1.
Glossary of vexillology
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Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. Badge A coat of arms or simple heraldic symbol, canton Any quarter of a flag, but commonly means the upper hoist quarter, such as the field of stars in the flag of the United States or the Union Jack in the Australian Flag. Charge A figure or symbol appearing in the field of a flag, emblem A device often used as a charge on a flag. It may be heraldic in origin or modern, for example the maple leaf on the Canadian Flag, field The background of a flag, the color behind the charges. Fimbriation A narrow edging or border, often in white or gold, for example the white and gold lines of the South African Flag. Fly The half or edge of a flag farthest away from the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the horizontal length of a flag. Hoist The half or edge of a flag nearest to the flagpole and this term also sometimes refers to the vertical width of a flag. Length The span of a flag along the side at right angles to the flagpole, width The span of a flag down the side parallel to the flagpole. Flags often inherit traits seen in traditional European heraldry designs and as a result patterns often share names, banderole or bannerol A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long narrow flag flying from the mast-head of a ship. Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, in heraldry, a flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms, but usually in a square or rectangular shape, also known as a banner of arms. Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, Civil ensign, merchant flag or merchant ensign A version of the national flag flown by civil ships to denote nationality. Civil flag A version of the flag flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. Colour or color The flag of a military unit, courtesy flag or courtesy ensign A flag flown by a visiting ship in foreign waters as a token of respect. Ensign The flag of a ship or military unit, may also be used generically as a synonym for a flag of any kind. Fanion A small flag used by the French military, gonfalon, gonfanon or gonfalone A type of heraldic flag suspended from a crossbar. Guidon A small flag borne by a military unit, in Scots heraldry, a smaller version of the Standard. Pennon or pennant A flag larger at the hoist than at the fly, pipe banner A decorative flag for the Scottish Highland bagpipes. Prayer flag A type of flag found strung along mountain ridges and peaks in the Himalayas, rank flag or distinguishing flag The flag flown by a superior naval officer on his flagship or headquarters
2.
National flag
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A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country, historically, flags originate as military standards, used as field signs. The practice of flying flags indicating the country of origin outside of the context of warfare became common with the flag, introduced during the age of sail. Most countries of Europe adopted a flag in the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The specifications of the flag of Denmark were codified in 1748, the flag of Switzerland was introduced in 1889, also based on medieval war flags. The Netherlands introduced two national flags in 1813, the Ottoman flag was adopted in 1844. Other non-European powers followed the trend in the late 19th century, the flag of Japan being introduced in 1870, the Flag of the United States is not defined in the constitution but rather in a separate Flag Resolution passed in 1777. Minor design changes of national flags are passed on a legislative or executive level. A change in national flag is due to a change of regime. In such cases, the origins of the national flag. In such cases national flags acquire the status of a political symbol, the flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation. The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour, nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration. There are three types of national flag for use on land, and three for use at sea, though many countries use identical designs for several of these types of flag. On land, there is a distinction between civil flags, state flags, and war or military flags, state flags are those used officially by government agencies, whereas civil flags may be flown by anyone regardless of whether they are linked to government. War flags are used by organisations such as Armies, Marine Corps. In practice, many countries have identical flags for these three purposes, national flag is used as a vexillological term to refer to such a three-purpose flag
3.
Civil ensign
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Civil ensign is the ensign used by civilian vessels to denote nationality. It can be the same or different from the state ensign and its also known as the merchant ensign or merchant flag. Some countries have civil ensigns for yachts, and even for specific yacht clubs. Most countries have one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. The civil ensigns that are different from the flag can be grouped into a number of categories. Several countries use red flags with, in most cases, either the national flag or the Union Flag in the canton. British overseas territories fly the plain Red Ensign or a Red Ensign with the colonial arms in the fly. Saudi Arabia puts its national flag in the canton of an otherwise-green flag, Ghana stopped using its Red Ensign in 2003 with the adoption of a new merchant shipping act, which made the Ghanaian flag the proper national colors for Ghana ships. Similarly, Sri Lanka stopped using its Red Ensign in 1969, several countries have civil ensigns that are very different from the national flag, for instance Malta and Luxembourg. Well-known examples are the Italian civil ensign showing the shield with the arms of the sea republics or the Polish civil ensign with the arms of Poland, most of these emblems were added to distinguish the ensign from similar flags of other countries or from other signal flags. In several countries there are two versions of the flag, a simpler one and a more elaborate one with the national arms. The simpler one is used as ensign, whereas the version with the arms is mainly used by the government. In Spain and Argentina the flag without the arms is only a variant for civil use, in El Salvador, the civil ensign also differs from the national flag in the proportions. France is a case, the overall proportion is the same. Civil and merchant ensigns Civil air ensign
4.
Ensign
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Ensign is the national flag flown on a vessel to indicate nationality. The ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship, the naval ensign, used on warships, may be different from the civil ensign or the yacht ensign. Large versions of naval ensigns called battle ensigns are used when a warship goes into battle, the ensign differs from the jack which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel. In its widest sense, an ensign is just a flag or other standard, the European military rank of ensign, once responsible for bearing a units standard derives from it. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, liwa, derives from the command of a unit or units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is a general officer. In Arab armies, ensign is a title equivalent to a Western brigade. In nautical use, the ensign is flown on a ship or boat to indicate its appartenance, while this includes its nationality, it may well indicate more information rather than being the national flag itself. This is particularly common for commonwealth and European countries, ensigns are usually at the stern flagstaff when in port, and may be shifted to a gaff or mast amidships when the ship is under way, becoming known as a steaming ensign. Vexillologists distinguish three varieties of a national flag used as an ensign, A civil ensign is worn by merchant. In some countries the yacht ensign, used on boats or ships instead of merchant vessels. A state ensign or government ensign is worn by government vessels, a naval ensign is used by a countrys navy. Such ensigns are strictly regulated and indicate if the vessel is a warship, a merchant ship, several Commonwealth countries national flags had their origin in the ensigns of their original colonising power, the United Kingdom. Most notable of these flags are those of Australia, New Zealand. It is also likely that the original design from which the flag of the United States developed was strongly influenced by the British Red Ensign or the flag of the East India Company. With the creation of independent air forces and the growth in aviation in the first half of the 20th century. These may be divided into air force ensigns and civil air ensigns, in heraldry, an ensign is the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet, or mitre, borne above the charge or arms. Distinguishing mark Maritime flag Znamierowski, Alfred, the world encyclopedia of flags, The definitive guide to international flags, banners, standards and ensigns
5.
