1.
Andalusia
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Andalusia is an autonomous community in southern Spain. It is the most populated and the second largest in area of the communities in the country. The Andalusian autonomous community is recognised as historical nationality. The territory is divided into eight provinces, Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga and its capital is the city of Seville. Andalusia is the only European region with both Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines, the small British overseas territory of Gibraltar shares a three-quarter-mile land border with the Andalusian province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar. The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, in the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spains Meseta Central. To the south the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia lies mostly within the Baetic System, the name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus. Including an intense relationship with Naples, Italy, Andalusia has been a traditionally agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. However, the growth of the community especially in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain, the region has, however, a rich culture and a strong cultural identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin and these include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles. Andalusias hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with cities like Córdoba, Late evening temperatures can sometimes stay around 35 °C until close to midnight, with daytime highs of over 40 °C common. Seville also has the highest average temperature in mainland Spain and mainland Europe. Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia. However, the etymology of the name Al-Andalus is disputed, the Spanish place name Andalucía was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the form of the Arabic language al-Andalus. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated, but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this came under Muslim rule. Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the territory designated by these terms today. To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in the Guadalquivir valley and in the Kingdoms of Granada, in a document from 1253, Alfonso X styled himself Rey de Castilla, León y de toda Andalucía
Andalusia
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Map of the
Iberian peninsula dated 1770. The Kingdoms of
Jaén,
Córdoba and
Seville are collectively referred to under the name Andalucía, while the
Kingdom of Granada appears under its individual name.
Andalusia
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Flag
Andalusia
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Portrait of
Blas Infante, executed in
azulejos, located on the avenue in
Jerez de la Frontera named in his honor.
Andalusia
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Andalusian firs,
Sierra de las Nieves
2.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
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Lady of Elche
Spain
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Flag
Spain
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Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
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Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
3.
Flamenco guitar
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A flamenco guitar is a guitar similar to a classical guitar but with thinner tops and less internal bracing. It is used in toque, the part of the art of flamenco. The cheapest guitars were often simple, basic instruments made from the less expensive woods such as cypress, antonio de Torres, one of the most renowned luthiers, did not differentiate between flamenco and classical guitars. Only after Andrés Segovia and others popularized classical guitar music, did this distinction emerge, the traditional flamenco guitar is made of Spanish cypress, sycamore, or rosewood for the back and sides, and spruce for the top. This accounts for its body color. Flamenco guitars are built lighter with thinner tops than classical guitars, builders also use less internal bracing to keep the top more percussively resonant. The top is made of either spruce or cedar, though other tone woods are used today. Volume has traditionally been important for flamenco guitarists, as they must be heard over the sound of the dancers’ nailed shoes. To increase volume, harder woods, such as rosewood, can be used for the back and sides, the harder materials increase volume and tonal range. A typical cypress flamenco guitar produces more treble and louder percussion than the more sonorous negra and these guitars strive to capture some of the sustain achieved by concert caliber classical guitars while retaining the volume and attack associated with flamenco. Classical guitars are made with spruce or cedar tops and rosewood or mahogany backs. Flamenco guitars are made with spruce tops and cypress or sycamore for the backs and sides to enhance volume. Nevertheless, other types of wood may be used for the back and sides, like rosewood, maple, koa, satinwood, a well-made flamenco guitar responds quickly, and typically has less sustain than a classical. This is desirable, since the flurry of notes that a good player can produce might sound muddy on a guitar with a big, lush. The flamenco guitar’s sound is described as percussive, it tends to be brighter, drier. Flamenco is played differently from classical guitar. Players use different posture, strumming patterns, and techniques, Flamenco guitarists are known as tocaores and flamenco guitar technique is known as toque. Flamenco players tend to play the guitar between the hole and the bridge, but as closely as possible to the bridge, to produce a harsher
Flamenco guitar
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Example of a cedar top flamenco guitar with traditional tap plates/golpeadores installed
Flamenco guitar
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Flamenco master
Paco de Lucía
4.
Classical guitar
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The classical guitar is the member of the guitar family used in classical music. It is an acoustical wooden guitar with strings made of nylon, the traditional classical guitar has twelve frets clear of the body and is held on the left leg, so that the hand that plucks or strums the strings does so near the back of the soundhole. The modern steel string guitar, on the hand, usually has fourteen frets clear of the body and is commonly played off the hip. Examples of early guitars include the early romantic guitar. Classical guitar strings once made of catgut are now made of polymers as nylon. A guitar family tree may be identified, the flamenco guitar derives from the modern classical, but has differences in material, construction and sound. Todays modern classical guitar was established by the designs of the 19th-century Spanish luthier. Cultural baroque court music, 19th century opera and its influences, 19th century folk songs, Latin American music, thus over recent decades we have become accustomed to specialist artists with expertise in the art of vihuela, lute, Baroque guitar, 19th-century guitar, etc. Different types of guitars have different sound aesthetics, e. g. different colour-spectrum characteristics, different response and these guitars in turn sound different from the Torres models used by Segovia, that are suited for interpretations of romantic-modern works such as Moreno Torroba. When considering the guitar from a perspective, the musical instrument used is just as important as the musical language. As an example, It is impossible to play a historically informed de Visee or Corbetta on a classical guitar. The reason is that the guitar used courses, which are two strings close together, that are plucked together. This gives baroque guitars an unmistakable sound characteristic and tonal texture that is an part of an interpretation. Additionally the sound aesthetic of the guitar is very different from modern classical type guitars. However, they are considered to emphasize the fundamental too heavily for earlier repertoire, Some attribute this to the popularity of Segovia, considering him the catalyst for change toward the Spanish design and the so-called modern school in the 1920s and beyond. Some people consider it to have been influence of Segovia. It was the 19th century classical guitarist Francisco Tárrega who first popularized the Torres design as a solo instrument. Vihuela, renaissance guitars and baroque guitars have a bright sound - rich in overtones -, later in Spain a style of music emerged that favored a stronger fundamental, With the change of music a stronger fundamental was demanded and the fan bracing system was approached
Classical guitar
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Baroque Guitars from the Museum
Cité de la Musique in Paris (which houses almost 200 classical guitars)
Classical guitar
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Front and lateral view of a typical modern classical guitar
Classical guitar
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Guitarra Morisca (right)
Classical guitar
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History of guitars (exhibited at
Deutsches Museum)
5.
