainians dominated the countryside. This would prove problematic for the Ukrainians, because the largest city, among the largest oil reserves in Europe were near Lviv at Drohobych and Boryslav in the upper Dniester River. Thus the stage was set for conflict between the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic and Poland, the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic was proclaimed on November 1,1918. A few weeks later Lvivs rebellious Poles received support from Poland, on November 9 Polish forces attempted to seize the Drohobych oil fields by surprise but were driven back, outnumbered by the Ukrainians. Meanwhile, two smaller states immediately west of the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic, also declared independence as result of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Komancza Republic was an association of thirty Lemko villages, based around Komańcza in eastern Lemkivshchyna. It existed between November 4,1918 and January 23,1919, being pro-Ukrainian it planned to unite with the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic, but was suppressed by the Polish government as part of the Polish–Ukrainian War. On December 5,1918 the Ruska Narodna Respublika Lemkiv also declared independence, the Lemko Rusyn National Republic was centered on Florynka, a village in the south-east of present-day Poland. Russophile sentiment prevailed among its inhabitants, who were opposed to a union with the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic, an agreement to unite western Ukraine with the rest of Ukraine was made as early as December 1,1918. The government of the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic officially united with the Ukrainian Peoples Republic on January 22,1919 and this was mostly a symbolic act, however. Since western Ukraine had a different tradition in its legal, social and political norms it was to be autonomous within a united Ukraine, furthermore, western Ukrainians retained their own Ukrainian Galician Army and government structure. Despite the formal union, the Western Ukrainian Republic and the Ukrainian Peoples Republic fought in separate wars, the former was preoccupied with a conflict with Poland while the latter struggled with Soviet and Russian forces. Relations between the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the Kiev-based Ukrainian Peoples Republic were somewhat strained, the leadership of the former tended to be more conservative in orientation. The poor discipline in Kievs army and the insubordination of its officers shocked the Galician delegates sent to Kiev, in July 1919, the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic established a government-in-exile in the city of Kamianets-Podilskyi. In August 1919, Kost Levytsky, head of the Western Ukrainian state secretariat, Western Ukrainian diplomats in Paris sought contact with Russian counterparts in that city
11.
Ukrainian People's Republic
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Between April and December 1918 the Ukrainian Peoples Republic did not function, having been overthrown by the Ukrainian State of Pavlo Skoropadsky. From autumn 1919 the UNR operated as an ally of the Second Polish Republic, the 18 March 1921 Treaty of Riga between the Second Polish Republic, Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine sealed the fate of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic. These two sides fought constantly with each other, which resulted in casualties among Ukrainians fighting in a civil war as part of the wider Ukrainian-Soviet War of 1917-1921. The Soviet Union would extend control over what would become the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. On 10 June 1917 the Ukrainian Central Council declared its autonomy as part of the Russian Republic by its First Universal at the All-Ukrainian Military Congress, the highest governing body of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic became the General Secretariat headed by Volodymyr Vynnychenko. After the October Revolution the Kievan faction of the Bolshevik Party instigated the uprising in Kiev on November 8,1917 in order to establish Soviet power in the city. Kiev Military District forces attempted to stop it, but after the Tsentralna Rada threw its support behind the Bolsheviks, after expelling the government forces, the Rada announced a wider autonomy for the Ukrainian Republic, still maintaining ties to Russia, on November 22,1917. It also stated that the people of the governorates, Voronezh, Kholm, the Central Rada called all revolutionary activities such as the October Revolution a civil war and expressed its hopes for the resolution of the chaos. After a brief truce, the Bolsheviks realized that the Rada had no intention of supporting the Bolshevik Revolution and they re-organized into an All-Ukrainian Council of Soviets in December 1917 in an attempt to seize power. When that failed due to the Bolsheviks relative lack of popularity in Kiev, the Bolshevik Red Army entered Ukraine from the Russian SFSR in support of the local Soviet government. The Donetsk-Kryvoi Rog Republic was created by a decree of Lenin as part of the Russian SFSR with its capital in Kharkiv. That decree was implemented by Fyodor Sergeyev who became the chairman of the local government as well as joining the Soviet government of Ukraine. The congress accepted the declaration of a plan of Ukrainization of the Russian Army. The congress showed its support to the Ukrainian Central Council, Petty Council created of the Regional Committee in Protection of Revolution in Ukraine. The committee announced the extension of its powers over the nine Ukrainian governorates November 8 – the Ukrainian Central Council adopted a resolution which condemned the revolution, each deputy represents 100,000 of population, a right of vote have citizens of 20 years and older. International diplomatic missions transferred their offices from Mohyliv-Podilsky to Kiev, the Petty Council adopted the law about the new monetary system. The monetary unit became hryvnia that had 8.712 units of pure gold, less than a month later, on February 9,1918, the Red Army seized Kiev. Germany helped the Ukrainian Army force the Bolsheviks out of Ukraine, on February 20,1918 the council of the Kuban Peoples Republic accepted the resolution for a federal union of Kuban with Ukraine as Bolshevik forces pushed towards Yekaterinodar
12.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
13.
Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
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The first flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was adopted on March 10,1919 to serve as the symbol of state of the Ukrainian SSR. Details of the flag changed periodically before the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991. Before this 1919 flag, a flag in 1918 was used with red and blue, the first flag was red with the gold Cyrillic sans-serif letters У. С. С. Р. In the 1930s a gold border was added, in 1937, a new flag was adopted, with a small gold hammer and sickle added above the gold Cyrillic serif letters У. Р. С. Р. The Soviet Union and two of its republics all became members of the nascent United Nations in 1945, since all of their flags were red with only small markings in upper left corner, the UN demanded changes to the flags in 1949. To comply, the Ukrainian Soviet authorities dropped the lettering and added a horizontal stripe. Ukraine adopted this new design as its flag on July 5,1950. Other constituent republics of the Soviet Union soon followed suit and customized the bottom third of their flags, the 1918 flag was officially adopted on January 8,1992. The use of flag was outlawed in Ukraine as of May 2015 amid the crisis against the pro-Russian rebels that first began in late 2013. Emblem of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Flag of Ukraine List of flags of Ukraine Ukraine in the Soviet Union, detailed history of flag designs
14.
Parliament of Ukraine
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The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, often simply Verkhovna Rada or just Rada, is the unicameral parliament of Ukraine. The Verkhovna Rada is composed of 450 deputies, who are presided over by a chairman, the Verkhovna Rada meets in the Verkhovna Rada building in Ukraines capital Kiev. The current parliament is the eighth convocation, in elections to the Verkhovna Rada, a mixed voting system is used. 50% of seats are distributed under party lists with a 5% election threshold, the method of 50/50 mixed elections was used in the 2002 and 2012 elections, however, in 2006 and 2007, the elections were held under a proportional system only. The name Rada means council, rede and it originated in Kievan Rus, and then represented a boyar and higher clergy council. It was also used by Dnieper Cossacks in the 17th and 18th centuries for the meetings where major decisions were made and this name was later used by the Ukrainian Peoples Republic between March 17,1917 and April 29,1918. As well as West Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the Ukrainian government in exile where it was known as UNRada, Verkhovna, is the feminine form of the adjective верховне meaning supreme. It is derived from the Ukrainian word верх meaning top, another name used less often is the Parliament of Ukraine. The All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets had already renamed the Supreme Council in 1927. The Congress of Soviets was initiated by the Central Executive Committee of Ukraine, the last chairman of the committee was Hryhoriy Petrovsky. The first elections to the Supreme Council of the Ukrainian SSR took place on June 26,1938, the first session of the parliament took place in Kiev on July 25 through 28,1938. The first Chairman of the council was Mykhailo Burmystenko who later died during World War II, in 1938, a presidium of the council was created that was led by Leonid Korniyets. During the war the presidium was evacuated to the city of Saratov in the Russian SFSR, on June 29,1943, the presidium issued an order postponing elections for the new convocation for one year while extending the first convocation. On January 8,1944, the Cabinet of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR in agreement with the Communist Party decided to relocate the Presidium of the Supreme Council from Kharkiv to Kiev, new elections were scheduled for February 9,1947 for the Council. Until 24 August 1991 Verkhovna Rada kept the name Supreme Council of the Ukrainian SSR, the first partially free elections to the Verkhovna Rada and local councils of peoples deputies were held on 4 March 1990. m. At the time, the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada was Leonid Kravchuk, the Act of Ukrainian Independence was overwhelmingly supported in a national referendum held on December 1,1991. On September 12,1991 the parliament adopted the law On Legal Succession of Ukraine, thus, the VR became the Supreme Council of Ukraine. The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted by the convocation of the Verkhovna Rada on June 28,1996
15.