Vanuatu
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Vanuatu, officially the Republic of Vanuatu, is a Pacific island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. Vanuatu was first inhabited by Melanesian people, the first Europeans to visit the islands were a Spanish expedition led by Portuguese navigator Fernandes de Queirós, who arrived on the largest island in 1606. An independence movement arose in the 1970s, and the Republic of Vanuatu was founded in 1980, Vanuatus name is derived from the word vanua, which occurs in several Austronesian languages, and the word tu. Together the two indicated the independent status of the new country. The prehistory of Vanuatu is obscure, archaeological evidence supports the theory that people speaking Austronesian languages first came to the islands about 3,300 years ago, pottery fragments have been found dating to 1300–1100 BC. The Spanish established a settlement at Big Bay on the north side of the island. The name Espiritu Santo remains to this day, Europeans did not return until 1768, when Louis Antoine de Bougainville rediscovered the islands. In 1774, Captain Cook named the islands the New Hebrides, during the 1860s, planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of labourers, encouraged a long-term indentured labour trade called blackbirding. At the height of the trade, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad. Fragmentary evidence indicates that the current population of Vanuatu is greatly reduced compared to pre-contact times, in the 19th century, Catholic and Protestant missionaries from Europe and North America went to the islands to work with the people. John Gibson Paton was a Scottish missionary who devoted his life to the region, settlers came looking for land on which to establish cotton plantations. When international cotton prices collapsed, planters switched to coffee, cocoa, bananas, initially, British subjects from Australia made up the majority of settlers, but the establishment of the Caledonian Company of the New Hebrides in 1882 attracted more French subjects. By the start of the 20th century, the French outnumbered the British two to one, the jumbling of French and British interests in the islands brought petitions for one or another of the two powers to annex the territory. In 1906, France and the United Kingdom agreed to administer the islands jointly, called the Anglo-French Condominium, it was a unique form of government. The separate governmental systems came together only in a joint court, melanesians were barred from acquiring the citizenship of either power. Challenges to this form of government began in the early 1940s, the arrival of Americans during the Second World War, with their informal habits and relative wealth, contributed to the rise of nationalism in the islands. The belief in a messianic figure named John Frum was the basis for an indigenous cargo cult promising Melanesian deliverance. Today, John Frum is both a religion and a party with a member in Parliament
6.
Vanua'aku Pati
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The Vanuaaku Pati is a democratic socialist political party in Vanuatu. At the last general election, held on 22 January 2016 and they supported the election of Charlot Salwai as Prime Minister. While the NHNP was supported by British interests, the Union of New Hebrides Communities was supported by French interests, the NHNP went on to win the 1975 elections and in 1977 it was renamed the Vanuaaku Pati. The party won the pre-independence 1979 elections and Lini became chief minister, the country gained independence in 1980 and Lini became the first Prime Minister of Vanuatu, remaining in the post until 1991. In 1991 the party split, and Lini was among those who left the party, after the 1991 elections, the party lost its dominance over the government. Despite this, the party remained strong, during the next decade, as party members Donald Kalpokas and Edward Natapei served as prime ministers of Vanuatu. However, after a controversy over the recognition of Taiwan and China. It remained influential, and was a key supporter of the National United Party government of Walter Linis brother Ham Lini which lasted from December 2004 through the September 2008 elections. After a short break from participation in the government, the party returned in July 2007 when its leader, former Prime Minister Edward Natapei. The party had a result in the September 2008 elections, gaining 11 of the 52 results, making this party the largest one in Parliament. After multiple attempts to remove Natapei, he was forced out by a vote of no confidence on 2 December 2010, Natapei was temporarily reinstated on 16 June 2011 when the Supreme Court of Vanuatu ruled Kilmans election as prime minister violated the Vanuatu constitution. A new election was held on 26 June of that year, the party lost three seats in the parliamentary elections of 30 October 2012, however, it remained the largest single party in parliament. The name of the Vanuaaku Party means Party of Our land in English and it supports socialist economic policies and is mostly supported by English speakers
7.
Independence
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Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over the territory. The opposite of independence is a dependent territory, Independence does not necessarily mean freedom. Whether the attainment of independence is different from revolution has long been contested, nation-states have been granted independence without any revolutionary acts. The Russian October Revolution, for example, was not intended to seek national independence, however, the American Revolutionary War was intended to achieve independence from the beginning. Causes for a country or province wishing to seek independence are many, the means can extend from peaceful demonstrations, like in the case of the Indian independence movement, to a violent civil war. Autonomy refers to a kind of independence which has been granted by an authority that itself still retains ultimate authority over that territory. A protectorate refers to a region that depends upon a larger government for its protection as an autonomous region. Declaring independence and attaining it however, are quite different, a well-known successful example is the U. S. Declaration of Independence issued in 1776, the dates of established independence, are typically celebrated as a national holiday known as an independence day
8.
Tusk
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Tusks are elongated, continuously growing front teeth, usually but not always in pairs, that protrude well beyond the mouth of certain mammal species. They are most commonly canines, as with warthogs, pig, in most tusked species both the males and the females have tusks although the males are larger. Tusks are generally curved, though the narwhals tusk is straight and has a helical structure. In the elephant, the tusks were originally second incisors, continuous growth is enabled by formative tissues in the apical openings of the roots of the teeth. In earlier times elephant tusks weighing over 200 pounds were not uncommon, tusks have a variety of uses depending on the animal. Social displays of dominance, particularly males, are common. Elephants use their tusks as digging and boring tools, walruses use their tusks to grip on ice and to haul out on ice. The presence of a tusk in only the male narwhals suggests that for these whales the tusk is a secondary sex characteristic, tusks are used by humans to produce ivory, which is used in artifacts and jewellery, and formerly in other items such as piano keys. Consequently, many tusk-bearing species have been hunted commercially and several are endangered, the ivory trade has been severely restricted by the United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Fang, a canine tooth Ivory trade
9.
Blood
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Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma, plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water, and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide, and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are red blood cells, white blood cells. The most abundant cells in blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, a protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma, vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this blood does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their system to suffice for supplying oxygen. Jawed vertebrates have an immune system, based largely on white blood cells. White blood cells help to resist infections and parasites, platelets are important in the clotting of blood. Arthropods, using hemolymph, have hemocytes as part of their immune system, Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. Medical terms related to blood often begin with hemo- or hemato- from the Greek word αἷμα for blood. In terms of anatomy and histology, blood is considered a form of connective tissue, given its origin in the bones. The average adult has a volume of roughly 5 litres. These blood cells consist of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes, by volume, the red blood cells constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54. 3%, and white cells about 0. 7%. Whole blood exhibits non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, if all human hemoglobin were free in the plasma rather than being contained in RBCs, the circulatory fluid would be too viscous for the cardiovascular system to function effectively. One microliter of blood contains,4.7 to 6.1 million,4.2 to 5.4 million erythrocytes, Red blood cells contain the bloods hemoglobin, mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles in mammals
10.
Wild boar
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The wild boar, also known as the wild swine or Eurasian wild pig, is a suid native to much of Eurasia, North Africa, and the Greater Sunda Islands. Human intervention has spread its range further, making the one of the widest-ranging mammals in the world. Its wide range, high numbers, and adaptability mean that it is classed as least concern by the IUCN, the animal probably originated in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene, and outcompeted other suid species as it spread throughout the Old World. As of 1990, up to 16 subspecies are recognised, which are divided into four regional groupings based on skull height, the species lives in matriarchal societies consisting of interrelated females and their young. Fully grown males are solitary outside the breeding season. The grey wolf is the boars main predator throughout most of its range except in the Far East and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It has a history of association with humans, having been the ancestor of most domestic pig breeds. As true wild boars became extinct in Britain before the development of modern English, the English boar stems from the Old English bar, which is thought to be derived from the West Germanic *bairaz, of unknown origin. Boar is sometimes used specifically to refer to males, and may also be used to refer to male domesticated pigs, the young may be called piglets. The animals specific name scrofa is Latin for sow, the earliest fossil finds of the species come from both Europe and Asia, and date back to the Early Pleistocene. Its closest wild relative is the pig of Malacca and surrounding islands. These subspecies are typically high-skulled, with thick underwool and poorly developed manes, Indian, Includes S. s. davidi and S. s. cristatus. These subspecies have sparse or absent underwool, with long manes and prominent bands on the snout, while S. s. cristatus is high-skulled, S. s. davidi is low-skulled. Eastern, Includes S. s. sibiricus, S. s. ussuricus, S. s. leucomystax, S. s. riukiuanus, S. s. taivanus, and S. s. moupinensis. These subspecies are characterised by a streak extending from the corners of the mouth to the lower jaw. With the exception of S. s. ussuricus, most are high-skulled, the underwool is thick, except in S. s. moupinensis, and the mane is largely absent. It is the most basal of the four groups, having the smallest relative brain size, more primitive dentition, with the exception of domestic pigs in Timor and Papua New Guinea, the wild boar is the ancestor of most pig breeds. Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC in Cyprus and those animals must have been introduced from the mainland, which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then
11.