Castanets
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Castanets are a percussion instrument, used in Kalo, Moorish, Ottoman, ancient Roman, Italian, Spanish, Sephardic, Swiss, and Portuguese music. The instrument consists of a pair of concave shells joined on one edge by a string and they are held in the hand and used to produce clicks for rhythmic accents or a ripping or rattling sound consisting of a rapid series of clicks. They are traditionally made of hardwood, although fibreglass is becoming increasingly popular, in practice a player usually uses two pairs of castanets. One pair is held in hand, with the string hooked over the thumb. Each pair will make a sound of a different pitch. The origins of the instrument are not known, the practice of clicking hand-held sticks together to accompany dancing is ancient, and was practiced by both the Greeks and the Egyptians. In more modern times, the bones and spoons used in Minstrel show, during the baroque period, castanets were featured prominently in dances. Composers like Jean-Baptiste Lully scored them for the music of dances which included Spaniards, Egyptians, Ethiopians, in addition, they are often scored for dances involving less pleasant characters such as demons and nightmares. Their association with African dances is even stated in the ballet Flore by Lully, Les Africains inventeurs des danses de Castagnettes entrent dun air plus gai. A rare occasion where the accompanying instrument is given concertant solo status is Leonardo Baladas Concertino for Castanets. The Conciertino für Kastagnetten und Orchester by the German composer Helmut M. Timpelan, in cooperation with the castanet virtuoso, see also the tocatta festiva for castanets by Allan Stephenson. Sonia Amelio has also performed her castanet arrangements as a concert soloist, also referred to as clackers in the United States. Castanets are often played by singers or dancers, contrary to popular belief, castanets are not commonly used in the flamenco dance, except for two specific forms, zambra and siguiriyas. In fact, Spanish folk dance Sevillanas is the style typically performed using castanet, escuela bolera, a balletic dance form, is also accompanied by castanets. The name is derived from the form of castaña, the Spanish word for chestnut. In Andalusia they are referred to as palillos instead. Castanets were used to evoke a Spanish atmosphere in Georges Bizets opera and they are also found in the Dance of the Seven Veils from Richard Strauss opera Salome and in Richard Wagners Tannhäuser. An unusual variation on the standard castanets can be found in Darius Milhauds Les Choëphores, other uses include Rimsky-Korsakovs Capriccio espagnol, Ravels Rapsodie espagnole, Francis Poulencs Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra in D minor and Karl Jenkinss Tangollen
Castanets
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Castanets
Castanets
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Castanets seller in
Granada,
Spain
Castanets
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Renoir 's 1909 painting Dancing girl with castanets
Castanets
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Köçek troupe at 1720 celebration fair at Sultan Ahmed's sons' circumcision.
6.
Chill-out music
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Some notable chill-out artists include, Moby, Air, Paul Kalkbrenner, and Moonbootica. The genres associated with chill-out are mostly ambient, trip hop, nu jazz, ambient house, sometimes, the easy listening subgenre lounge is considered to belong to the chill-out collection as well. Chill out room was at the legendary Madchester nightspot, Konspiracy, higher Intelligence Agency helped move the chill room concept from sideshow to main event with their Oscillate chill party events in Birmingham and elsewhere in the early to mid nineties. Their first releases came out on the now defunct Beyond record label, in 1990 the KLF released their seminal ambient house album named Chill Out. Chill out is generally tonal, relaxing, although used to describe the music played in chillout rooms at raves. Pads are used to enhance the atmosphere in chill out music, high frequencies on vocals are typically left intact instead of being compressed. Basses are usually synthesized and strings slowly evolve, a culture surrounding chill-out music has evolved, with many fashionable bars and clubs, designed with a retro or retro-futuristic ambience, devoted to the genre. Ministry of Sound in London has hosted many events in places such as Ibiza. As of 2005, all major UK dance magazines and their charts recognised the category chill-out, ministry of Sound released an album in 2008 named Chilled and described the songs in the album the best chill out songs from 1991 to 2008. Chill-out rooms at dance clubs fill a safety need for users of ecstasy, in 1992, a UK regulation required dance clubs to provide free water and chill-out rooms in response to a number of Ecstasy-related injuries and deaths. Groovera Illbient Space music Sirius XM Chill
Chill-out music
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Renowned sunset at the
Café del Mar in Ibiza
7.
Downtempo
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Downtempo is a genre of electronic music similar to ambient, but with a greater emphasis on rhythm, and is not as earthy as trip hop. The 1990s brought on a wave of slower paced music which was played throughout chillout rooms—the relaxation sections of the clubs or dedicated sections at electronic music events. Downtempo music started to surface around Ibiza, when DJs and promoters would bring down the vibe with slower rhythm and gentler electronic music upon approaching sunrise. In the late 1980s, trip hop emerged from Bristol, which combined elements of hip hop beats, drum and bass breaks, at the end of the 1990s a more melodic instrumental electronica incorporating acoustic sounds with electronic styles emerged under its own umbrella name of downtempo. In the late 1990s, the Austrian duo Kruder & Dorfmeister popularized the style with their downtempo remixes of pop, hip-hop, and drum and bass tracks with influences of the 70s soul jazz. Britons Steve Cobby and Dave McSherry, producing under the name Fila Brazillia, released a handful of downtempo, electronica and ambient techno albums that propelled the style further. In 2010, downtempo pop was described by The Atlantic as a variety of styles from the 2000s characterized by mellow beats, vintage synthesizers. In other words, a term that includes chillwave, glo-fi
Downtempo
–
Zero 7 in concert with
Sia Furler
8.