Pantone
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Pantone Inc. is a corporation headquartered in Carlstadt, New Jersey. X-Rite Inc. a supplier of color measurement instruments and software, Pantone began in New York City in the 1950s as the commercial printing company of M & J Levine Advertising. In 1956, its founders, advertising executives brothers Mervin and Jesse Levine, for instance, a particular page might contain a number of yellows of varying tints. The idea behind the PMS is to allow designers to color match specific colors when a design enters production stage and this system has been widely adopted by graphic designers and reproduction and printing houses. Pantone recommends that PMS Color Guides be purchased annually, as their inks become yellowish over time, Color variance also occurs within editions based on the paper stock used, while interedition color variance occurs when there are changes to the specific paper stock used. The Pantone Color Matching System is largely a standardized color reproduction system, by standardizing the colors, different manufacturers in different locations can all refer to the Pantone system to make sure colors match without direct contact with one another. One such use is standardizing colors in the CMYK process, the CMYK process is a method of printing color by using four inks—cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. A majority of the printed material is produced using the CMYK process. Those that are possible to simulate through the CMYK process are labeled as such within the companys guides, however, most of the Pantone systems 1,114 spot colors cannot be simulated with CMYK but with 13 base pigments mixed in specified amounts. The Pantone system also allows for many special colors to be produced, such as metallics, while most of the Pantone system colors are beyond the printed CMYK gamut, it was only in 2001 that Pantone began providing translations of their existing system with screen-based colors. Screen-based colors use the RGB color model—red, green, blue—system to create various colors, the Goe system has RGB and LAB values with each color. Pantone colors are described by their allocated number, PMS colors are almost always used in branding and have even found their way into government legislation and military standards. In January 2003, the Scottish Parliament debated a petition to refer to the blue in the Scottish flag as Pantone 300, countries such as Canada and South Korea and organizations such as the FIA have also chosen to refer to specific Pantone colors to use when producing flags. US states including Texas have set legislated PMS colors of their flags and it has also been used in an art project by the Brazilian photographer Angelica Dass which applies Pantone to the human skin color spectrum. On September 5,2007, Pantone introduced the Goe System, Goe consisted of over 2,000 new colors in a new matching and numbering system. The Goe system was streamlined to use base colors and accommodate many technical challenges in reproducing colors on a press. The Pantone Goe system was discontinued in November 2013, in mid-2006 Pantone, partnering with Vermont-based Fine Paints of Europe, introduced a new line of interior and exterior paints. The color palette uses Pantones color research and trending and has more than 3,000 colors, in November 2015, Pantone partnered with Redland London to create a collection of bags inspired from Pantones authority on color
16.
RAL colour standard
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RAL is a colour matching system used in Europe that is created and administrated by the German RAL gGmbH, which is a subsidiary of the German RAL Institute. In colloquial speech RAL refers to the RAL Classic system, mainly used for varnish and powder coating, approved RAL products are provided with a hologram as of early 2013 to make unauthorised versions difficult to produce. Imitations may show different hue and colour when observed under light sources. In 1927 the German Reichs-Ausschuß für Lieferbedingungen und Gütesicherung invented a collection of forty colours under the name of RAL840, prior to that date manufacturers and customers had to exchange samples to describe a tint, whereas from then on they would rely on numbers. In the 1930s the numbers were changed uniformly to four digits, with tints constantly added to the collection, it was revised again in 1961 and changed to RAL 840-HR, which consists of 210 colors and is in use to this day. In the 1960s the colours were given names to avoid confusion in case of transposed digits. As RAL 840-HR covered only matte paint the 1980s saw the invention of RAL 841-GL for glossy surfaces, a main criterion for colours in the RAL Classic collection is to be of paramount interest. Therefore, most of the colours in it are used on warning and traffic signs or are dedicated to government agencies, the first digit relates to the shade of the colour, This collection, which follows the naming of RAL Classic, was invented in 1984. It is nowadays made up of ten colours, used by the Bundeswehr for military camouflage coating, in 1993 a new colour matching system was introduced, tailored to the needs of architects, designers and advertisers. It started with 1,688 colours and was revised to 1,625 colours, the colours of RAL Classic and RAL Design do not intersect. Contrary to the systems, RAL Design features no names and its numbering follows a scheme based on the CIELAB colour space. Each colour is represented by seven digits, grouped in a triple, the three numeric components of almost all RAL Design colours are multiples of 5, most are even divisible by 10. RAL Effect comprises 420 solid colours and, as a particular highlight and it is the first collection from RAL to be based on waterborne paint systems. No use is made of metals such as lead, cadmium. The newly developed, multifunctional double colour fan RAL E2 underlines the character of RAL Effect, RAL Effect allows eco-efficient colour production for all paint and lacquer producers. The software for architects, interior decorators and all those who deal with colours in a creative way, RAL Digital integrates the colours of RAL Classic, RAL Effect and RAL Design into graphics and CAD programs. Colour Feeling 09/10 is primarily designed as a planning tool for designers, architects, interior designers. It is meant to be a source of inspiration on how to combine the main trend colours for the coming two years
17.
RGB color model
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The RGB color model is an additive color model in which red, green and blue light are added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors. The name of the model comes from the initials of the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Before the electronic age, the RGB color model already had a theory behind it. Thus an RGB value does not define the same color across devices without some kind of color management, typical RGB input devices are color TV and video cameras, image scanners, video games, and digital cameras. Typical RGB output devices are TV sets of technologies, computer and mobile phone displays, video projectors, multicolor LED displays. Color printers, on the hand are not RGB devices. This article discusses concepts common to all the different color spaces that use the RGB color model, to form a color with RGB, three light beams must be superimposed. Each of the three beams is called a component of color, and each of them can have an arbitrary intensity, from fully off to fully on. The RGB color model is additive in the sense that the three beams are added together, and their light spectra add, wavelength for wavelength. This is essentially opposite to the color model that applies to paints, inks, dyes. When the intensities for all the components are the same, the result is a shade of gray, darker or lighter depending on the intensity. When the intensities are different, the result is a colorized hue, a secondary color is formed by the sum of two primary colors of equal intensity, cyan is green+blue, magenta is red+blue, and yellow is red+green. The RGB color model itself does not define what is meant by red, green and blue colorimetrically, and so the results of mixing them are not specified as absolute, but relative to the primary colors. When the exact chromaticities of the red, green and blue primaries are defined, the normal three kinds of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells in the human eye respond most to yellow, green, and violet light. As an example, suppose that light in the range of wavelengths enters the eye. Light of these wavelengths would activate both the medium and long wavelength cones of the retina, but not equally—the long-wavelength cells will respond more, the difference in the response can be detected by the brain, and this difference is the basis of our perception of orange. Thus, the appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously. The first experiments with RGB in early color photography were made in 1861 by Maxwell himself, to reproduce the color photograph, three matching projections over a screen in a dark room were necessary
18.
CMYK
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The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four used in some color printing, cyan, magenta, yellow. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer, the K in CMYK stands for key because in four-color printing, cyan, magenta and yellow printing plates are carefully keyed, or aligned, with the key of the black key plate. Some sources suggest that the K in CMYK comes from the last letter in black and was chosen because B already means blue. Some sources claim this explanation, although useful as a mnemonic, is incorrect, the CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected, such a model is called subtractive because inks subtract brightness from white. In additive color models such as RGB, white is the combination of all primary colored lights. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite, white is the color of the paper or other background. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of the combination of cyan, magenta, with halftoning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced. To improve print quality and reduce moiré patterns, the screen for each color is set at a different angle. Common reasons for using black ink include, In traditional preparation of color separations, in some cases a black keyline was used when it served as both a color indicator and an outline to be printed in black. Because usually the black plate contained the keyline, the K in CMYK represents the keyline or black plate, also sometimes called the key plate. A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making it slower to dry, causing bleeding, adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks. Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored inks. When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY bedding is applied first, then a black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black. A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black, the amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix. CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time
19.