Ni-Vanuatu
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Ni-Vanuatu is a demonym used to refer to all Melanesian ethnicities originating in Vanuatu. It also refers, more generally, to nationals and citizens of Vanuatu and this recent coinage builds on the particle ni, which in some indigenous languages encodes the genitive, similar to the English ‘of’. Thus Ni-Vanuatu literally means ‘of Vanuatu’, the term is mostly used in English and French, and is hardly used in Bislama, the country’s lingua franca, let alone in the indigenous languages of the archipelago. NiVan is a commonly used abbreviation of Ni-Vanuatu
12.
Prime Minister of Vanuatu
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The Prime Minister of Vanuatu is the head of government of the Republic of Vanuatu. The office of Prime Minister was created under the Constitution of Vanuatu upon the independence in 1980. The position is seen as a continuation of the older office of Chief Minister. The Prime Minister is required by the Constitution to be a member of Parliament, the Prime Minister directly appoints or dismisses members of the Council of Ministers. So far ten people have served as Prime Minister of Vanuatu, in November 2009, Prime Minister Edward Natapei was briefly declared by the Speaker to have lost his seat over a procedural technicality. The courts invalidated the ruling, and Natapei regained his seat and this was done on 26 June, resulting in Sato Kilmans election to the premiership by Parliament – his first legally recognised term as Prime Minister. Vanuatu Politics of Vanuatu List of colonial heads of Vanuatu President of Vanuatu Lists of Incumbents
13.
Fimbriation
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While fimbriation almost invariably applies to both or all sides of a charge, there are very unusual examples of fimbriation on one side only. Another rather rare form is double fimbriation, where the charge or ordinary is accompanied by two stripes of colour instead of only one, in cases of double fimbriation the outer colour is blazoned first. The arms of Mozirje, in Slovenia, show an example of fimbriation that itself is fimbriated, fimbriation may also be used when a charge is the same colour as the field on which it is placed. In some cases, such as a cross placed on a field of the same colour as the cross. According to the rule of tincture, one of the rules of heraldic design. Sometimes, however, it is desired to do something like this, in vexillology that is not specifically heraldic, the rules of heraldry do not apply, yet fimbriation is still frequently seen. Though fimbriation is, heraldically, intended to be used to separate areas that are both colours or both metals, occasionally flags may be found which use fimbriation in non-standard ways. One example of this is the flag of the Faroe Islands, another example of this non-standard fimbriation is the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, which separates areas of blue and red with black fimbriation. The flag of Uzbekistan also uses this form of pseudo-fimbriation - it adds a thin red band between a colour and a metal, separating blue and green from a white stripe. Some 15 to 20 countries use fimbriation on their national flags, national flags that use fimbriation include those of Trinidad and Tobago, North Korea, Botswana, Kenya and - most famously - the British Union Flag. On this last flag the fimbriation is unusual, as a white fimbriation separates a field from a red cross but also from a divided red
14.
The gospel
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In Christianity, the Gospel, or the Good News, is the news of the coming of the Kingdom of God, and of Jesuss death on the cross and resurrection to restore peoples relationship with God. It may also include the descent of the Holy Spirit upon believers, the message of good news is described as a narrative in the four canonical gospels. The message of good news is described as theology in many of the New Testament letters and it relates to the saving acts of God due to the work of Jesus on the cross and Jesus resurrection from the dead which bring reconciliation between people and God. It is called Proto-Evangelion or Proto-Gospel, Good News is the English translation of the Koine Greek εὐαγγέλιον euangélion. The Greek term was Latinized as evangelium in the Vulgate, in Old English, it was translated as gōdspel. The Old English term was retained as gospel in Middle English Bible translations, the written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus are also generally known as Gospels. The good news can be summarized in many ways, reflecting various emphases, Acts 3, 18-26 This has taken place through the birth, life, ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Acts 2, 22-31 By virtue of the resurrection, Jesus has been exalted at the hand of God as Messianic head of the new Israel. Acts 2, 32-36 The Holy Spirit in the church is the sign of Christs present power, Acts 10, 44-48 The Messianic Age will reach its consummation in the return of Christ. Acts 3, 20-21 An appeal is made for repentance with the offer of forgiveness, the Holy Spirit, Christian writers and teachers often present the Good News set within the context of the storyline of the whole Bible. This discipline, of understanding the Christian message in terms of Biblical salvation history, is known as Biblical Theology and this attempts to posit a connection between Old Testament and the Christian teachings of the good news about the life, death and resurrection of Jesus. For example, the Roman Catholic Church promotes the teaching of the news in the context of biblical salvation history as a fundamental part of the content of its instruction. There are numerous exponents of the Biblical Theology approach to understanding the Good News, many Bible scholars and Christian groups have placed similar descriptions on the internet. Because the good news is multifaceted, there is a degree of variation in perspective between such descriptions. A brief summary of the teachings of the Bible writers, might read as follows, The Book of Genesis describes humanity, male and female, humanity was given a perfect place in which to live in perfect relationship with God, dependent upon God for all his needs. This resulted in the breaking of mankinds fellowship with God, leading to spiritual death, Genesis describes how God scattered mankind over the face of the earth, forming the different nations and ethnic groups. Beginning with the prophet and patriarch Abram, God chose specific people to live in obedience and fellowship with him, and blessed them, their land and this was so that the different peoples of the world would receive Gods blessing. This person would be called the Messiah, Gods son, the prophet Isaiah described a servant-like figure, who would suffer because of the offences of mankind against God
15.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
16.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
17.
Pendant
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The word pendant derives from the Latin word pendere, and Old French word pendre, both of which translate to to hang down. It comes in the form of a piece of jewellery, generally attached by a small loop to a necklace. A pendant earring is an earring with a piece hanging down, in some case though the separation between necklace and pendant is far clearer. Pendants are among the oldest recorded types of bodily adornment, stone, shell, pottery, and more perishable materials were used. Ancient Egyptians commonly wore pendants, some shaped like hieroglyphs, pendants can have several functions, which may be combined, Award Identification Ornamentation Ostentation. Protection Self-affirmation The many specialized types of pendants include lockets which open, often to reveal an image, and pendilia, throughout the ages, pendants have come in a variety of forms to serve a variety of purposes. Though amulets come in forms, a wearable amulet worn around the neck or on the arm or leg in the form of a pendant is the most common. These are objects believed to possess magical or spiritual power to protect the wearer from danger or dispel evil influences, similar to an amulet, a talisman is an object believed to possess supernatural traits. However, while an amulet is strictly a defensive object, a talisman is meant to confer special benefits or powers upon the wearer. A locket is an object that opens to reveal a space which serves to hold a small object. They typically come in the form of a pendant hanging from a necklace, a medallion is most often a coin-shaped piece of metal worn as a pendant around the neck or pinned onto clothing. These are generally granted as awards, recognitions, or religious blessings, tools worn as pendants include Maori pounamu pendants. Shepherds whistles, bosuns whistles, and ocarinas can also be made as pendants, portable astronomical and navigational instruments were made as pendants. In the first decade of the 21st century, jewellers started to incorporate USB flash drives into pendants
18.