Music of Spain
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The music of Spain has a long history and has played an important role in the development of Western music and has greatly influenced Latin American music. Spanish music is associated with traditional styles such as flamenco. While these forms of music are common, there are many different traditional musical, for example, music from the north-west regions is heavily reliant on bagpipes, the jota is widespread in the centre and north of the country, and flamenco originated in the south. Spanish music played a part in the early developments of western classical music. The Iberian peninsula has had a history of receiving different musical influences from around the Mediterranean Sea, hence, there have been more than two thousand years of internal and external influences and developments that have produced a large number of unique musical traditions. Isidore of Seville wrote about the music in the 6th century. His influences were predominantly Greek, and yet he was an original thinker, as the Christian reconquista progressed, these chants were almost entirely replaced by the Gregorian standard, once Rome had regained control of the Iberian churches. In the royal Christian courts of the reconquistors, music like the Cantigas de Santa Maria, other important medieval sources include the Codex Calixtinus collection from Santiago de Compostela and the Codex Las Huelgas from Burgos. The so-called Llibre Vermell de Montserrat is an important devotional collection from the 14th century, in the early Renaissance, Mateo Flecha el Viejo and the Castilian dramatist Juan del Encina ranked among the main composers in the post-Ars Nova period. Renaissance song books included the Cancionero de Palacio, the Cancionero de Medinaceli, the Cancionero de Upsala, the Cancionero de la Colombina, the organist Antonio de Cabezón stands out for his keyboard compositions and mastery. An early 16th-century polyphonic vocal style developed in Spain was closely related to that of the Franco-Flemish composers, Music composed for the vihuela by Luis de Milán, Alonso Mudarra and Luis de Narváez was one of the main achievements of the period. The Aragonese Gaspar Sanz authored the first learning method for guitar, Spanish composers of the Renaissance included Francisco Guerrero, Cristóbal de Morales, and Tomás Luis de Victoria, all of whom spent a significant portion of their careers in Rome. The latter was said to have reached a level of perfection and expressive intensity equal or even superior to Palestrina. Most Spanish composers returned home from travels abroad late in their careers to spread their knowledge in their native land. By the end of the 17th century the musical culture of Spain was in decline. Classicism in Spain, when it arrived, was inspired by Italian models, some outstanding Italian composers such as Domenico Scarlatti and Luigi Boccherini were appointed to the Madrid royal court. The short-lived Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga is credited as the beginner of Romantic sinfonism in Spain. Although symphonic music was never too important in Spain, chamber, solo instrumental vocal, zarzuela, a native form of opera that includes spoken dialogue, is a secular musical genre which developed in the mid-17th century, flourishing most importantly in the century after 1850
Music of Spain
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The modern classical guitar and its baroque predecessor originated in Spain
Music of Spain
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Cantigas de Santa maría, medieval
Spain
Music of Spain
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Front cover of book: Escuela Música según la práctica moderna published in 1723-1724
Music of Spain
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Flamenco dancing in
Seville.
9.
Music of Andalusia
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The Music of Andalusia encompasses a range of traditional musical genres which originate in the territory of Andalusia in southern Spain. The most famous are copla and flamenco, the latter being used as a portmanteau term for various regional musical traditions within Andalusia. Andalusia has a rich and thriving musical scene which draws from its own traditions as well as from external influences such as salsa. Andalusia was probably the route of transmission of a number of Near-Eastern musical instruments used in classical music, the rebec from the rebab. According to historic sources, William VIII, the father of William, trend acknowledges that the troubadors derived their sense of form and the subject matter of their poetry from Andalusia. Meg Bogin, English translator of the female troubadors, also held this hypothesis, certainly a body of song of comparable intensity, profanity and eroticism in Arabic from the second half of the 9th century onwards. Improvised flamenco songs of ancient Andalusian origin are called cante jondo, and are characterized by a reduced tonal ambiance, Cante jondo is sung by a single singer. There are two forms of songs, cante jondo and cante chico. Cante jondo are slower and usually feature sad lyrics about disappointed love or death, while cante chico are much quicker, more popular, the concept of duende is very important in flamenco. Loosely, defined, duende is a spiritual or emotional bond between the performer and audience, created by the intense concentration and passion. Ramón Montoya was the most influential early guitarist, known for having solidified the guitar as a solo instrument and his successors included Manolo Sanlúcar and Paco de Lucía. The golden age of flamenco is said to be 1869 to 1910, later becoming more and more popularized internationally and influenced by South American music, especially the tango. Musicians from the golden age performed at bars called café cantantes, such as Café de Chinitas in Málaga, other musicians of the early 20th century include Manolo Caracol, who walked from Jerez to participate in a cante jondo competition, which he won. Though the golden age had long passed, the 1950s saw flamenco achieving increased respectability in Spain. Hispavox, a Spanish record label, released Antología del Cante Flamenco in 1956, in 1956, the first national cante jondo competition was held in Cordoba, followed by a Chair of Flamencology being established at Jerez in 1958. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Antonio Mairena and similar artists kelped kickstart a flamenco revival as American, emerging from this, Camarón de la Isla became one of the most popular and critically acclaimed performers of the century. His 1969 debut Con la Colaboracion Especial de Paco de Lucia inspired a new generation of performers that invented Nuevo Flamenco, in the 1970s and 80s, salsa, blues, rumba and other influences were added to flamenco, along with music from India. Ketamas 1988 debut, Ketama, was especially influential, at the beginning of the 1990s, the Madrid label Nuevos Medios became closely associated with the new flamenco fusion music, which came to be called nuevo flamenco
Music of Andalusia
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Music by region
10.