Heraldry
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The beauty and pageantry of heraldic designs allowed them to survive the gradual abandonment of armour on the battlefield during the seventeenth century. Heraldry has been described poetically as the handmaid of history, the shorthand of history, in modern times, heraldry is used by individuals, public and private organizations, corporations, cities, towns, and regions to symbolize their heritage, achievements, and aspirations. Various symbols have been used to represent individuals or groups for thousands of years, similar emblems and devices are found in ancient Mesopotamian art of the same period, and the precursors of heraldic beasts such as the griffin can also be found. In the Bible, the Book of Numbers refers to the standards and ensigns of the children of Israel, the Greek and Latin writers frequently describe the shields and symbols of various heroes, and units of the Roman army were sometimes identified by distinctive markings on their shields. The Book of Saint Albans, compiled in 1486, declares that Christ himself was a gentleman of coat armour, the medieval heralds also devised arms for various knights and lords from history and literature. Notable examples include the toads attributed to Pharamond, the cross and martlets of Edward the Confessor, and the arms attributed to the Nine Worthies. These too are now regarded as an invention, rather than evidence of the antiquity of heraldry. The development of the modern heraldic language cannot be attributed to an individual, time. Yet no individual is depicted twice bearing the arms, nor are any of the descendants of the various persons depicted known to have borne devices resembling those in the tapestry. A Spanish manuscript from 1109 describes both plain and decorated shields, none of which appears to have been heraldic, in England, from the time of the Norman conquest, official documents had to be sealed. A notable example of an armorial seal is attached to a charter granted by Philip I, Count of Flanders. Seals from the part of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries show no evidence of heraldic symbolism. One of the earliest known examples of armory as it came to be practiced can be seen on the tomb of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. An enamel, probably commissioned by Geoffreys widow between 1155 and 1160, depicts him carrying a shield decorated with six golden lions rampant. He wears a helmet adorned with another lion, and his cloak is lined in vair. A medieval chronicle states that Geoffrey was given a shield of this description when he was knighted by his father-in-law, Henry I, in 1128, but this account probably dates to about 1175. Since Henry was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, it seems reasonable to suppose that the adoption of lions as an emblem by Henry or his sons might have been inspired by Geoffreys shield. Richard is also credited with having originated the English crest of a lion statant and it is from this garment that the phrase coat of arms is derived
20.
Vexillology
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Vexillology is the scientific study of the history, symbolism and usage of flags or, by extension, any interest in flags in general. A person who studies flags is a vexillologist, vexillography is the art of designing flags, one who does so is a vexillographer, the study of flags, or vexillology, was formalized by the U. S. scholar and student of flags Whitney Smith in 1957. The term was conceived in 1958 by Smith and it has historically and appropriately been considered a sub-discipline of heraldry. Since 1965, an International Congress of Vexillology has been organized two years under the auspices of FIAV. The 2015 ICV was in Sydney, Australia, glossary of vexillology Flag Institute Leepson, Marc. New York, Thomas Dunne Books,2005, flags Through the Ages and Across the World. Media related to Vexillology at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Verkhovna rada
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The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, often simply Verkhovna Rada or just Rada, is the unicameral parliament of Ukraine. The Verkhovna Rada is composed of 450 deputies, who are presided over by a chairman, the Verkhovna Rada meets in the Verkhovna Rada building in Ukraines capital Kiev. The current parliament is the eighth convocation, in elections to the Verkhovna Rada, a mixed voting system is used. 50% of seats are distributed under party lists with a 5% election threshold, the method of 50/50 mixed elections was used in the 2002 and 2012 elections, however, in 2006 and 2007, the elections were held under a proportional system only. The name Rada means council, rede and it originated in Kievan Rus, and then represented a boyar and higher clergy council. It was also used by Dnieper Cossacks in the 17th and 18th centuries for the meetings where major decisions were made and this name was later used by the Ukrainian Peoples Republic between March 17,1917 and April 29,1918. As well as West Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the Ukrainian government in exile where it was known as UNRada, Verkhovna, is the feminine form of the adjective верховне meaning supreme. It is derived from the Ukrainian word верх meaning top, another name used less often is the Parliament of Ukraine. The All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets had already renamed the Supreme Council in 1927. The Congress of Soviets was initiated by the Central Executive Committee of Ukraine, the last chairman of the committee was Hryhoriy Petrovsky. The first elections to the Supreme Council of the Ukrainian SSR took place on June 26,1938, the first session of the parliament took place in Kiev on July 25 through 28,1938. The first Chairman of the council was Mykhailo Burmystenko who later died during World War II, in 1938, a presidium of the council was created that was led by Leonid Korniyets. During the war the presidium was evacuated to the city of Saratov in the Russian SFSR, on June 29,1943, the presidium issued an order postponing elections for the new convocation for one year while extending the first convocation. On January 8,1944, the Cabinet of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR in agreement with the Communist Party decided to relocate the Presidium of the Supreme Council from Kharkiv to Kiev, new elections were scheduled for February 9,1947 for the Council. Until 24 August 1991 Verkhovna Rada kept the name Supreme Council of the Ukrainian SSR, the first partially free elections to the Verkhovna Rada and local councils of peoples deputies were held on 4 March 1990. m. At the time, the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada was Leonid Kravchuk, the Act of Ukrainian Independence was overwhelmingly supported in a national referendum held on December 1,1991. On September 12,1991 the parliament adopted the law On Legal Succession of Ukraine, thus, the VR became the Supreme Council of Ukraine. The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted by the convocation of the Verkhovna Rada on June 28,1996
22.
Coat of arms of Ukraine
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It appears on the Presidential standard of Ukraine. Blue colored tridents are considered to be irregular representation by the Ukrainian Heraldry Society, the small coat of arms was officially adopted on 19 February 1992, while constitutional provisions exist for establishing the great coat of arms, which is not yet officially adopted. The small coat of arms was designed by Andriy Grechylo, Olexiy Kokhan and Ivan Turetskyi and it is a representation of the seal-trident of Volodymyr the Great. The Great coat of arms which has not been adopted consists of the coat of arms. The trident was not thought of as a national symbol until 1917, on 22 March 1918, the Central Rada adopted it as the coat of arms of the short-lived Ukrainian Peoples Republic. During the Soviet period of 1919-1991 and independence between 1991-1992 the state symbols were consistent with the Russian SFSR and the Soviet Union - a hammer, the modern trident symbol was adopted as the coat of arms of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic in February 1918. The design has precedents in seals of the Kiyivan Rus, the first known archeological and historical evidence of this symbol can be found on the seals of the Rurik dynasty. The symbol was also found on the bricks of the Church of the Tithes in Kiyiv, the tiles of the Dormition Cathedral in Volodymyr-Volynskyi, and the stones of other churches, castles, and palaces. There are many examples of it used on ceramics, weapons, rings, medallions, seals, most historians agree that the medieval symbol was not intended as depicting a trident, but most likely a stylized falcon. Depictions of a falcon with a cross above its head have been found in Old Ladoga. Such a falcon, along with a cross are also featured on the coins of Olaf Guthfrithsson, falconry for centuries has been a royal sport in Europe. The gyrfalcon was considered a bird and is mentioned in one of the earliest epics of Ruthenia. Later images of the trident among the Rurikids resemble more a bident or the letter У, the Tryzub was also used in conjunction with the Russian tricolor, as the symbol of the anti-communist movement National Alliance of Russian Solidarists in the early 20th century. Furthermore, the Tryzub is heavily used in the heraldry of the Italian Army to commemorate the Italian participation on the Eastern Front during World War II. At least 36 units of the Italian Army carry the Tryzub in their Coat of Arms, a three-fingered hand salute is sometimes used to mimic the Tryzub, as for example in pro-independence demonstrations in the late 1980s and in the logo of the Svoboda party. The coat of arms for Kingdom of Rus and Duchy of Galicia–Volhynia existed since 12th century and it consisted of lion rampant Or on heater shield Azure. After the occupation of Eastern Galicia by the Kingdom of Poland as a result of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars and it was abandoned with partition of Poland and annexation of territory by the Austrian Empire. At the end of World War I and dissolution of Austria-Hungary, with annexation of the West Ukraine by Poland again in 1918 and later the Soviet Union, the gold lion symbol became coat of arms for city of Lviv
23.
Cinderella stamp
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In philately, a cinderella stamp is virtually anything resembling a postage stamp, but not issued for postal purposes by a government postal administration. The term also excludes imprinted stamps on postal stationery, as cinderella stamps are defined by what they are not, there are many different types and the term is usually construed fairly loosely. Revenue stamps are sometime considered cinderellas, but as they are issued by an official government agency. Some telegraph, railway and other stamps may also be issued by government agencies, local stamps have a long history and began to be issued soon after the invention of the postage stamp. Zemstvo stamps were issued in areas of the Russian Empire. Many local stamps performed a genuine postal function where the national post was lacking, other locals, however, amount to nothing more than colourful labels. In the United Kingdom many local carriage labels have been issued by offshore islands, others were produced simply to sell to collectors and tourists. Usually they had to be placed on the back of the envelope, islands for which such labels have been issued include the Summer Isles, Lundy and the Calf of Man. Hotel Stamps may also be regarded as a form of local stamp, Stamps with encouraging slogans have been attached to letters for prisoners of war, or troops serving abroad. The Indian National Army produced ten stamps as part of their campaign, from 1951 to 1966, UNESCO issued a series of 41 gift stamps. Considered to be cinderellas, they were produced to raise money for the organization, the series is unusual in being an international cooperative effort. Most are readily available from specialized dealers, colin Ward, along with Harper, published a book in 1997 called Stamps, Designs For Anarchist Postage Stamps, containing an essay by Ward on the subject of anarchists and postage stamps. Fund-raising stamps with anti-state messages have appeared within labor unions such as the ones printed by the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo, current officially licensed Heritage railway-operated services include the Ffestiniog Railway Letter Service. United Kingdom railway letter stamps almost always specify a fee for the use of this official, sometimes a fictitious country or denomination may be present. While many cinderella stamps are common, others were produced in limited numbers, are little-known. Revenue stamps are a competitive category within the FIP and have their own commissioner. There are cinderella stamp clubs in the United Kingdom and in Australia and its not a stamp, but it looks a lot like one. Cinderellas add more fun to your collection, archived from the original on 2013-07-07
24.
Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists
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The Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists was a Ukrainian political organization created in 1929 in Vienna and acting in Western Ukraine. The OUN sought to infiltrate political parties, universities and other political structures. As revolutionary ultra-nationalists the OUN have been characterized by historians as fascist. The OUNs strategy to achieve Ukrainian independence included violence and terrorism against perceived foreign and domestic enemies, particularly Poland, in 1940, the OUN split into two parts. The older, more members, supported Andriy Melnyk while the younger. In response, the Nazi authorities suppressed OUN leadership, in October 1942 OUN-B established the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. To preempt future Polish efforts at re-establishing Polands pre-war borders, in 1943-44 UPA military units carried out ethnic cleansing against Polish people. Historians estimate that 60, 000-100,000 Polish civilians were massacred in Volhynia, after the war, the UPA fought against Soviet and Polish government forces. During Operation Vistula in 1947, the Polish government deported 140,000 Ukrainian civilians in Poland to remove the support base for the UPA, in the struggle Soviet forces killed, arrested, or deported over 500,000 Ukrainian civilians. Many of those targeted by the Soviets included UPA members, their families, during the Cold War, the OUN was covertly supported by western intelligence agencies, including the CIA. On the other hand, some argue that far-right or extreme-right aspects of modern OUN descendants are emphasized by political opponents for electoral purposes. In 1919 with the end of the Polish–Ukrainian War, the Second Polish Republic took over most of the territory claimed by the West Ukrainian National Republic, the UVO was strictly a military organization with a military command-structure. Yevhen Konovalets, the commander of the elite Sich Riflemen unit of the Ukrainian military. West Ukrainian political parties secretly funded the organization, when in 1923 the Allies recognized Polish rule over western Ukraine, many members left the organization. The legal Ukrainian parties turned against the UVOs militant actions, preferring to work within the Polish political system, as a result, the UVO turned to Germany and Lithuania for political and financial support. Although the members consisted mostly of Galician youths, Yevhen Konovalets served as its first leader and its leadership council and this party promoted constitutional democracy and sought to achieve independence through peaceful means. UNDO was supported by the Ukrainian clergy, intelligentsia, and the establishment and published the main western Ukrainian newspaper. In contrast, the OUN accepted violence as a tool against foreign
25.
Gold (color)
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Gold, also called golden, is one of a variety of yellow-orange color blends used to give the impression of the color of the element gold. The web color gold is sometimes referred to as golden to distinguish it from the metallic gold. The use of gold as a term in traditional usage is more often applied to the color metallic gold. The first recorded use of golden as a name in English was in 1300 to refer to the element gold. Metallic gold, such as in paint, is often called goldtone or gold-tone, in heraldry, the French word or is used. In model building, the gold is different from brass. A shiny or metallic silvertone object can be painted with transparent yellow to obtain goldtone, at right is displayed a representation of the color metallic gold which is a simulation of the color of the actual metallic element gold itself—gold shade. The American Heritage Dictionary defines the color metallic gold as A light olive-brown to dark yellow, or a moderate, of course, the visual sensation usually associated with the metal gold is its metallic shine. This cannot be reproduced by a solid color, because the shiny effect is due to the materials reflective brightness varying with the surfaces angle to the light source. Especially in sacral art in Christian churches, real gold was used for rendering gold in paintings, Gold can also be woven into sheets of silk to give an East Asian traditional look. Old gold is a yellow, which varies from heavy olive or olive brown to deep or strong yellow. The widely accepted color old gold is on the rather than the lighter side of this range. The first recorded use of old gold as a name in English was in the early 19th century. The Delta Sigma Pi fraternity, founded in November 7,1907, official colors are designated royal purple, the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternitys colors are garnet and old gold. Old gold is one of two colors of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, maroon and old gold are the colors of Texas State Universitys intercollegiate sports teams. Old Gold and black are the colors of Purdue University Boilermakers intercollegiate sports teams. The Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets wear white and old gold, the Wake Forest Demon Deacons, UCF Knights, and Vanderbilt Commodores wear old gold and black. The New Orleans Saints list their official team colors as black, old gold, Golden yellow is the color halfway between amber and yellow on the RGB color wheel
26.
Fringe (trim)
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Fringe is an ornamental textile trim applied to an edge of a textile item, such as drapery, a flag, or epaulettes. Fringe originated as a way of preventing a cut piece of fabric from unraveling when a hemming was not used, several strands of weft threads would be removed, and the remaining warp threads would be twisted or braided together to prevent unraveling. In modern fabrics, fringe is more commonly made separately and sewn on, modern add-on fringe may consist wool, silk, linen, or narrow strips of leather. The use of fringe is ancient, and early fringes were generally made of unspun wool, there are many types of fringe. Particularly in Western Europe, as wealth and luxury items proliferated during the Renaissance, styles of fringes were clearly defined in England by at least 1688. Type of fringe include, Bullion fringe, twisted yarn which generally contains threads of silver or gold, the name derives from bullion hose, which had a twisted element at the top that resembled this type of fringe. Modern bullion fringe varies widely in texture and width, but generally is only 3 to 9 inches in length, campaign fringe, from the French word campane, consists of small, bell-like tassels on the end. Thread fringe, untwisted and unbraided loose warp threads
27.
Flag of the Ukrainian SSR
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The first flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was adopted on March 10,1919 to serve as the symbol of state of the Ukrainian SSR. Details of the flag changed periodically before the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991. Before this 1919 flag, a flag in 1918 was used with red and blue, the first flag was red with the gold Cyrillic sans-serif letters У. С. С. Р. In the 1930s a gold border was added, in 1937, a new flag was adopted, with a small gold hammer and sickle added above the gold Cyrillic serif letters У. Р. С. Р. The Soviet Union and two of its republics all became members of the nascent United Nations in 1945, since all of their flags were red with only small markings in upper left corner, the UN demanded changes to the flags in 1949. To comply, the Ukrainian Soviet authorities dropped the lettering and added a horizontal stripe. Ukraine adopted this new design as its flag on July 5,1950. Other constituent republics of the Soviet Union soon followed suit and customized the bottom third of their flags, the 1918 flag was officially adopted on January 8,1992. The use of flag was outlawed in Ukraine as of May 2015 amid the crisis against the pro-Russian rebels that first began in late 2013. Emblem of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Flag of Ukraine List of flags of Ukraine Ukraine in the Soviet Union, detailed history of flag designs
28.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia
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The Great Soviet Encyclopedia is one of the largest Russian-language encyclopedias. Published by the Soviet state from 1926 to 1990, and again since 2002 by Russia, the GSE claimed to be the first Marxist-Leninist general-purpose encyclopedia. The idea of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia emerged in 1923 on the initiative of Otto Schmidt, also involved was Anatoly Lunacharsky, Commissar of Enlightenment, who had previously been involved with a proposal by Alexander Bogdanov and Maxim Gorky to produce a Workers Encyclopedia. The first edition of 65 volumes was published during 1926–1947, the editor being Otto Schmidt. The second edition of 50 volumes was published in 1950–1958, chief editors, Sergei Vavilov and Boris Vvedensky, the third edition of 1969–1978 contains 30 volumes. Volume 24 is in two books, one being a book about the USSR, all with about 21 million words. In the third edition, much attention was paid to the problems of natural sciences, physical and chemical sciences. From 1957 to 1990, the Yearbook of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia was released annually with up-to-date articles about the Soviet Union, the first online edition, an exact replica of text and graphics of the third edition, was published by Rubricon. com in 2000. With exhaustive completeness it must show the superiority of socialist culture over the culture of the capitalist world, operating on Marxist-Leninist theory, the encyclopedia should give a party criticism of contemporary bourgeois tendencies in various provinces of science and technics. The third edition of the GSE subsequently expanded on the role of education, Education is essential to preparing for life and it is the basic means by which people come to know and acquire culture, and it is the foundation of cultures development. A. Vvedensky stating their compliance with the 1949 decree of the Council of Ministers and they are working under a government directive that orders them to orient their encyclopedia as sharply as a political tract. The encyclopedia was planned to provide the intellectual underpinning for the Soviet world offensive in the duel for mens minds. The Soviet government ordered it as a propaganda weapon. And the government attaches such importance to its political role that its board of editors is chosen by and is only to the high Council of Ministers itself. The third edition was translated and published into English in 31 volumes between 1974 and 1983 by Macmillan Publishers, not all entries were translated into English, these are indicated in the index. Articles from the English edition are available online by TheFreeDictionary. com. The third edition was translated into Greek and published in 34 volumes between 1977 and 1983, all articles that were related to Greece or Greek history, culture and society were expanded and hundreds of new ones were written especially for the Greek edition. Thus the encyclopedia contains, for example, both the Russian entry on Greece as well as a larger one prepared by Greek contributors
29.