Cycad
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Cycads /ˈsaɪkædz/ are seed plants with a long fossil history that were formerly more abundant and more diverse than they are today. They typically have a stout and woody trunk with a crown of large, hard and stiff, the individual plants are either all male or all female. Cycads vary in size from having only a few centimeters to several meters tall. They typically grow very slowly and live long, with some specimens known to be as much as 1,000 years old. Because of their resemblance, they are sometimes mistaken for palms or ferns. The living cycads are found much of the subtropical and tropical parts of the world. The greatest diversity occurs in South and Central America, some can survive in harsh desert or semi-desert climates, others in wet rain forest conditions, and some in both. Some can grow in sand or even on rock, some in oxygen-poor, swampy, some are able to grow in full sun, some in full shade, and some in both. The three extant families of cycads are Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae, and Zamiaceae, Cycads have changed little since the Jurassic, compared to some major evolutionary changes in other plant divisions. Cycads have very specialized pollinators, usually a species of beetle. They have been reported to fix nitrogen in association with various cyanobacteria living in the roots and these photosynthetic bacteria produce a neurotoxin called BMAA that is found in the seeds of cycads. This neurotoxin may enter a food chain as the cycad seeds may be eaten directly as a source of flour by humans or by wild or feral animals such as bats. It is hypothesized that this is a source of some neurological diseases in humans, Cycads have a cylindrical trunk which usually does not branch. Leaves grow directly from the trunk, and typically fall when older, the leaves grow in a rosette form, with new foliage emerging from the top and center of the crown. The trunk may be buried, so the leaves appear to be emerging from the ground, the leaves are generally large in proportion to the trunk size, and sometimes even larger than the trunk. The leaves are pinnate, with a leaf stalk from which parallel ribs emerge from each side of the stalk. The leaves are typically either compound, or have edges so deeply cut so as to appear compound. Some species have leaves that are bipinnate, which means the leaflets each have their own subleaflets, for example, the family Stangeriaceae only contains three extant species in Africa and Australia
19.
Peace
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Peace is a lack of conflict and freedom from fear of violence between heterogeneous social groups. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace often involves compromise, Peace can be defined in a positive direction and in a negative sense. Positively, peace is a state of tranquility and stillness, however, in a negative sense, the term peace originates most recently from the Anglo-French pes, and the Old French pais, meaning peace, reconciliation, silence, agreement. But, Pes itself comes from the Latin pax, meaning peace, compact, agreement, treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of hostility, harmony. At a personal level, peaceful behaviors are kind, considerate, respectful, just, and tolerant of others beliefs and behaviors — tending to manifest goodwill. This latter understanding of peace can also pertain to an individuals introspective sense or concept of her/himself, as in being at peace in ones own mind, as found in European references from c.1200. In many languages, the word for peace is used as a greeting or a farewell, for example the Hawaiian word aloha. In English the word peace is used as a farewell, especially for the dead. Religious beliefs often seek to identify and address the problems of human life. Among pagan faiths, worship of personified Peace was organized in antiquity under the name Eirene in Greek-speaking areas and as Pax in Latin-speaking ones and her idols depicted a full-grown woman, usually with a horn of plenty and scepter and sometimes with a torch or olive leaves. Christians, who believe Jesus of Nazareth to be the Jewish Messiah called Christ, numerous pontifical documents on the Holy Rosary document a continuity of views of the Popes to have confidence in the Holy Rosary as a means to foster peace. Islam derived from the root word salam which literally means peace, muslims are called followers of Islam. Quran clearly stated Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah. Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah, hearts are assured and stated O you who have believed, and when you are told, Arise, then arise, Allah will raise those who have believed among you and those who were given knowledge, by degrees. And Allah is Acquainted with what you do, buddhists believe that peace can be attained once all suffering ends. They regard all suffering as stemming from cravings, aversions, or delusions, to eliminate such suffering and achieve personal peace, followers in the path of the Buddha adhere to a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths — a central tenet in Buddhist philosophy. Hindu texts contain the following passages, May there be peace in the heavens, peace in the atmosphere, let there be coolness in the water, healing in the herbs and peace radiating from the trees. Let there be harmony in the planets and in the stars, may everything in the universe be at peace
20.
Parliament of Vanuatu
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The Parliament was the unicameral legislative body of the Republic of Vanuatu. It was established by chapter 4 of the 1980 Constitution, upon Vanuatus independence from France, the functioning of Parliament is derived from the British Westminster system, and includes the principle of parliamentary supremacy, within the limits of the Constitution. Parliament is composed of members, directly elected by citizens from multi-member constituencies for a four-year term. Parliament elects the Prime Minister from among its members, members of Parliament are also, along with the presidents of Regional Councils, members of the electoral college which elects the President, for a five-year term. In December 2015, the Parliament was dissolved by President Baldwin Lonsdale, current Speaker of the Parliament is Hon. Esmon Saimon since February 2016. This is a list of members of the 10th Parliament of Vanuatu returned in the 2012 elections, law of Vanuatu Politics of Vanuatu List of legislatures by country Official Website of the Parliament of Vanuatu Video archives of Parliaments sessions
21.
Field (heraldry)
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In heraldry, the background of the shield is called the field. The field is composed of one or more tinctures or furs. The field may be divided or may consist of a variegated pattern, in rare modern cases the field is not a tincture, but is shown as a scene from a landscape. Landscape fields are regarded by many heralds as unheraldic and debased, as they defy the heraldic ideal of simple, boldly coloured images, the arms of the Inveraray and District Community Council in Scotland have as a field In waves of the sea. Division of the field Variation of the field
22.
Sanma Province
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Sanma is a province located in the Northern part of the nation of Vanuatu, occupying the nations largest island, Espiritu Santo, which is located approximately 2,500 km northeast of Sydney, Australia. The name Sanma is derived from the letters of the main islands of SANto. It has a population of 45,860 and an area of 4,248 km², other centers of population include Champagne Beach, Hogharbour, Port Olry, and Aseviah. Sanma Provincial Day falls on the 23rd of September annually, all Sanma Citizens including friends celebrate this special accassion where ever they are domestically or internationally. Sanma provincial council is responsible for running the affairs of the province. The council is elected every four years, the party which has the vast majority of sets up the provincial government. The head of the government is the President of Sanma province. The headquarters of the province is located in the centre of Luganville. Critics had blamed the government for ill management of the provincial affairs during the past few years. For example, over the last few years, poor management had culminated in an amount of litigations. This has therefore cost the council a fortune as regards legal fees, one of the avowed aims of this recent council at Sanma province is to ensure transparency, and good governance
23.