Extremadura
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Extremadura is an autonomous community of western Spain whose capital city is Mérida. Its component provinces are Cáceres and Badajoz and it is bordered by Portugal to the west. To the north it borders Castile and León, to the south, it borders Andalusia and it is an important area for wildlife, particularly with the major reserve at Monfragüe, which was designated a National Park in 2007, and the International Tagus River Natural Park. The government of Extremadura is called Gobierno de Extremadura, Extremadura is contained between 37° 57′ and 40° 85′ N latitude, and 4° 39′ and 7° 33′ W longitude. The area of Extremadura is 41,633 km2, making it the fifth largest of the Spanish autonomous communities and it is located in the Southern Plateau. In the north is the Sistema Central with the highest point in Extremadura,2,401 m high Calvitero, the main subranges of the Sistema Central in Extremadura are the Sierra de Gata and Sierra de Béjar. In the centre is the Sierra de las Villuercas which reaches an altitude of 1,603 m on the Pico de las Villuercas, other notable ranges are Sierra de Montánchez and the Sierra de San Pedro, which form part of the greater Montes de Toledo system. To the south rises the Sierra Morena which separates Extremadura from Andalusia with Sierra de Tentudía where the highest altitude of mountains in Extremadura is Pico Tentudía at 1,104 m. There are four different hydrographic basins, The basin of the Tagus, with two tributaries, on the right, the Tiétar and the Alagón, and on the left, the Almonte, Ibor, Salor. The tributaries on the right edge carry a quantity of water, which feed the gorges of the Sistema Central where the rainfall is abundant. The basin of the Guadiana, which has tributaries, to the right, Guadarranque and Ruecas to the left, Zújar River which is its plentiful tributary. The basin of the Guadalquivir with only 1,411 km2 in Extremadura, the basin of the Douro with only 35 km2 in Extremadura. The climate of Extremadura is Mediterranean, except to the north, where it is continental, and to the west, the yearly temperature fluctuates between an average minimum of 4 °C and an average maximum of 33 °C. In the north of Extremadura, the temperatures are lower than those in the south, with temperatures gradually rising south towards the Sierra Morena. During the summer, the temperature in July is greater than 26 °C. The winters are mild with the lowest temperatures being registered in the mountainous regions, the average snowfall is 40 cm, mainly occurring in January and February. As of January 1,2012, the population of Extremadura is 1,109,367 inhabitants, the population density is very low—25/km2 —compared to Spain as a whole. The most populous province is that of Badajoz, with a population of 691,715, with an area of 21,766 km2, it is the largest province in Spain
Extremadura
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The Old city of
Cáceres
Extremadura
Extremadura
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The city of
Guadalupe
Extremadura
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Archaeological Roman Ensemble in Mérida, capital of the ancient Lusitania
11.
Region of Murcia
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The Region of Murcia is an autonomous community of Spain located in the southeast of the state, between Andalusia and Valencian Community, on the Mediterranean coast. The autonomous community consists of a province, unlike most autonomous communities. Because of this, the community and the province are operated as one unit of government. The city of Murcia is the capital of the region and seat of government organs, except for the parliament, the Regional Assembly of Murcia, the autonomous community and province is subdivided into municipalities. The Region of Murcia is bordered by Andalusia, Castile–La Mancha, the Valencian Community, the community measures 11,313 km² and has a population of 1.4 million, of whom one-third live in the capital. The highest mountain is Los Obispos, the region is a major producer of fruits, vegetables, and flowers for the rest of Spain and Europe. Wineries have developed near the towns of Bullas, Yecla, and Jumilla, Murcia is mainly a warm region which has made it very suitable for agriculture. The region is located in the part of the Cordilleras Béticas mountains. These mountain ranges are divided as well in the Prebética, Subbética and Penibética mountain ranges, approximately 27% of the Murcian territory can be described as mountainous, 38% as intramountainous depressions and running valleys, and the remaining 35% as flat lands and plateaux. The Region of Murcia enjoys a Mediterranean climate of semi-arid type, with mild winters, the average annual temperature is 18 °C. With little precipitation of about 300 to 350 mm per year, april and October are the months with the most precipitation, there being frequent heavy downpours in a single day. The city of Murcia holds the temperature of the 20th century in Spain. It reached 46.1 °C on July 4,1994, the winter of 2005 was the coldest in a long time, with snow even falling on the Murcian coast. The hydrographic network of the region is made up of the Segura river and its affluents, Mundo, alhárabe and its affluent, the Benamor. Due to the water supplying incapacity of the Segura river basin, contributions to this basin are made, originated from the basin of the Tajo river. The greatest natural lake of Spain can be found in the region and it is a salt water lagoon, adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea. Its special ecological and natural characteristics make the Mar Menor a unique natural place, with a semicircular shape, it is separated from the Mediterranean Sea by a sand strip 22 km in length and between 100 and 1200 m wide, known as La Manga del Mar Menor. The lagoon has been designated by the United Nations as a Specially Protected Zone of Importance for the Mediterranean and its coastal perimeter accounts for 73 km of coast in which beaches follow one another with crystal clear shallow water
Region of Murcia
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Wind reliefs in Mazarrón
Region of Murcia
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Flag
Region of Murcia
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Lands around
Moratalla and river Alharabe.
Region of Murcia
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Satellite view of the Mar Menor
12.
Romani people in Spain
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The Romani people in Spain, generally known as gitanos, belong to the Iberian Kale group, with smaller populations in Portugal and in southern France. They tend to speak Caló, which encompasses a range of regional dialects of Spanish with numerous Romani loan words. Nevertheless, to varying degrees, they identify with Andalusian culture and music due to the large, data on ethnicity is not collected in Spain, although the Governments statistical agency CIS estimated in 2007 that the number of Gitanos present in Spain is probably around one million. The term gitano comes from egipcio, a Spanish term for Egyptian as the English word Gypsy comes from Egyptian, both terms are due to Romanis claiming to be from Egypt during their first arrivals to Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Gitano identity is complex in Spain for a variety of reasons which are examined below. A confusing element is the hybridization of Andalusian and Roma culture at a popular level. This has occurred to the point where Spaniards from other regions of Spain can commonly mistake elements of one for the other. Few Spaniards are aware, for example, that Andalusian singer and gitano popular icon Lola Flores was, in fact, not of gitano ethnicity, in this, one can be Gitano by degree according to how much one fits into pre-conceived stereotypes or social stigmas. On the other hand, the exaltation of Roma culture and heritage is an element of wider Andalusian folklore. The Romani people originate from the Northern India, presumably from the northwestern Indian states Rajasthan, more exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali. Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India, the gitanos emigrated from Northern India possibly as early as 600 A. D. The music and culture of the gitanos highly influenced the cultures they had reached in Al-Andalus through North Africa, many sources attribute the difference between Romani culture and music in Spain to other parts of Europe to an alleged arrival of this community from North Africa. Nevertheless, historical records show that Spanish Gitanos arrived in Spain through Europe concentrating in Andalusia, Gitanos were recorded in Barcelona and Zaragoza by 1447. At first they were received and were even accorded official protection by many local authorities. By 1492, a time of increased persecution of minorities, the first anti-Romani law was passed in Spain, in 1749 A major effort to get rid of the gypsy population in Spain was carried out through a raid organized by the government. It arrested all gypsies in the realm, and imprisoned them in jails, during the Spanish Civil War, gitanos were not persecuted for their ethnicity by either side. Under Franco, Gitanos were often harassed or simply ignored, although their children were educated, sometimes forcibly, on the other hand, Andalusian and gitano culture was instrumentalized in the countrys tourist promotion strategy which focused on the south to exalt the uniqueness of Spanish culture
Romani people in Spain
–
Isabel Pantoja
Romani people in Spain
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The migration of the Romani people through the
Middle East and
North Africa to Europe
Romani people in Spain
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Spanish Romani people. Yevgraf Sorokin, 1853.