Ukrainian Ground Forces
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The Ukrainian Ground Forces are the land force component of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. They were formed from Soviet Ground Forces formations, units, and establishments, since Ukraines independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 Ukraine retained its Soviet-era army equipment and have not replaced nor upgraded it. Also the Armed Forces have been systematically downsized since 1991 and as a result it was dilapidated in July 2014. Since the start of the War in Donbass in April 2014 in eastern Ukraine Ukraine is upgrading its Armed Forces and its size of 129,950 in March 2014 had grown to 204,000 active personnel in May 2015. In 2016 75% of the army consisted of contract servicemen, prior to the October Revolution of 1917, three separate self-governing Ukrainian states existed on what is Ukraine today. Each of these states possessed armed forces, the largest of these, the Ukrainian Peoples Republic, itself comprised three separate regimes. The Ukrainian Peoples Army is an example of one of the national armed forces. Other armed independence movements existed in the wake of both the First World War and the Second World War, and these armies each had distinct organisation and uniforms. The Armed Forces of Ukraine included approximately 780,000 personnel,7,000 armored vehicles,6,500 tanks, however, the problem that Ukraine face was that while it had vast armed forces, it lacked a proper command structure. Following the declaration of Ukrainian independence in 1991, Ukraine inherited the 1st Guards Army, 13th Army, 38th Army, two tank armies, and the 32nd Army Corps at Simferopol. In addition, the 28th Guards Motor Rifle Division and the 180th MRD were left in Ukraine, the post of commander of ground troops was designated in early 1992. By the end of 1992, the Kiev Military District disbanded, and Ukraine used its structures as the basis for the Ministry of Defence, between June and August 1993, the first redesignation of armies to army corps appears to have taken place. While the chief of ground forces post had been created in early 1992, the legal framework for the Ground Forces was defined in Article 4 of the law On the Armed Forces of Ukraine. At that time, the Ground Forces had no separate command body, the creation of the Ground Forces as a separate armed service was legally only put in train by Presidential Decree 368/96 of 23 May 1996, On the Ground Forces of Ukraine. That year both the Ground Forces Command was formed and the 1st Army Corps was reorganised as the Northern Territorial Operational Command, in 1997 the Carpathian Military District was reorganised as the Western Operational Command. From 1992 to 1997, the forces of the Kiev MD were transferred to the Odessa MD, a new 2nd Army Corps was formed in the Odessa MD. Armies were converted to army corps, and motor rifle divisions converted into mechanised divisions or brigades, pairs of attack helicopter regiments were combined to form army aviation brigades. Even though the Armed Forces received little more than half of the Hr 68 million it was promised for reform in 2001, officials were able to disband nine regiments, in 2005–06, the Northern Operational Command was reorganised as Territorial Directorate North
30.
National Guard of Ukraine
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The National Guard of Ukraine or NGU is the Ukrainian national gendarmerie. It is part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and it was originally created as an agency under the direct control of the Ukrainian parliament on 4 November 1991, following Ukrainian independence. It was later disbanded and merged into the Internal Troops of Ukraine on 11 January 2000 by then President Leonid Kuchma, following the early 2014 Ukrainian revolution on 13 March 2014, amidst the Russian intervention, the National Guard was reestablished and the Internal Troops were disbanded. During the ongoing war in the Donbass region of Ukraine, the forces of the revived National Guard have fought against pro-Russian separatists. The Azov and Donbass battalions are the largest volunteer units of National Guard by far with a strength of 1,000 and 900 soldiers respectively plus a civilian support network. The National Guard was recreated in accordance with the Law of Ukraine On the National Guard of Ukraine dated 12 March 2014, a previous attempt by then President Yushchenko to bring back the National Guard during civil unrest in 2008 had been blocked in the Rada. It was finally re-established in March 2014 after the beginning of the Crimean crisis, the NSU was originally created by the Law of Ukraine On the National Guard of Ukraine dated 4 November 1991, №1775 -XII. Dissolved by the Law of Ukraine On Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine dated 11 January 2000, formations involved were the 3rd, 4th and 5th divisions NSU. Afterwards, up until 1998, National Guard units backed up the guards in anti-smuggling operations conducted on the border with Moldova. However those plans have run into resistance from at least some of the latter, direct recruitment from military academies is also intended. On 16 March, the Yatsenyuk Government announced plans for the recruitment of 10,000 people within the next 15 days for the National Guard, individual volunteers are also being accepted. The 2014 law provides for an authorised strength of 33,000 personnel. 109 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine and it is hoped that, eventually, the strength of the National Guard will rise to 60,000 personnel. The pay for National Guard regulars is approximately 214 Euros a month, officers receive about twice that amount. There are also some attached Internal Troops personnel, mostly for training and/or logistical support purposes, e. g. K-9 teams that have been taking part in training and demonstration sessions. 3 National Guardsmen died in a riot on 31 August 2015 at the Verkhovna Rada when a policeman on leave threw a grenade outside the facade. In the 2014 structure, it reports both administratively and operationally to the Minister of Internal Affairs, a position at present held by Arsen Avakov, in the old NSU, its overall Commander was originally appointed by the Presidium of the Verkhovna Rada for 5-year terms. His Deputy Commander was appointed to the post by the President of Ukraine upon a submission from the Commander, however, in 1995 the system was changed so that both the Commander and Deputy Commander would be appointed by the President
31.
Ukrainian Navy
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The Ukrainian Naval Forces is the navy of Ukraine and part of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. It consists of five branches, surface forces, submarine forces, Navy aviation, coastal rocket-artillery, in 2007 and prior the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea 15,470 people served the Ukrainian Navy. The headquarters of the Ukrainian Naval Forces was, until the 2014 Crimean crisis, the Naval Forces of Ukraine were highly affected by the Crimea Crisis as majority of their units were stationed there. Ships that did not escape or were not deployed at the time lowered their flags and were interned, Russia began a process of returning the vessels but stopped, citing continued violence against Russians in the Donbass. The ships that were returned were the models of the fleet that were deemed obsolete. For example, Russia chose not to return the corvettes Ternopil and Lutsk, however, none of the Ukrainian naval units retained were absorbed into the Russian Navy. Ukraine has also restarted the production of its Gryuza River Armed Artillery Boat, the navy operates in the Black Sea basin. Distant operations of the Ukrainian Navy are limited to activities, such as Operation Active Endeavour and Operation Atalanta in the Mediterranean. Ukraines naval history can be traced to the Zaporizhian Sich Cossacks, Cossacks utilized small ships called chaikas which were similar in design to Viking long ships. Although technologically inferior to the Turks the Cossacks had great success against their opponent, in 1614 the Cossack forces were able to raid, and destroy Trabzon. In 1615 the Cossacks were able to mount a raid on Istanbul itself, in 1616 a Cossack fleet was able to reach the Bosphorus, once again raiding the surrounding countryside. A Turkish fleet sent to destroy the Cossack forces was defeated in 1617, the Cossacks once again managed to mount an attack on Istanbul in 1625, forcing the Sultan to temporarily flee the capital. The Cossacks utilized several strategies to attack the larger Ottoman forces, the Cossack ships were small with a low profile, making them hard to hit by cannon. Cossacks were typically armed with small arm muskets, and during battle had the goal of killing the crew, the origins of the contemporary Ukrainian Naval Forces intertwined with the fate of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet and with the modern history of the Crimea. Marshal of Aviation Yevgeny Shaposhnikov became commander of the Joint Armed Forces command on 14 February 1992, on the same day, at the session hall of the parliament of Ukraine, the Minister of Defense of Ukraine, Kostyantyn Morozov, became the first person to take the oath. On 10 December 1991 the Supreme Council of Ukraine ratified the Belavezha Accords, on 12 December 1991 the President of Ukraine issued ukase #4, ordering all military formations based in Ukraine to pledge allegiance until 20 January 1992. The vast majority of the Black Sea Fleet ignored the order, on 1 January 1992 the newspaper Vympyel of the Black Sea Fleet Filipp Oktyabrskiy Training unit published the military oath and the anthem of Ukraine in the Ukrainian language. On 3 January 1992 Ukraine started the formation of its national armed forces
32.