Shefa Province
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Shefa is one of the six provinces of Vanuatu, located in the center of the country and including the islands of Epi and Efate and the Shepherd Islands. The provinces name is derived from the letters of SHepherd. It has a population of 78,723 people and an area of 1,455 km² and its capital is Port Vila, which is also the capital of the nation. In the 1860s, Havanna Harbour, north Efate, was the centre of development in Shefa, with dwindling prices for cotton, agricultural administrators turned to maize and coffee, before settling mainly with coconuts and cattle which are the main agricultural products today. Shefa Province was a location during World War II for the mainly American troops. Major instalments were placed on northern Efate along Havanna Harbour including Tanaliou, Siviri and Saama, the Shefa Islands are volcanic and limestone/raised reef in origin. The one active volcano in the Province, on Epi is only sporadically active, Shefa is made up of approximately 27 islands, Efate being the most populated and also the location of the Vanuatu capital, Port Vila. It is at the end of the province and is surrounded by several smaller islands, including Iririki, Ifira, Eratap, Erakor, Erueti Lep, Eratoka, Lelepa, Moso, Nguna, Pele, Kakuhla. To the north are the Shepherd Islands, a group that includes Naore, Etarik, Matasao, Makura, Emae, Buninga, Tongariki, Tongoa, Ewose, and Laika. At the north end is the large island in the province, Epi, as well as nearby Tefala, Namuka. Some of these islands are uninhabited, there is plenty of reef accessible for snorkellers to the advanced diver including Pango Wall, and Mele Reef. There is even the opportunity to sight endangered species such as turtle and dugongs near Erakor Island, some of the Shefa islands have no permanent watercourses and water must be collected for drinking and bathing from rain water, which can be a tenacious exercise during drier years. The rivers of Shefa include the Tagabe, the Epule, Marine sanctuaries are becoming an increasingly popular way to attempt to preserve marine life around Shefa, although traditional methods of conservation can be highly effective. This movement is also an attempt to increase tourism, parks and Sanctuaries include the Efate Land Management Area. The Nikaura Marine Protected Area on Epi, the Nguna-Pele Marine Protected Area Network on Nguna and Pele, and the Hideaway Marine Sanctuary, Hideaway Island. The capital of Vanuatu, Port Vila is home to approximately 44,000 people, mostly the indigenous ni-Vanuatu, both anecdotal and statistical information shows an increase in urbanisation which doubled between 1967 and 1999. Most of Shefas population resides in coastal areas and Efate’s interior is largely unoccupied, the Shefa Provincial Council Headquarters are located in Port Vila, these humble offices house the political and administrative hub of the Shefa government. The current President is John Markal representing Erakor constituent, French and English are also spoken widely through the province
24.
Tanna (island)
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Tanna is an island in Tafea Province of Vanuatu. It is 40 kilometres long and 19 kilometres wide, with an area of 550 square kilometres. Its highest point is the 1, 084-metre summit of Mount Tukosmera in the south of the island, Mount Yasur is an accessible active volcano which is located on the southeast coast. Tanna was first settled about 400 BC by Melanesians from the surrounding islands and he gave the island the name of Tanna, probably from the local name for earth, tana in the Kwamera language. In the 19th century, traders and missionaries arrived, the Tannese stuck to their traditions more strongly than other islands, there remain fewer Christians in comparison with the other islands of Vanuatu. Tanna was not a site of World War II. Exposure to First World living standards may have led to the development of cargo cults, many have died out, but the John Frum cult remains strong on Tanna today, especially at Sulphur Bay in the south east and Green Point in the South West of the Island. A secessionist movement began in the 1970s, and the Nation of Tanna was proclaimed on March 24,1974. In 1980, there was attempt to secede, declaring the Tafea Nation on January 1,1980. British forces intervened on May 26,1980, allowing the island to become part of the independent nation of Vanuatu on July 30,1980. Following this, an El Niño-spurred drought further impacted on the people of Tanna and it is the most populous island in Tafea Province, with a population of about 29,000, and one of the most populous islands in the country. Isangel, the administrative capital, is on the west coast near the islands largest town of Lénakel. Tanna is populated almost entirely by Melanesians and they follow a traditional lifestyle than many other islands. The island is the centre of the John Frum religious movement, the first wave of the John Frum movement was a means to escape from what was known as Tanna Law, imposed by the Presbyterian mission at Lenakel from early in the twentieth century until World War II. Many Tanna Islanders had moved from their villages to the mission villages on the coast. The first John appeared at night as a spirit at a place called Green Point, from that time custom on Tanna has been seen as an alternative to modernity encouraged by many missionary denominations. Yaohnanen is the centre of the Prince Philip movement, which reveres Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the cult is examined by British writer Matthew Baylis in his 2013 book Man Belong Mrs Queen, Adventures with the Philip Worshippers. Protestant missionary John Gibson Paton served here from 1858 and his wife died of tropical fever the next year, and her baby died a month later
25.
Tafea Province
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Tafea is the southernmost of the six provinces of Vanuatu. The name is an acronym for the five islands that make up the province, Tanna, Aneityum, Futuna, Erromango. Only the capital moved from Lenakel to nearby Isangel, less than two kilometers more southeast, a secessionist movement began in the 1970s, and the Nation of Tanna was proclaimed on March 24,1974. In 1980, there was attempt to secede, declaring the Tafea Nation on January 1,1980. British forces intervened on May 26,1980, allowing the islands to become part of the independent nation of Vanuatu on July 30,1980. The province has a population of 32,540 people and an area of 1,628 km², the three larger islands are Melanesian, but the smaller two, Aniwa and Futuna, also known under the collective term Erronan Islands, are Polynesian outliers. Futuna is sometimes called West Futuna to distinguish it from Futuna Island, Wallis, the island of Tanna has the worlds most accessible volcano, Mount Yasur, with 1,084 meters the highest peak of the province. Aniwa Island is the coral island, the other four are volcanic. Anatom is the southernmost island of Vanuatu and its southeastern cape Nétchan Néganneaing is the southernmost point of land in Vanuatu, more southerly than the southern satellite islet Inyeug. The latter, however, is surrounded Intao Reef, that even further south, albeit submerged
26.
Tudor Crown
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It was described by the art historian Sir Roy Strong as a masterpiece of early Tudor jewellers art, and its form has been compared to the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The centre petals of the fleurs-de-lis had images of Christ, the Virgin Mary and St George, the crown was mentioned again in 1532,1550,1574 and 1597. After the death of Elizabeth I and the end of the Tudor dynasty, both James I and Charles I are known to have worn the crown. Following the abolition of the monarchy and the execution of Charles I in 1649, according to an inventory drawn up for the sale of the kings goods, it weighed 3.3 kg. It can be viewed as part of an exhibition in the Royal Chapel at Hampton Court Palace, imperial State Crown Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom The Making of Henry VIIIs Crown a video by Historic Royal Palaces Download a 3D digital model at Thingiverse
27.
St Edward's Crown
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St Edwards Crown is one of the oldest Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom and the centrepiece of the coronation regalia. Named after Edward the Confessor, it has traditionally used to crown English and British monarchs at their coronation ceremonies. The current version was made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661, Edward the Confessor wore the first crown of this name at Easter, Whitsun and Christmas. It may have incorporated elements of a crown that belonged to Alfred the Great, in 1066, St Edwards Crown was reputedly used at the coronation of William the Conqueror. It was subsequently used for the coronations of William II, Henry I, Stephen, Henry II, Richard I, at the first coronation of Henry III in 1216, a chaplet was used instead of the crown. From this it was inferred by the German historian, Reinhold Pauli, however, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley maintained that the original crown and regalia were kept in the Treasury until the time of Henry VIII, and survived until 1642. It was supposedly used in 1533 to crown the wife of Henry VIII. During the English Civil War in 1642, Parliament sold the medieval St Edwards Crown, the British monarchy was eventually restored in 1661, and in preparation for the coronation of Charles II, a new St Edwards Crown was made by Sir Robert Vyner. It is 30 cm tall and weighs 2.23 kg and its purple velvet cap is trimmed with ermine. In 1671, Colonel Thomas Blood briefly stole the crown from the Tower of London, a new monde was created for the coronation of James II, and for William III the base was changed from a circle to an oval. St Edwards Crown was placed on the coffin of Edward VII for his lying in state, imitation pearls on the arches and base were replaced with golden beads. It was also smaller to fit George V, the first monarch to be crowned with St Edwards Crown in over 200 years. When not used to crown the monarch, St Edwards Crown was placed on the altar during the coronation, however, it did not feature at all at the coronation of Queen Victoria. Before 1649, it was usual for a monarch to be crowned with the original St Edwards Crown, images based on the crown are used in coats of arms, badges, logos and various other insignia throughout the Commonwealth realms to symbolise the monarchs royal authority. In these contexts, it replaced the Tudor Crown in 1953 by order of Queen Elizabeth II, use of the crowns image in this way is by permission of the monarch. Coronation crown Canadian royal symbols St Edwards Crown at the Royal Collection, the Crown Jewels at the Royal Family website
28.