Romani people in Spain
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A Gypsy dance in the gardens of the
Alcázar of Seville.
13.
Eastern Europe
–
Eastern Europe, also known as East Europe, is the eastern part of the European continent. There is no consensus on the area it covers, partly because the term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, cultural. There are almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region, a related United Nations paper adds that every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and cultural construct. One definition describes Eastern Europe as an entity, the region lying in Europe with main characteristics consisting in Byzantine, Orthodox. Another definition was created during the Cold War and used more or less synonymously with the term Eastern Bloc, a similar definition names the formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe. Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegating, several definitions of Eastern Europe exist today, but they often lack precision or are extremely general. These definitions vary both across cultures and among experts, even scientists, recently becoming more and more imprecise. The Ural Mountains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains are the land border of the eastern edge of Europe. Eurovoc, a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, provides entries for 23 EU languages, of these, those in italics are classified as Eastern Europe in this source. Other official web-pages of the European Union classify some of the countries as strictly Central European. The East–West Schism is the break of communion and theology between what are now the Eastern and Western churches which began in the 11th century and lasts until this very day and it divided Christianity in Europe, and consequently the world, into Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity. Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches in the east, due to this religious cleavage, Eastern Orthodox countries are often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic, for example, Greece is overwhelmingly Orthodox, the fall of the Iron Curtain brought the end of the East–West division in Europe, but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media. The Baltic states have seats in the Nordic Council as observer states and they also are members of the Nordic-Baltic Eight whereas Eastern European countries formed their own alliance called the Visegrád Group. Estonia Latvia Lithuania The Caucasus nations may be included in the definitions of Eastern Europe, the extent of their geographic or political affiliation with Europe varies by country and source. All three states are members of the European Unions Eastern Partnership program and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, on 12 January 2002, the European Parliament noted that Armenia and Georgia may enter the EU in the future. Georgia — in modern geography, Georgia has been classified as part of Eastern Europe. Under the European Union’s geographic criteria, Georgia is viewed as part of Eastern Europe and is the only Caucasus country to be actively seeking EU membership and it is a member of Council of Europe and Eurocontrol
Eastern Europe
–
Division between the Eastern and Western Churches
Eastern Europe
–
Geographic features of Eastern Europe
14.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
Japan
–
The
Golden Hall and
five-storey pagoda of
Hōryū-ji, among the oldest wooden buildings in the world,
National Treasures, and a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Japan
Japan
–
Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the
Mongol invasions of Japan. The
Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japan from Mongol fleets.
Japan
–
Samurai could
kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population.
Edo period, 1798
15.
UNESCO
–
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
UNESCO
–
UNESCO offices in
Brasília
UNESCO
–
UNESCO
UNESCO
–
UNESCO Institute for Water Education in
Delft
UNESCO
–
The Garden of Peace, UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Donated by the Government of Japan, this garden was designed by American-Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener Toemon Sano.
16.
Fire
–
Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition, at a certain point in the combustion reaction, called the ignition point, flames are produced. The flame is the portion of the fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen and nitrogen, if hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame, Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems around the globe, the positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. The negative effects of fire hazard to life and property, atmospheric pollution. If fire removes protective vegetation, heavy rainfall may lead to an increase in soil erosion by water and this is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a liquid will start burning only if the fuel. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not consumed, when added, in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own products and non-oxidizing gases from the air. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight, of course, this does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection. Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron, consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the rate of combustion. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas. This light has a continuous spectrum, complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame
Fire
–
An outdoor fire using
wood, termed a
bonfire
Fire
–
Photo of a fire taken with a 1/4000th of a second exposure
Fire
–
Fire is affected by gravity. Left: Flame on Earth; Right: Flame on
ISS
Fire
–
Process of ignition of a match
17.
Blas Infante
–
Blas Infante Pérez de Vargas was an Andalucista politician, Georgist, writer, historian and musicologist, known as the father of Andalusian nationalism. Infante was a Georgist idealist who initiated an assembly at Ronda in 1913 and this assembly adopted a charter based on the autonomist Constitución Federal de Antequera written in 1883 during the First Spanish Republic. It also embraced the current flag and coat of arms as national symbols, during the Second Spanish Republic, the Andalucismo was represented by the Junta Liberalista, a federalist political party led by Infante. Infante was among political figures who were summarily executed by Francos forces when they took over Seville at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. As both a regional autonomist and a kind of libertarian socialist, he twice merited inclusion on their liquidation list and his last residence in Coria del Río now hosts the Museum of Andalusian Autonomy. La Obra de Costa La Sociedad de Naciones Manifiesto Andalucista de Córdoba de 1919
Blas Infante
–
Blas Infante
Blas Infante
–
Monument to Blas Infante, Father of Andalusia, erected in the location where he was executed without trial by rebels in 1936.
18.
Arabic language
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic language
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
–
al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (
Naskh script)
Arabic language
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic language
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
19.