Ukrainian Air Force
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The Ukrainian Air Force is a part of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. Ukrainian Air Force headquarters is located in the city of Vinnytsia, when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, a large number of aircraft were left on Ukrainian territory. Ever since, the Ukrainian air force has been downsizing and upgrading its forces, in spite of these efforts, the main inventory of the air force consists of Soviet-made aircraft. Currently 36,300 personnel and 144 aircraft are in service in the Ukrainian air force and air defense forces, all ICBMs and strategic bombers have been taken out of service. Since 1991s Ukrainian independence the air force has suffered from chronic underinvestment, the air force currently takes part in the War in Donbass. Following the 5 September 2014 ceasefire Ukraine Air Force has been forbidden from carrying out missions in the areas of Donbass. The major mission of the Air Force is to protect the air space of Ukraine, in peace-time, this is carried out by flying air-space control missions over the entire territory of Ukraine, and by preventing air space intrusion along the aerial borders. Every single day, more than 2,200 service personnel and civilian employees of the Air Force, employing 400 items of weapons, on average, the Ukrainian radar forces detect and track more than 1,000 targets daily. As a result, in 2006 two illegal crossings of the border were prevented and 28 violations of Ukrainian air space were prevented. Due to such increased strengthening of air control, the number of air space violations decreased by 35% compared to the previous year. Previously during the World War I on the Eastern Front, Pavlenko was in charge of air security of the Russian Stavka. Sometimes in 1918 the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic created its own aviation corps with the Ukrainian Galician Army headed by Petro Franko, in 1918 he organized an aviation school of the Ukrainian Galician Army Command Center which was active until 1920. Among the airplanes used by the Ukrainian aviation were Belgium-built SPAD S. VIIs, the Ukrainian Galician Army used Nieuport 17 biplanes. The Ukrainian Air Force was established on March 17,1992, the headquarters of the 24th Air Army of the Soviet Air Force in Vinnytsia served as the basis to create Air Force headquarters. Also present on Ukrainian soil were units of the former Soviet 5th, 14th, in addition, the 161st Maritime Fighter Aviation Regiment, at Limanskoye in Odessa Oblast, came under Ukrainian control. It had formerly been part of the 119th Maritime Fighter Aviation Division of the Black Sea Fleet, the new Air Force inherited the 184th Guards Heavy Bomber Aviation Regiment of Tupolev Tu-160 Blackjack which were based at Pryluky. Discussions with Russia concerning their return bogged down, the main bone of contention was the price. While Russian experts, who examined the aircraft at Pryluky in 1993 and 1996, assessed their technical condition as good, the negotiations led to nowhere and in April 1998, Ukraine decided to commence scrapping the aircraft under the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Agreement
33.
Military parade
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A military parade is a formation of soldiers whose movement is restricted by close-order manoeuvring known as drilling or marching. The military parade is now almost entirely ceremonial, though soldiers from time immemorial up until the late 19th century fought in formation, massed parades may also hold a role for propaganda purposes, being used to exhibit the apparent military strength of ones nation. The terminology comes from the tradition of close order formation combat, formation combat was used as an alternative to mêlée combat, and required strict discipline in the ranks and competent officers. As long as their formations could be maintained, regular troops could maintain a significant advantage over less organised opponents, roughly synonymous are drill and march. The English word drill is of Middle Dutch origin, dating from the 16th century drill of the Dutch army of prince Maurice of Orange, in ancient times, drilling increased in importance when men stopped fighting as individuals and began to fight together as units. Military drilling later was used by the Roman Army to maximise efficiency, massed military drilling was used mostly by only the foremost armies and nations, such as the Normans. The U. S. drill is based on the contributions of Baron von Steuben, during the winter quarters in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, von Steuben taught a model company of 100 soldiers musket drill. These soldiers, in turn, taught the remainder of the Continental Army, a military drill is memorizing certain actions through repetition until the action is instinctive to the soldiers being drilled. Complex actions are broken down into simpler ones which can be practised in isolation so when the whole is put together the results are achieved. Such is necessary for a force to perform at maximum efficiency in all manner of situations. However, depending on the army and the drills it adopts, drilling may destroy flexibility and initiative in exchange for predictability, recruits in most modern militaries are taught drill to teach them how to work and move as a team. In addition, formations are used in riot control, where mêlée combat is still the norm. When these are not present, the direction of the commander is the advance. There is only one person in charge of a parade at a time, changing this person is very ceremonious. This is to make it obvious to the soldiers who is currently in command, during parades, unless explicitly told otherwise, soldiers have restricted movement, meaning they can move only exactly when they are told, and then doing only exactly what they are told to do. American usage allows the member to be at four states of alert, Attention, standing straight, eyes forward, chest out, knees straight but not locked. Stand At Ease, Same as Parade Rest, but the soldier may look at the speaker, at Ease, The service member is allowed to move around all but the right foot, but must remain silent. Rest, Service member may talk, smoke and may move as long as their right pivot foot remains grounded, a formation must be brought to the position of attention before it can go to a higher state of alert
34.
Color guard
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In military organizations, the Colour Guard refers to a detachment of soldiers assigned to the protection of regimental colours. This duty is so prestigious that the colour is carried by a young officer. These NCOs, accompanied sometimes by warrant officers, can be armed with either sabres or rifles to protect the colour. Colour guards are generally dismounted, but there are also mounted colour guard formations as well, as armies became trained and adopted set formations, each regiments ability to keep its formation was potentially critical to its, and therefore its armys, success. In the chaos of battle, not least due to the amount of dust and smoke on a battlefield, flags and banners have been used by many armies in battle to serve this purpose. Regimental flags were generally awarded to a regiment by a head-of-State during a ceremony and they were therefore treated with reverence as they represented the honour and traditions of the regiment. The loss of a flag was not only shameful. So regiments tended to adopt colour guards, a detachment of experienced or élite soldiers, as a result, the capture of an enemys standard was considered as a great feat of arms. Due to the advent of modern weapons, and subsequent changes in tactics, colours are no longer used in battle, all of the RNs Queens Colours are identical. Civilians should stand during such times and soldiers are expected to salute them when not in formation, in the military of the United States, the color guard carries the National Color and other flags appropriate to its position in the chain of command. Typically these include a flag and a departmental flag. In addition to the bearers, who are positioned in the center of the color guard. This is a symbol that the flag will always be protected, in the U. S. traditionally, the units sergeant major is responsible for the safeguarding, care, and display of the organizational colors. The sergeant major is responsible for the selection, training. Being assigned to the guard is considered an honor due to the fact that these individuals present and carry the symbols of their unit. Depending on the circumstance and subject to the orders of their commander and it is mandatory for all members of the color guard to wear headgear, for example, a garrison cap, beret, or service cap. On occasion, certain color guards can be horse-mounted, since the National Colors must always be in the position of honor on the right, the color guard must execute a special movement to reverse direction. It does not execute rear march, nor does it execute about face, rather, it performs a maneuver derived from the standard countercolumn command, generally known as counter march or colors reverse march, in order to keep the precedence of flags in order
35.
President of Ukraine
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The president of Ukraine is the Ukrainian head of state. The president represents the nation in international relations, administers the foreign political activity of the state, conducts negotiations, the president is directly elected by the citizens of Ukraine for a five-year term of office, limited to two terms consecutively. The presidents official residence is the Mariyinsky Palace, located in the Pechersk district of the capital Kyiv, other official residences include the House with Chimaeras and the House of the Weeping Widow, which are used for official visits by foreign representatives. Since the offices establishment on 5 July 1991, there have been five presidents of Ukraine, Leonid Kravchuk was the inaugural president, serving three years from 1991 until his resignation in 1994. Leonid Kuchma was the president to have served two consecutive terms in office. Oleksandr Turchynov was the acting president in Ukraines modern history. On 18 June 2015, Yanukovych was officially deprived of the title of president of Ukraine, the current president is Petro Poroshenko who took the oath of office on 7 June 2014. The prime minister serves as the head of government, a role filled by Volodymyr Groysman who was appointed to the position in April 2016. As with the separation of powers, the president has checks on the authority of parliament, for instance, any law passed by the parliament can be vetoed by the president, however, parliament can override his veto with a 2/3 constitutional majority vote. The president has limited authority to disband the Verkhovna Rada, and nominates candidates for the Minister of Foreign Affairs, six out of eighteen of the Constitutional Court judges are appointed by the president. Decisions of the president are subject to review by Ukraines courts with the Constitutional Court having the sole authority, while in office, the president enjoys the right of immunity. By-passing local governments is a practice in Ukraine. With the proclamation of the last universal of the UPR dated 25 January 1918 due to a military aggression, the Central Rada of the UPR proclaimed its independence from the Russia. On 29 April 1918, the Rada elected Mykhailo Hrushevskyi as the first President of the Central Rada of the Ukrainian Peoples Republic, although a rather widespread misconception, the state leadership position title varied and none of them had an official presidential title. In November of the year the directorate government of the UPR was established as the opposition movement to the Skoropadskys regime. Although really the Directorate was the governing body until the new Ukrainian Constituent Assembly would elect its president. Symon Petliura assumed the representation of the state after Vynnychenkos resignation on 11 February 1919, after the Soviet offensive in 1920 and brought control of the Ukrainian territory under the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Peoples Republic was forced into exile. Upon the assassination of Petliura, the control over the affairs were transferred to the former Prime Minister Andriy Livytskyi who in 1948 created the office of the President of Ukraine
36.
Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet
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The Solomiya Krushelnytska Lviv State Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet or Lviv Opera is an opera house located in Lviv, Ukraines largest western city and one of its historic cultural centers. According to the inscription in the lobby, the building was constructed between 1897 and 1900, and has remained standing throughout several changes in history. At the end of the 19th century, local leaders felt the need for a city theatre to be situated in the capital of Galicia. In 1895, the city announced a design competition, which attracted a large number of submissions. Among the participants were the renowned Viennese architects Fellner & Helmer, whose entry was rejected as too international, an independent jury chose the design by Zygmunt Gorgolewski, a graduate of the Berlin Building Academy and the director of citys Engineering Academy. Gorgolewski pleasantly surprised the jury by planning to locate the building in the center of the city, in June 1897, the cornerstone was placed. Gorgolewski oversaw construction, earthwork and design, employing the leading stonemasons from the city, local materials were used wherever possible, however marble elements were manufactured in Vienna, special linen for painting in the foyer was imported from Belgium. The Austrian company Siemens was ran the electrical wiring and lights, funding came from the city, the surrounding communities, and from voluntary donations. The cost of the works totaled 6 million Austrian crowns, learning of the flaw, the architect took it to heart and fell into depression, and hung himself. This is not borne out by facts, as the engineer actually died of heart disease, after some initial settling, the building ceased sinking and remains stable to this day, owing to the innovative design of Gorgolewski. The Lviv Opera opened on October 4,1900, the cultural elite—painters, writers, and composers, as well as delegations from various European theatres—attended the opening festivities. A delegation from the city of Prague was headed by mayor Vladimir Srb and former director of the National Theatre, the stucco mouldings and oil paintings on the walls and ceilings of the multi-tiered auditorium and foyer give it a richly festive appearance. The Operas imposing facade is decorated with numerous niches, Corinthian columns, pilasters, balustrades, cornices, statues, reliefs. The building is crowned by bronze statues, symbolizing Glory, Poetry. The theatre, beautifully decorated inside and outside, became a centrefold of the achievements in sculpture, the internal decoration was prepared by some of the most renowned Polish artists of the time. Among them were Stanisław Wójcik, Julian Markowski, Tadeusz Wiśniowiecki, Tadeusz Barącz, Piotr Wojtowicz, Juliusz Bełtowski, among the painters to decorate the interior were Tadeusz Popiel, Stanisław Rejchan, Stanisław Dębicki, Stanisław Kaczor-Batowski and Marceli Harasimowicz. The main curtain was decorated by Henryk Siemiradzki
37.
Maidan Nezalezhnosti
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Maidan Nezalezhnosti is the central square of Kiev, the capital city of Ukraine. One of the main squares, it is located on Khreshchatyk Street in the Shevchenko Raion. The square has been known under different names, but often it is called simply Maidan. In the 19th century, the square contained buildings of the city council, Maidan is also a regular site for non-political displays and events. Maidan is a Ukrainian word for square, open space, ultimately from Arabic language ميدان maydān, via Turco-Persian transmission, Persian ميدان meydan meaning field, park, open space, the Arabic word originally meant horse-racing ground, hippodrome. Kropyvnytskyi, Kremenchuk and Odessa have Independent Squares named Ploshcha Nezalezhnosti, Independence Square is one of three squares located along Khreshchatyk, close to the northeastern end of the street. It is situated close to European Square, which is the end of Khreshchatyk. Besides Khreshchatyk, which splits the square in half, several other lead to the square. These include Architect Horodecki Street, Institute Street, Michael Street, Kosciol Street, Minor Zhytomyr Street, Sophia Street, Taras Shevchenko Lane, the square itself is a multi-level location. At ground level is the intersection of Khreshchatyk, which splits Institute Street, underneath the square, the Kurenivsko-Chervonoarmiyska Line of the Kiev Metro stretches across with its station Maidan Nezalezhnosti located underground. Until the 10th century, the future site, as well as the rest of Khreshchatyk, was called Perevisyshch. It was located just to the south of the Kiev City, beyond which were located territories of the Cave Monastery along the Dnieper. At the lower end of Sofiivska vulytsia, which led to the High City and those gates are also mentioned in 1151, and around them lived the Polish population of the city, Lacka Sloboda. The Lyadksi Gates were destroyed during the storm of city by the Mongol army of Batu Khan in 1240, sometime during the 18th century, the new Pecherski Gates were erected, they stood until 1833. Until the early 19th century, the area was a vacant ground known as Goat Swamp. In the 1830s, the first wooden dwellings were built on the site, the most famous Ukrainian writer, Taras Shevchenko lived in that area in 1859, in a building between Mala Zhytomyrska and Mykhailivska vulytsia. Until 1871, it was called the Khreshchatitskaya Ploshchad, it was a location for the local market, in 1876 the Kiev City Duma building was built here, and the area became to be known as the Dumskaya Ploshchad. A line from the Kiev tram, the first electric tram built in the Russian Empire reached the square in 1894
38.
Orange Revolution
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Kiev, the Ukrainian capital, was the focal point of the movements campaign of civil resistance, with thousands of protesters demonstrating daily. Nationwide, the revolution was highlighted by a series of acts of civil disobedience, sit-ins. The nationwide protests succeeded when the results of the original run-off were annulled, under intense scrutiny by domestic and international observers, the second run-off was declared to be fair and free. The final results showed a victory for Yushchenko, who received about 52% of the vote. Yushchenko was declared the winner and with his inauguration on 23 January 2005 in Kiev. In the following years, the Orange Revolution had a negative connotation among pro-government circles in Belarus, Yanukovych was ousted from power four years later following the February 2014 Euromaidan clashes in Kievs Independence Square. Unlike the bloodless Orange Revolution, these resulted in more than 100 deaths. Georgiy Gongadze, a Ukrainian journalist and the founder of Ukrayinska Pravda was kidnapped and murdered in 2000, though no-one accused Ukrainian President Kuchma of personally murdering him, persistent rumours suggested that the President had ordered the killing. This murder sparked a movement against Kuchma in 2000 that can be seen as the origin of the Orange Revolution in 2004, the state of Ukraine during the 2004 presidential election is considered an “ideal condition” for an outburst from the public. During this time Ukrainians were impatient while waiting for economic and political transformation, the results of the election were thought to be fraudulent and considered “a nail in the coffin” of the preceding events. The Ukrainian regime that was in power before the Orange Revolution created a path for a society to emerge. It was based on a “competitive authoritarian regime” that is considered a “hybrid regime”, allowing for a democracy, the election fraud definitely emphasised the Ukrainian citizens’ desire for a more pluralistic type of government. The Cassette Scandal definitely sparked the public’s desire to create a reform movement. It not only undermined the peoples’ respect for Kuchma as a president, because of Kuchma’s scandalous behaviour, he lost many of his supporters with high ranking government positions. Many of the government officials who were on his side went on to support the election campaign of Yuschenko. After a clear lack of faith in the government had been instilled in the Ukrainian population, Yushchenko was a charismatic candidate who showed no signs of being corrupt. Yuschenko was on the level as his constituents and presented his ideas in a “non-Soviet” way. Young Ukrainian voters were extremely important to the outcome of the 2004 Presidential election and this new wave of younger people had different views of the main figures in Ukraine
39.