Free France
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It was set up in London in June 1940 and also organised and supported the Resistance in occupied France. On 27 October 1940, the Empire Defense Council was constituted to organise the rule of the territories in central Africa and it was replaced on 24 September 1941 by the French National Committee. After the reconquest of North Africa, this was in turn merged with de Gaulles rival general Henri Girauds command in Algiers to form the French Committee of National Liberation. Exile officially ended with the capture of Paris by the 2nd Armoured Free French Division and Resistance forces on 25 August 1944, the Free French fought Axis and Vichy regime troops and served on battlefronts everywhere from the Middle East to Indochina and North Africa. The Free French Navy operated as a force to the Royal Navy and, in the North Atlantic. Free French units also served in the Royal Air Force, Soviet Air Force, the French Army of Africa switched allegiance to Free France, and this caused the Axis to occupy Vichy in reaction. On 1 August 1943, LArmée dAfrique was formally united with the Free French Forces to form LArmée française de la Liberation. By mid-1944, the forces of this army numbered more than 400,000, and they participated in the Normandy landings, the Free French government re-established a provisional republic after the liberation, preparing the ground for the Fourth Republic in 1946. Historically, an individual became Free French by enlisting in the military units organised by the CFN or by employment by the arm of the Committee. In many sources, Free French describes any French individual or unit that fought against Axis forces after the June 1940 armistice, postwar, to settle disputes over the Free French heritage, the French government issued an official definition of the term. Under this ministerial instruction of July 1953, only those who served with the Allies after the Franco-German armistice in 1940, between 27 May and 4 June, around 200,000 British soldiers and 140,000 French troops were evacuated from the beaches to safety in England. General Charles de Gaulle was a minister in the French cabinet during the Battle of France, as France was overwhelmed by the stunning German victory, he found himself part of a small group of politicians who argued against a negotiated surrender to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. That same day, the new French President of the Council, former First World War Marshal Philippe Pétain, De Gaulle briefly travelled to Bordeaux to continue the fight but, realising that Pétain would surrender, he returned to London on 17 June. On 18 June, General de Gaulle spoke to the French people via BBC radio, urging French soldiers, sailors and airmen to join in the fight against the Nazis and she has a great empire behind her. Together with the British Empire, she can form a bloc that controls the seas and she may, like England, draw upon the limitless industrial resources of the United States. In Vichys case those reasons were compounded with ideas of a Révolution nationale about stamping out Frances republican heritage. On 22 June 1940, Marshall Pétain signed an armistice with Germany, followed by a one with Italy on 24 June. After a parliamentary vote on 10 July, Pétain became leader of the newly established authoritarian regime known as Vichy France, despite de Gaulles call to continue the struggle, few French forces, at least initially, pledged their support
29.
Pacific Games
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The Pacific Games is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympic Games, with participation exclusively from countries around the South Pacific Ocean. It is held four years and began in 1963, hosted by Suva. The idea of holding the South Pacific Games originated with Dr A. H. Sahu Khan who was one of Fijis representatives at a meeting of the South Pacific Commission held at Rabaul during 1959. The idea was adopted and led to a meeting of nine Territories, held in Nouméa during March 1961, during 1962, the South Pacific Commission founded the South Pacific Games Council, with the first ever Games being held at Suva, Fiji. In the 40 years since, Games have been held in 12 countries and territories within the region, initially the Games were held at three-year intervals although this was subsequently expanded to four following the Tumon Games in Guam. As time went on, fledgling nations gradually achieving sovereignty of their own sought to extricate themselves from their colonial past and new national anthems, nevertheless, English and French remain the official languages of the Games. Like other sporting events, the South Pacific Games has experienced slight controversies, a minor dispute that still continues today is the scheduling of events landing on a Sunday. Throughout the Pacific, the Christian Sabbath remains very important and scheduling at such a time would be frowned upon, however other larger nations within the region or those loosely associated with more secular states are more moderate in this regard. Other global and regional events have also influenced and shaped the Games history, in 1995, the year Papeete, Tahiti hosted the Games, many countries took the decision to boycott as a direct protest at French nuclear testing in the Pacific. The Games, however, returned to near full regional participation in the event in 1999. The Games were initiated to promote and develop sport amongst the nations, after fifty years in existence, The South Pacific Commission changed its name to the Secretariat of the Pacific Community in 1998. The XII South Pacific Games held in Suva, Fiji saw for the first time the introduction of a program of 32 sports. That program included sports that are synonymous with the Pacific region as well as sports that have a participation and are generally not well established. A strong corporate sponsorship package a first for the games enabled the organizers to work with a hand towards their aims of making the games a success. A colorful and effective media and publicity campaign generated much interest, schools and youth groups were involved in interactive programs such as the adopt-a-country program also a first for the games. The XIII Pacific Games were hosted in Apia, Samoa and they were the 13th to have been held since 1963. Potential debt positions notwithstanding, five nations bid for the 2015 Pacific Games, the Games were ultimately awarded to Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea and follow the 2011 Pacific Games held in Nouméa, New Caledonia. However the rising cost and the burden of putting on the games continue to threaten countries abilities to host the event
30.
Republic of Vemerana
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Nagriamel is a political movement initially based in the northern islands of the New Hebrides during the late 1970s. With backing from the Phoenix Foundation, Nagriamel declared a nation on the island of Santo on the eve of Vanuatus independence in 1980. Vanuaaku Party and Papua New Guinean soldiers quashed Jimmy Stevens and Nagriamels short-lived Republic of Vemerana only weeks later, reprisals against Nagriamel supporters spread throughout the northern islands. Following the 2008 general election, Nagriamel has two Members of Parliament, and is a part of Prime Minister Edward Natapeis government and its MPs are Havo Moli, Minister for Agriculture, and Ioane Simon Omawa, a backbencher. The name Nagriamel is a concatenation of the names for two different plants in Vanuatu, the nanggaria and the namele. The nanggaria is an ornamental with relatives common throughout tropical countries, Nagriamel is currently led by MP Havo Molisale. In 2013, Thitam Goiset was sacked from her role as Vanuatus ambassador to Russia amid evidence of corrupt activities Turaga nation Franky stevens interview about Vanuatu independence history
31.