Fellah
–
Fellah is a farmer or agricultural laborer in the Middle East and North Africa. The word derives from the Arabic word for ploughman or tiller, a fellah could be seen wearing a simple cotton robe called galabieh. The word Galabieh originated around 1715–25 and derived from the Egyptian Arabic word gallabīyah, fellahin was the term used throughout the Middle East in the Ottoman period and later to refer to villagers and farmers. Nur-eldeen Masalha translates it as peasants, fellahin were distinguished from the effendi, or, land-owning class, although the fellahin in this region might be tenant farmers, smallholders, or live in a village that owned the land communally. Others applied the term only to landless workers. The term fallahin applied to Christian, Druze, Jewish and Muslim villagers, the term fallah was applied to people from several regions in the Middle East, including those of Egypt and Cyprus. Comprising 60% of the Egyptian population, the fellahin lead humble lives and their percentage was much higher in the early 20th century, before the large influx of Egyptian fellahin into urban towns and cities. Farmer Flamenco#Etymology Peasant Egypts forgotten fellahin
Fellah
–
Charles Gleyre, Three Fellahs (fr. Trois fellahs), 1835
Fellah
–
" Fille Fellahin." A Victorian-era postcard of a young Fellahin girl of Egypt.
20.
Islamic
–
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
Islamic
–
The
Kaaba, in
Mecca,
Hejaz region, today's
Saudi Arabia, is the
center of Islam.
Muslims from all over the world gather there to
pray in unity.
Islamic
–
The dome of the
Carol I Mosque in
Constanța,
Romania, topped by the
Islamic crescent
Islamic
–
Medallion showing "
Allah " (
God) in
Hagia Sophia,
Istanbul,
Turkey.
21.
Moriscos
–
The Moriscos were subject to systematic expulsions from Spains various kingdoms between 1609 and 1614, the most severe of which occurred in the eastern Kingdom of Valencia. The exact number of Moriscos present in Spain prior to expulsion is unknown, furthermore, the overall success of the expulsion is subject to academic debate with estimates on the proportion of those who avoided expulsion or returned to Spain ranging from 5% to 60%. The large majority of those permanently expelled settled on the fringe of the Ottoman Empire. The last mass prosecution against Moriscos for crypto-Islamic practices occurred in Granada in 1727, from then on, the practice of Islam by Spains indigenous population was considered to have been effectively extinguished in Spain. The label morisco for Muslims who were converted to Christianity began to appear in texts from the first half of the sixteenth century and it became widespread in Christian sources during the second half of the century, but it was unclear whether the Moriscos themselves adopted the term. In their texts, it was common for them to speak of themselves as simply muslimes. In modern times, the label is in use in Spanish literature and adopted to other languages. The word morisco itself began to be used in twelfth century Castilian text as an adjective for the noun moro and these two words are comparable to the English adjective Moorish and noun Moor. These terms were used by the Castilians in two general sense, North African or Muslim, the terms moro and morisco in this older meaning continued to be used in Spanish, even after the more specific meaning of morisco became widespread. In the early years after the forced conversions, the Christians used the terms New Christians, New converts, or the longer New Christians, converted from being Moors to refer to this group. In the racial classification of colonial Spanish America, morisco was used as a term for the child of a mulatto and Spaniard, there is no universally agreed figure of Morisco population. Estimates vary because of the lack of census, and the Moriscos tendencies to avoid registration and authorities. Also, the figure might have fluctuated depending on the period, due to factors such as birth rates, conquests, forced conversions and/or relocations. There is an agreement among historians that, based on expulsion records. Historian L. P. However, Christiane Stallaert put the number at one million Moriscos in the beginning of the 16th century. Recent studies by Trevor Dadson on the expulsion of the Moriscos propose the figure of 500,000 just before the expulsion, the Emirate of Granada was the last Muslim Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, which surrendered in 1492 to the Catholic forces after a decade-long campaign. Granada was annexed to Castile as the Kingdom of Granada, and had a majority Muslim population of between 250,000 and 300,000. Initially, the Treaty of Granada guaranteed their rights to be Muslim, the rebellions were suppressed, and afterwards the Muslims in Granada were given the choice to remain and accept baptism, reject baptism and be enslaved or killed, or to be exiled
Moriscos
–
Portrait assumed to be of
Leo Africanus (
Sebastiano del Piombo, around 1520)
Moriscos
–
Embarkation of Moriscos in
Valencia by Pere Oromig
22.
Palo (flamenco)
–
A palo or cante is the name given in flamenco for the different traditional musical forms. The word palo, in Spanish, has several meanings, the one being stick, bar, pole or rod. Each palo is identified by a variety of features such as its rhythmic pattern, its mode, its characteristic motifs, the type of stanza used for the lyrics. The concept of palo is not straightforward or rigorous and it is a popular, sometimes inconsistent way of classifying songs according to similar characteristics. For example, to determine that a song belongs to the palo called Bulerías, only the rhythm is taken into consideration, Fandangos, on the other hand, include a variety of forms in 3/4 or 6/8, but later it developed free forms. Most palos include dozens of songs, while others like the serrana include only one song. Palos have been categorized in different ways, according to their traditionally attributed origin, they are often classified in the shape of a tree, usually in a rather unscientific way. Another way to categorize the palos is with respect to their musical origin, palos in the fandango family can be seen as stylized forms of genres of Andalusian folk music. Soleares and siguiriyas are more associated with gypsy music culture. Because of their character, they are sometimes referred to as cante jondo or “deep song, ” as opposed to cantes such as tangos and bulerías. Some palos such as granaínas, malagueñas, and fandango libre, are rendered in free rhythm, whereas most others are metered, some of the latter in duple meter while the majority of other are in a form of triple meter. In 1990, Christof Jung suggested another way to categorize the palos is based on their mood, all of them include singing and dancing, except for toña which is usually not accompanied with dance. Cante Intermedio group, includes granaínas, jabera, malagueñas, medio polo, mineras, petenera, policaña, tarantas/taranto, all of them are accompanied with singing. Among these, boleras is not accompanied with singing, and milonga, finally, some classify the palos based on a combination of their origin and compas, Toná family, also known as palo seco, includes debla, martinetes, carceleras, saetas, trilla, and tonás. Soleá family, which all use 12-beat compás cycles, alboreá, bulerías, caña and polo, cantinas group, peteneras, romance, tango family, which al use a 4/4 compás cycle, farruca, garrotín, marianas, tarantas/taranto, tientos, tanguillos, and tangos. Ida y vuelta family, also have a rhythm and feel. Other palos not belonging to any of the groups, campanilleros, bambera, serillanas, nanas, zambra. Below, we describe several categories of the classification with more detail
Palo (flamenco)
–
Contents
23.