Euromaidan
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The scope of the protests expanded, with many calls for the resignation of President Viktor Yanukovych and his government. The protests led to the 2014 Ukrainian revolution, the situation escalated after the violent dispersal of protesters on 30 November, leading to many more protesters joining. By 25 January 2014, the protests had been fueled by the perception of government corruption, abuse of power. Transparency International named President Yanukovych as the top example of corruption in the world, Police and protesters fired live and rubber ammunition across multiple locations in Kiev. Riot police advanced towards Maiden and clashed with protesters but did not fully occupy it, fighting continued the following days which saw the vast majority of casualties. In connection with the events of February 18–20, Yanukovych was forced to make concessions to the opposition to end the bloodshed in Kiev, the Agreement on settlement of political crisis in Ukraine was signed by Vitaly Klitschko, Arseny Yatsenyuk, Oleh Tyahnybok. Vladimir Lukin, representing Russia, refused to sign the agreement, in late February 2014, Yanukovych and many other high government officials fled the country. Protesters gained control of the administration and Yanukovychs private estate. Subsequently, the parliament removed Yanukovych from office, replaced the government with a pro-European one, events in Kiev were soon followed by the Crimean crisis and pro-Russian unrest in Eastern Ukraine. On 24 November 2013, clashes between protesters and police began, Police used tear gas and batons. Protesters also used gas and some fire crackers. After a few days of demonstrations an increasing number of university students joined the protests, the Euromaidan has been characterised as an event of major political symbolism for the European Union itself, particularly as the largest ever pro-European rally in history. The protests continued despite heavy presence, regularly sub-freezing temperatures. In the preceding weeks, protest attendance had fluctuated from 50,000 to 200,000 during organised rallies, violent riots took place 1 December and 19 January through 25 January in response to police brutality and government repression. Starting 23 January, several Western Ukrainian Oblast Governor buildings and regional councils were occupied in a revolt by Euromaidan activists. According to journalist Lecia Bushak writing in the 18 February 2014 issue of Newsweek magazine, Yanukovych then fled to Ukraines second largest city of Kharkiv, refusing to recognise the parliaments decisions. The parliament assigned early elections for May 2014, the term Euromaidan was initially used as a hashtag on Twitter. A Twitter account named Euromaidan was created on the first day of the protests and it soon became popular in the international media
40.
Presidential Administration Building (Kiev)
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Presidential Administration Building is an architectural monument of the Kiev city, the capital of Ukraine. The building is the office of the Presidential Administration of Ukraine as well as the National Security. It is located at 11 Bankova vulytsia and was initially a reconstruction of the Kiev Military District headquarters that was sometime in the 1870s by Oleksandr Shiles design. The building is considered the peak of an artistic work and was built after all government institutions of the Ukrainian SSR were transferred to Kiev from Kharkiv. The building was built in 1936-39 by the design of the Kharkiv architect Serhiy Grigoriev for the headquarters of the Kiev Special Military District, the author of the design was able organically unite elements of a classical style and Ukrainian Baroque. First that may strike visitors it is the thickness of buildings walls. The new design made a use of the symmetric campuses of the previous Shiles design of the 1870s. The new building was considered a reconstruction with new elements. Its wings were extended, while in the center was formed a special composition - massive risalit with a colonnade of the great Corinthian order. The governing monumentality of the building is underlined by a heavy entablature along with a glazed stylobate of a grey tint labradorite. The front entrance of the building is flanked by four rock spheres, in its courtyard are located a dining hall, a laundry room, cleaners, a printing house etc. Information about the building at the website, including photos
41.
Verkhovna Rada building
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The Verkhovna Rada building is located in the center of Kyiv, the Pecherskyi District. The building is located at the Constitution Square and it is the place where the Ukrainian parliament meets for all regular and ceremonial sessions. The building was erected between 1936–38 to a design by Volodymyr Zabolotny in the neo-classical Ukrainian architectural style, Zabolotny was awarded the State prize for that project in 1940 and appointed the chief architect of the city. At the beginning of 1934, after the capital was transferred from Kharkiv to Kyiv, the very heart of the city was chosen for that purpose – the Pecherskyi District which lies on the right bank of Dnieper river. In February 1936, a contest for the best building design of the Verkhovna Rada was announced, numerous prominent specialists were invited, including Volodymyr Zabolotnyi, Valerian Rykov, and Yakiv Steinberg. The jury selected the design of Zabolotnyi, the construction was initiated in 1936 and lasted until 1939 with the final inspection taking place in the beginning of the summer, having the building passed with the excellent grade. The first session of the Verkhovna Rada took place at 5, the building is designed in the strict rectangular-symmetrical form and is three floors high. It is crowned with a dome, made of metal and glass, the hundred-tonne glass dome over the main session hall is the buildings most memorable feature. The domes multicolored illumination at night provides a view, one of Kyivs tourist attractions. The diameter of the plafond is 16 meters, in the center a crystal chandelier is located that, by its form, resembles a sunflower, a motif frequently featured in the Ukrainian folk arts. Based on this design, the illuminating plafond of the hall was installed with colored glass, the interior of the building is generously decorated with intricate wood panels, multicolored marble, bronze artwork, and a statuary. The flat rooftop of the structure adds harmony to its composition. The front of the building was decorated with ornaments and statues featuring Ukrainian SSR symbolism, following Ukrainian independence, some of the decorations were altered and some replaced, to reflect the national symbolism of independent Ukraine. Currently, the trident, the centerpiece of the modern Coat of Arms of Ukraine, is featured above the front entrance to the building. In 2016 the last decorations believed to show propaganda of communism were removed to comply with 2015 decommunization laws, having been destroyed in the Second World War, the building was reconstructed in its original style in 1945-1947, with the reconstruction design provided by Zabolotnyi, once again. The glass dome was one meter higher than the original one. To the main building was added an adjacent three-story high building for servicemen that is designed in a closed half-circle shape with an inner court, the sculptures represent various segments of the Ukrainian population, workers, peasants, scientists, and intelligentsia. The buildings exterior is addressed in light colors through the use of a light plaster and these tones contrast with the dark shade of a socle, made out of polished labradorite, and has a significant jut against a plane wall
42.
Budynok Uryadu
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Ukrainian Government Building, is located in center of Kiev at Hrushevsky Street in the vicinity of Verkhovna Rada building. It serves as the building for the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. From 1941 to 1954 the building was the tallest building in city, structure was built in 1936-1938 based on design of architect Ivan Fomin and partially - architect Pavel Abrosimov. The main half-circled facade of the building is opened towards Hrushevskyi Street and it is equally partitioned by tall columns of Corinthian order, capitals and bases of which are made out of cast iron. The lower stories of the building are faced with big blocks of a Tulchyn labradorite, while socle. Alloy metal flagpoles and decorated gates were made in 1947, however, construction plans were changed and refused for the building to be located in High City district. Also rumors mention that use of the tunnels may lead to from the Verkhovna Rada building. Therefore, all these institutions compactly moved to Lypky district not accidentally, derzhprom Complex Kharkiv Arts Museum Kiev. Official website of the government of Ukraine
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Verkhovna Rada
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The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, often simply Verkhovna Rada or just Rada, is the unicameral parliament of Ukraine. The Verkhovna Rada is composed of 450 deputies, who are presided over by a chairman, the Verkhovna Rada meets in the Verkhovna Rada building in Ukraines capital Kiev. The current parliament is the eighth convocation, in elections to the Verkhovna Rada, a mixed voting system is used. 50% of seats are distributed under party lists with a 5% election threshold, the method of 50/50 mixed elections was used in the 2002 and 2012 elections, however, in 2006 and 2007, the elections were held under a proportional system only. The name Rada means council, rede and it originated in Kievan Rus, and then represented a boyar and higher clergy council. It was also used by Dnieper Cossacks in the 17th and 18th centuries for the meetings where major decisions were made and this name was later used by the Ukrainian Peoples Republic between March 17,1917 and April 29,1918. As well as West Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the Ukrainian government in exile where it was known as UNRada, Verkhovna, is the feminine form of the adjective верховне meaning supreme. It is derived from the Ukrainian word верх meaning top, another name used less often is the Parliament of Ukraine. The All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets had already renamed the Supreme Council in 1927. The Congress of Soviets was initiated by the Central Executive Committee of Ukraine, the last chairman of the committee was Hryhoriy Petrovsky. The first elections to the Supreme Council of the Ukrainian SSR took place on June 26,1938, the first session of the parliament took place in Kiev on July 25 through 28,1938. The first Chairman of the council was Mykhailo Burmystenko who later died during World War II, in 1938, a presidium of the council was created that was led by Leonid Korniyets. During the war the presidium was evacuated to the city of Saratov in the Russian SFSR, on June 29,1943, the presidium issued an order postponing elections for the new convocation for one year while extending the first convocation. On January 8,1944, the Cabinet of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR in agreement with the Communist Party decided to relocate the Presidium of the Supreme Council from Kharkiv to Kiev, new elections were scheduled for February 9,1947 for the Council. Until 24 August 1991 Verkhovna Rada kept the name Supreme Council of the Ukrainian SSR, the first partially free elections to the Verkhovna Rada and local councils of peoples deputies were held on 4 March 1990. m. At the time, the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada was Leonid Kravchuk, the Act of Ukrainian Independence was overwhelmingly supported in a national referendum held on December 1,1991. On September 12,1991 the parliament adopted the law On Legal Succession of Ukraine, thus, the VR became the Supreme Council of Ukraine. The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted by the convocation of the Verkhovna Rada on June 28,1996
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![Flag of the Green Ukraine[citation needed]](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Green_Ukraine.svg)
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