Tuva
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The Tyva Republic, Tyva or Tuva is a federal subject of Russia. It lies in the center of Asia, in southern Siberia. The republic borders the Altai Republic, the Republic of Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Irkutsk Oblast, and its capital is the city of Kyzyl. It has a population of 307,930, from 1921 until 1944, Tuva constituted a sovereign, independent nation, under the name of Tannu Tuva, officially, the Tuvan Peoples Republic, or the Peoples Republic of Tannu Tuva. The independence of Tannu Tuva, however, was recognized only by its neighbors, a majority of the people are ethnic Tuvans who speak Tuvan as their native tongue, while Russian is spoken natively by the Russian minority, both are official and widely understood in the country. Tuva is governed by the Great Khural, which elects a chairman for a four-year term, the current chairman is Sholban Kara-ool. The territory of Tuva has been controlled by the Xiongnu Empire and Mongolian Xianbei state, Rouran Khaganate, Mongol Empire, Northern Yuan, Khotgoid Khanate, medieval Mongol tribes, including Oirats and Tumeds inhabited in the territory of republic. In 1758–1911 it was brought under Manchu rule, during the 1911 revolution in China, tsarist Russia formed a separatist movement among the Tyvans. Tsar Nicholas II ordered Russian troops into Tyva in 1912, as Russian settlers were allegedly being attacked, Tyva became nominally independent as the Urjanchai Republic before being brought under Russian protectorate as Uryankhay Kray under Tsar Nicholas II on 17 April 1914. This move was requested by a number of prominent Tyvans, including the High Lama. A Tyvan capital was established, called Belotsarsk, meanwhile, in 1911 Mongolia became independent, though under Russian protection. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 that ended the imperial autocracy, pyotr Ivanovich Turchaninov was named governor of the territory. In the autumn of 1918 the southwestern part was occupied by Chinese troops, from July 1919 to February 1920 the communist Red Army controlled Tyva, but from 19 February 1920 to June 1921 it was occupied by China. On August 14,1921 the Bolsheviks established a Tuvan Peoples Republic, in 1926, the capital was renamed Kyzyl, meaning red. Tyva was de jure an independent state between the World Wars, the states first ruler, Prime Minister Donduk, sought to strengthen ties with Mongolia and establish Buddhism as the state religion. This unsettled the Kremlin, which orchestrated a coup carried out in 1929 by five young Tyvan graduates of Moscows Communist University of the Toilers of the East. In 1930 the pro-Soviet regime discarded the states Mongol script in favor of a Latin alphabet designed for Tyva by Russian linguists, Tyva voluntarily became a part of The Soviet Union in 1944, with the approval of Tyvas Little Khural. The exact circumstances surrounding Tannu-Tuvas incorporation into the USSR in 1944 remain obscure, salchak Toka, the leader of Tyvan communists, was given the title of First Secretary of the Tyvan Communist Party, and became the de facto ruler of Tyva until his death in 1973
32.
Flag of Tuva
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The flag of Tuva, a republic in the Russian Federation, is a light blue field with a white-fimbriated pall of the same color bordering a yellow triangle on the hoist. White symbolizes silver and virtue, additionally, it is common in Tuva for hostesses to greet guests with silver streamers in their arms, the yellow triangle symbolizes gold and Buddhism. Blue symbolizes the morals of nomadic herdsmen, as well the Tuvan sky, the blue pall symbolizes the confluence of the Bii-Khem and Kaa-Khem rivers at the Tuvan capital of Qızıl, where they form the Yenisei River, known to locals as the Ulug-Khem River. The flag was created on September 18,1992 by Oyun-ool Sat, flag of South Africa, which the flag of Tuva also closely resembles
33.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
34.
Flag of South Africa
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The flag of South Africa was adopted on 27 April 1994, at the beginning of South Africas 1994 general election, to replace the flag that had been used since 1928. The new national flag, designed by the then State Herald of South Africa Frederick Brownell, was chosen to represent the new democracy after the end of Apartheid. The flag has horizontal bands of red and blue, of width, separated by a central green band which splits into a horizontal Y shape. The Y embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by yellow bands. The stripes at the fly end are in the 5,1,3,1,5 ratio, at the time of its adoption, the South African flag was the only national flag in the world to comprise six colours in its primary design. The other three – red, white and blue – are displayed on the Dutch tricolour and the British Union flag and are said represent the white population. The green pall is commonly interpreted to mean the unification of the ethnic groups. The design therefore represents a converging of paths, the merging of both the past and the present, the Anglo-Boer War between 1899 and 1902 ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902 and resulted in what is now South Africa falling under the British Union Flag. The former Boer Republics of the Orange Free State and the Zuid-Afrikaanse Republiek became British colonies along with the existing Cape, each was also entitled to a colonial flag following in the British tradition. On 31 May 1910 these four colonies came together to form the Union of South Africa, once again, as a British dominion the British Union Flag was to continue as the national flag and the standard British ensign pattern was used as a basis for distinctive South African flags. These ensigns were not intended to be used as the Unions national flag, although these ensigns were primarily intended for maritime use, they were also flown on land. These flags never enjoyed popular support due to the animosities lingering after the Anglo-Boer War. This provoked often violent controversy that lasted for three years based on whether the British Union Flag should be included in the new design or not. The Natal Province even threatened to secede from the Union should it be decided to remove it, finally, a compromise was reached that resulted in the adoption of a separate flag for the Union in late 1927 and the design was first hoisted on 31 May 1928. The design was based on the so-called Van Riebeeck flag or Prinsenvlag that was originally the Dutch flag, it consisted of orange, white, a version of this flag had been used as the flag of the Dutch East India Company at the Cape from 1652 until 1795. The South African addition to the design was the inclusion of three smaller flags centred in the white stripe, the miniature flags were the British Union Flag towards the hoist, the flag of the Orange Free State hanging vertically in the middle and the Transvaal Vierkleur towards the fly. The position of each of the flags is such that each has equal status. That the Orange Free State flag, since it hangs vertically, is higher than the two, is a plus factor
35.
Flags of the World
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Flags of the World is an Internet-based vexillological association and resource. Its principal project is the Internets largest website devoted to vexillology, containing information about all kinds of flags. The mailing list began as a group in about September 1993, while the website was founded by Giuseppe Bottasini in late 1994. FotW became the 56th member of the FIAV in 2001, both the website and the mailing list operate in the English language, though there are members from around the world and as such information from many languages is translated and included. The mailing list is monitored by the FOTW Listmaster, while work on the website is coordinated by the FOTW Editorial Director, the website is updated once a week with fresh material, some mirrors update monthly. Due to the amount of material there is an editing backlog. There are also some mirrors that have not been updated for varying periods of time, the source for material on the FOTW website are contributions to the FOTW mailing list, which has over 1000 members, of which some 100 are active contributors. The mailing list has notable minorities of Portuguese, French, Dutch, a staff of three unpaid volunteers manages and moderates the list. An affiliated Flags of the World Facebook group has established, inaugurated by Edward Mooney. As of November 2016 the group is run and moderated by a team of ten administrators, FOTW displays standardized flag images in GIF format, usually at a height of 216 pixels. While the GIF file format is capable of displaying 256 colours, the organizations flag is a design by Mark Sensen, which was selected over 10 challengers in a poll of FOTW mailing list members and was adopted 8 March 1996. Since then, March 8 has been regarded as FOTWs Flag day, Sensen described its symbolism, White on the hoist stands for peace, blue on the fly for progress. The six colours of the stars are the colours used in flags. The stars help to make one bigger symbol, the way the stars are all connected to each other represents the Internet. The flag is used as a rare representation of the Internet on a flag. List of flags List of flags by country Gallery of country flags Flags of the World Dictionary of Vexillology Flag Days Of The World FOTW mailing list
36.