Musical mode
–
In the theory of Western music, mode generally refers to a type of scale, coupled with a set of characteristic melodic behaviours. This use, still the most common in recent years, reflects a tradition dating to the Middle Ages, regarding the concept of mode as applied to pitch relationships generally, Harold S. being in the domain of mode. This synthesis between tonus as a tone and the older meaning associated with an octave species was done by medieval theorists for the Western monodic plainchant tradition. Since the end of the century, the term mode has also applied to pitch structures in non-European musical cultures, sometimes with doubtful compatibility. The word encompasses several additional meanings, however, authors from the ninth century until the early eighteenth century sometimes employed the Latin modus for interval. A scale is a series of pitches that, with the key or tonic as a reference point, defines that scales intervals. The concept of mode in Western music theory has three stages, in Gregorian chant theory, in Renaissance polyphonic theory, and in tonal harmonic music of the common practice period. In all three contexts, mode incorporates the idea of the scale, but differs from it by also involving an element of melody type. By the early 19th century, the mode had taken on an additional meaning. At the same time, composers were beginning to conceive of modality as something outside of the system that could be used to evoke religious feelings or to suggest folk-music idioms. Early Greek treatises describe three interrelated concepts that are related to the later, medieval idea of mode, scales, tonoi—, and harmonia —pl. harmoniai—this third term subsuming the corresponding tonoi but not necessarily the converse. The association of ethnic names with the octave species appears to precede Aristoxenus. Depending on the positioning of the tones in the tetrachords. The diatonic genus, the genus, and the enharmonic genus. The framing interval of the fourth is fixed, while the two internal pitches are movable. Within the basic forms, the intervals of the chromatic and diatonic genera were varied further by three and two shades, respectively, the term tonos was used in four senses, as note, interval, region of the voice, and pitch. We use it of the region of the voice whenever we speak of Dorian, or Phrygian, or Lydian, in Ptolemys system, therefore there are only seven tonoi. Pythagoras also construed the intervals arithmetically, in their diatonic genus, these tonoi and corresponding harmoniai correspond with the intervals of the familiar modern major and minor scales
Musical mode
–
The
introit Jubilate Deo, from which
Jubilate Sunday gets its name, is in Mode 8.
Musical mode
–
Modern Dorian mode on C Play (
help ·
info)
24.
Chord progression
–
A chord progression or harmonic progression is a succession of musical chords. Chord progressions are the foundation of harmony in Western musical tradition, in tonal music, chord progressions have the function of establishing or contradicting a tonality. Chord progressions are usually expressed by Roman numerals, a chord may be built upon any note of a musical scale, therefore a seven-note scale allows seven basic chords, each degree of the scale becoming the root of its own chord. A chord built upon the note A is an A chord of some type The harmonic function of any particular chord depends on the context of the chord progression in which it is found. The diatonic harmonization of any major results in three major triads. They are based on the first, fourth, and fifth scale degrees and these three triads include, and therefore can harmonize, every note of that scale. The same scale also provides three relative minor chords, one related to each of the three major chords, separate from these six common chords there is one degree of the scale, the seventh, that results in a diminished chord. In addition, extra notes may be added to any chord, if these notes are also selected from the original scale the harmony remains diatonic. If new chromatic intervals are introduced then a change of scale or modulation occurs and this in turn may lead to a resolution back to the original key, so that the entire sequence of chords helps create an extended musical form. In western classical notation, chords built on the scale are numbered with Roman numerals, other forms of chord notation have been devised, from figured bass to the chord chart. These usually allow or even require an amount of improvisation. Diatonic scales such as the major and minor scales lend themselves well to the construction of common chords because they contain a large number of perfect fifths. Such scales predominate in those regions where harmony is an part of music, as, for example. Alternation between two chords may be thought of as the most basic chord progression, many well-known pieces are built harmonically upon the mere repetition of two chords of the same scale. The Isley Brothers Shout uses I - vi throughout, three-chord tunes, though, are more common, since a melody may then dwell on any note of the scale. They are often presented as successions of four chords, in order to produce a binary harmonic rhythm, often the chords may be selected to fit a pre-conceived melody, but just as often it is the progression itself that gives rise to the melody. (Common in Elizabethan music, this also underpins the American college song Goodnight Ladies, is the exclusive progression used in Kwela, similar progressions abound in African popular music. They may be varied by the addition of sevenths to any chord or by substitution of the minor of the IV chord to give, for example
Chord progression
–
Beethoven imagined in the process of composing his
Pastoral Symphony
Chord progression
–
IV-V-I progression in C Play (
help ·
info)
Chord progression
–
Blues progressions influenced a great deal of 20th century American popular music
Chord progression
–
The Mills Brothers ' recording of "
Till Then " looked forward both to the end of World War II and to the popular music of the 1950s. (Courtesy of the Fraser MacPherson estate c/o Guy MacPherson)
25.
Sevillanas
–
Sevillanas are a type of folk music and dance of Seville and its region. They were derived from the Seguidilla, an old Castilian folk music, in the nineteenth century they were influenced by Flamenco. They have a relatively limited musical pattern but are rich in lyrics based on life, virgins, country towns, neighborhoods, pilgrimage. They are sung by a plethora of groups, like the Los Romeros de la Puebla, Los Amigos de Gines, Las Corraleras de Lebrija, Cantores de Hispalis. Every year, dozens of new sevillanas on CD are published, Sevillanas can be heard mainly in fairs and festivals, including the famous Seville Fair, La Feria de Abril. There is a dance for the music, Baile por sevillanas. One can find schools teaching baile por sevillanas in nearly every town in Spain, Sevillanas Rocieras are a religiously oriented genre of the Sevillana, with particular emphasis on the Virgin of the Rocío. They are sung in religious and cultural events in the South of the country. Sevillanas are danced by couples of all ages and sexes during celebrations, often by whole families, Sevillana choreography is very stable and knowing it is very useful, since it is a festival dance. This is why those intending to dance flamenco usually start by learning sevillanas, they are easier to master and there are occasions for practice. The rhythm of Sevillanas can be interpreted as 3/4, although it is generally 6/8, each sevillana is composed of 4 or sometimes 7 parts, with each part divided into 3 coplas and with each copla made up of 6 movements. During festivals and shows, it is often the Sevillana dancing visitors to Andalusia mistakenly take as Flamenco, as it is a vivid style, fandango Bolero Waltz Get to know the flamenco forms, the Sevillanas at the Wayback Machine
Sevillanas
–
Dancing sevillanas
26.