The World Factbook
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The World Factbook is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available from the National Technical Information Service, Other companies—such as Skyhorse Publishing—also print a paper edition. The Factbook is available in the form of a website that is updated every week. It is also available for download for use off-line, the World Factbook is prepared by the CIA for the use of U. S. Government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. However, it is used as a resource for academic research papers. As a work of the U. S. Government, it is in the domain in the United States. In researching the Factbook, the CIA uses the sources listed below, Other public and private sources are also consulted. However, the CIA requests that it be cited when the Factbook is used, copying the official seal of the CIA without permission is prohibited by U. S. federal law—specifically, the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949. Before November 2001 The World Factbook website was updated yearly, from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks, since 2010 it has been updated weekly, generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the Factbook. The first, classified, edition of Factbook was published in August 1962, the World Factbook was first available to the public in print in 1975. In 2008 the CIA discontinued printing the Factbook themselves, instead turning printing responsibilities over to the Government Printing Office and this happened due to a CIA decision to focus Factbook resources on the online edition. The Factbook has been on the World Wide Web since October 1994, the web version gets an average of 6 million visits per month, it can also be downloaded. The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office, in past years, the Factbook was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, and floppy disk. Many Internet sites use information and images from the CIA World Factbook, several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books, and Skyhorse Publishing have re-published the Factbook in recent years. As of July 2011, The World Factbook consists of 267 entities and these entities can be divided into categories. They are, Independent countries This category has independent countries, which the CIA defines as people politically organized into a state with a definite territory. In this category, there are 195 entities, others The Other category is a list of other places set apart from the list of independent countries. Currently there are two, Taiwan and the European Union, dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty This category is a list of places affiliated with another country
37.
Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
38.
History of Vanuatu
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The history of Vanuatu begins obscurely. The commonly held theory of Vanuatus prehistory from archaeological evidence supports that peoples speaking Austronesian languages first came to the islands some 3,300 years ago, pottery fragments have been found dating back to 1300 BC. What little is known of the pre-European contact history of Vanuatu has been gleaned from oral histories, one important early king was Roy Mata, who united several tribes, and was buried in a large mound with several retainers. The first island in the Vanuatu group discovered by Spaniards was Espiritu Santo when, in 1606, Europeans did not return until 1768, when Louis Antoine de Bougainville rediscovered the islands. In 1774, Captain Cook named the islands the New Hebrides, in 1825, trader Peter Dillons discovery of sandalwood on the island of Erromango began a rush that ended in 1830 after a clash between immigrant Polynesian workers and indigenous Melanesians. During the 1860s, planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, at the height of the blackbirding, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the Islands worked abroad. It was at time that missionaries, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, arrived on the islands. Settlers also came, looking for land on which to establish cotton plantations, when international cotton prices collapsed, they switched to coffee, cocoa, bananas, and, most successfully, coconuts. Initially, British subjects from Australia made up the majority, by around the start of the 20th century, the French outnumbered the British two to one. The municipality of Franceville on Efate was established during this period, in 1878 Britain and France declared all of the New Hebrides to be neutral territory, but the lack of a functional government led to rising discontent among British and French colonists. The French were especially inconvenienced because French law recognized marriages only when contracted under a civil authority, in 1887 both nations created an Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission to defend their citizens. On 9 August 1889, Franceville declared itself independent under the leadership of mayor/president Ferdinand Chevillard and with its own red, white and this community became the first self-governing nation to practice universal suffrage without distinction of sex or race. Although the districts population at the time consisted of about 500 natives and fewer than 50 whites, one of its elected presidents was a U. S. citizen by birth, R. D. Polk. The jumbling of French and British interests in the islands brought petitions for one or another of the two powers to annex the territory. The Convention of 16 October 1887 established a joint naval commission for the purpose of protecting French and British citizens. In 1906, however, France and the United Kingdom agreed to administer the islands jointly, called the British-French Condominium, it was a unique form of government, with separate governmental systems that came together only in a joint court. The condominiums authority was extended in the Anglo-French Protocol of 1914, many called the condominium the Pandemonium because of the duplication of laws, police forces, prisons, currencies, education and health systems. Overseas visitors could choose between British law, which was considered stricter but with more humane prisons, or French law, which was considered less strict, but with much worse prison conditions
39.
Melanesia
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Melanesia is a subregion of Oceania extending from New Guinea island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and eastward to Fiji. The region includes the four countries of Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, the concept among Europeans of Melanesia as a distinct region evolved gradually over time as their expeditions mapped and explored the Pacific. Early European explorers noted the differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. In the first half of the nineteenth century Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent, over time, however, Europeans increasingly viewed Melanesia as a distinct cultural, rather than racial, area. Scholars and other commentators disagreed on its boundaries, which were fluid, in the nineteenth century Robert Codrington, a British missionary, produced a series of monographs on the Melanesians based on his long-time residence in the region. He did not include the islands of New Guinea because only some of its people were Melanesians, like Bory de Saint-Vincent, he excluded Australia from Melanesia. It was in works that Codrington introduced the cultural concept of mana to the West. Uncertainty about the delineation and definition of the region continues, the scholarly consensus now includes New Guinea within Melanesia. Ann Chowning wrote in her 1977 textbook on Melanesia that there is no agreement even among anthropologists about the geographical boundaries of Melanesia. In 1998 Paul Sillitoe wrote of Melanesia, it is not easy to define precisely, on geographical, cultural, biological, or any other grounds, where Melanesia ends and the neighbouring regions. It covers populations that have a linguistic, biological and cultural affinity – a certain ill-defined sameness. Both Sillitoe and Chowning include the island of New Guinea in the definition of Melanesia, most of the peoples in Melanesia have established independent countries, are admistered by France or have active independence movements. Many have recently taken up the term Melanesia as a source of identity, stephanie Lawson writes that the term moved from a term of denigration to one of affirmation, providing a positive basis for contemporary subregional identity as well as a formal organisation. For instance, the author Bernard Narokobi wrote about the Melanesian Way as a form of culture that could empower the people of this region. The concept is used in geopolitics. For instance, the Melanesian Spearhead Group preferential trade agreement is a trade treaty among Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea. The people of Melanesia have a distinctive ancestry, the limit of this ancient migration was Sahul, the continent formed when Australia and New Guinea were united by a land bridge as a result of low sea levels. The first migration into Sahul came over 40,000 years ago, a further expansion into the eastern islands of Melanesia came much later, probably between 4000 B. C. and 3000 B. C
40.
Franceville, New Hebrides
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Franceville was a municipality located on Efate, or Sandwich Island. It was established in 1889 in order to gain legal status. In 1878, the United Kingdom and France declared all of the New Hebrides to be neutral territory, for the protection of the French and British citizens in New Hebrides, a joint naval commission was established under the Convention of 16 October 1887. However, the convention claimed no jurisdiction over internal native affairs, the lack of a functional government led to rising discontent among the colonists. The French were especially inconvenienced because French law only recognized marriages when contracted under a civil authority and this community became one of the first self-governing nations in recorded history to practice universal suffrage without distinction of sex or race. Although the districts population at the time consisted of about 500 natives and fewer than 50 whites, one of its elected presidents was R. D. Polk, a native of Tennessee and relative of James K. Polk. The new government was suppressed, and by June 1890. In 1906, the commission was replaced by a more structured British-French Condominium. History of Vanuatu Port Vila Timeline of womens suffrage Brunet, Auguste, Le régime international des Nouvelles-Hébrides, Le Condominium Anglo-Français. The Making of a Rebel, Captain Donald Macleod of the New Hebrides
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Naval Ensign
Reconstructed secessionist flag of the Tafea Nation[5]
Reconstructed secessionist flag of the Tafea Nation
Flag of the Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission (1887–1906)[7]
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Flag of Tuva (created 1992) which closely resembles the flag of Vanuatu.
Flag of South Africa (adopted 1994) which also closely resembles the flag of Vanuatu.