Flamenco mode
–
In music theory, the flamenco mode is a harmonized mode or scale abstracted from its use in flamenco music. In other words the collection of pitches in ascending order accompanied by chords represents the pitches and chords used together in flamenco songs, the key signature is the same as that of the Phrygian mode, with the raised third and seventh being written in as necessary with accidentals. Its modal/tonal characteristics are prominent in the Andalusian cadence, the exact chords depend on the song form and guitar chord positions since chord voicings in flamenco often include nontriadic pitches, especially open strings. It is characteristic that III, ♭II, and I appear as dissonant chords with a minimum of four tones and this tetrachord may be copied in the second, producing a D♯ and allowing an augmented sixth chord on the second degree, B7/F
Flamenco mode
–
The two possibilities for ascent and descent over the tonic in the flamenco mode Play (
help ·
info): a chromatic tetrachord (E-F-G#-A) and/or Phrygian tetrachord (e-f-g-a) Play (
help ·
info).
27.
Phrygian mode
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The Phrygian tonos or harmonia is named after the ancient kingdom of Phrygia in Anatolia. The octave species underlying the ancient-Greek Phrygian tonos corresponds to the medieval, an octave species was then built upon two of these tetrachords separated by a whole tone. This ethnic name was also applied by theorists such as Cleonides to one of thirteen chromatic transposition levels. The early Catholic church developed a system of eight musical modes that medieval music scholars gave names drawn from the used to describe the ancient Greek harmoniai. Alternatively written as a pattern of, Semitone, Tone, Tone, Tone, Semitone, Tone, Tone. Flamenco music uses the Phrygian scale, together with a modified scale resembling the Arab maqām Ḥijāzī, in contemporary jazz, the Phrygian mode is used over chords and sonorities built on the mode, such as the sus4 chord, which is sometimes called a Phrygian suspended chord. For example, a soloist might play an E Phrygian over an Esus4 chord, the First Delphic Hymn, written in 128 BC by the Athenian composer Limenius, is in the Phrygian and Hyperphrygian tonoi, with much variation. The Seikilos epitaph is in the Phrygian species, in the Iastian transposition, gregorian chant, Tristes Erant Apostoli, version in the Vesperale Romanum, originally Ambrosian chant. The Roman chant variant of the Requiem introit Rogamus te is in the Phrygian mode, the following compositions of Josquin are written in the Phrygian mode, 4-part setting of Mille Regretz Missa Pange lingua 6-part motet Praeter Rerum Seriem Orlando di Lassos motet In me transierunt. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrinas motet Congratulamini mihi, heinrich Schützs St John Passion is in the Phrygian mode Dieterich Buxtehudes Prelude in A minor, BuxWV152, Anton Bruckner, Ave Regina caelorum, WAB8. 3, passages in the third and fourth movements,6, first, third, and fourth movements. Ralph Vaughan Williams Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis, based on Thomas Talliss 1567 setting of Psalm 2, Why fumth in sight
Phrygian mode
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Modern Phrygian mode on C Play (
help ·
info).
28.
Degree (music)
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In music theory, a scale degree refers to the position of a particular note on a scale relative to the tonic, the first and main note of the scale from which each octave is assumed to begin. The term is useful for indicating the size of intervals and chords, scale degrees can be applied to any musical scale, however, the concept is most commonly applied to scales in which a tonic is specified by definition, such as the 7-tone diatonic scales. It is possible to assign a scale degree to the 12-tone chromatic scale, the expression scale step is sometimes used synonymously with scale degree, but it may alternatively refer to the distance between between two successive scale degrees. The terms whole step and half step are used as interval names. The number of degrees and the distance between them together define the scale they are in. These names are derived from a scheme where the note is the center
Degree (music)
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Scale degree names (C major scale) Play (
help ·
info)).
29.
Major scale
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The major scale or Ionian scale is one of the most commonly used musical scales, especially in Western music. It is one of the diatonic scales, like many musical scales it is made up of seven notes, the eighth duplicates the first at double its frequency so that it is called a higher octave of the same note. In Carnatic music, it is known as Dheerasankarabharanam, and in Hindustani classical music it is known as Bilaval, a major scale is a diatonic scale. The sequence of intervals between the notes of a scale is, whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half where whole stands for a whole tone. A major scale may be seen as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone. Each tetrachord consists of two whole tones followed by a semitone, whole, whole, half, seven sharps or flats make major keys that may be more conveniently spelled with five flats or sharps. The term major scale is used in the names of some other scales whose first, third. The harmonic major scale has a minor sixth and it differs from the harmonic minor scale only by raising the third degree. The melodic major scale is the mode of the jazz minor scale. It is the Ionian scale with a sixth and minor seventh. The combined scale that goes as Ionian ascending and as melodic major descending is also called melodic major, the double harmonic major scale has a minor second and a minor sixth. It is the mode of the Hungarian minor scale. Ionian mode Major and minor Listen to and download harmonised Major scale piano MP3s The major scale for guitar in one position, with derivation
Major scale
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Major scales
30.
Minor scale
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This includes the natural minor, harmonic minor, and melodic minor scales. A minor scale differs from a scale in that the third degree in a major scale is a major third above the first degree. In other words, the degree in a major scale is one semitone higher than in a minor scale. The natural minor scale, also known as Aeolian scale, taken by itself, when a major scale and a natural minor scale have the same key signature, they are relative keys. A natural minor scale has the notes as its relative major scale. The functional fusion of minor, harmonic minor, and melodic minor scales. A harmonic minor scale differs from a minor scale in that the seventh note is raised one semitone both ascending and descending. Melodic minor scales raise both the sixth and seventh notes one semitone when ascending, and descends like the minor scale. In this case the scale is called A-minor, and this minor scale has no accidentals. A-minor is called the minor of C. Every major key has a minor, which starts on the sixth scale degree or step. For instance, the degree of F major is D. The relative natural minor of a major key always shares the notes, for example, F major consists of F, G, A, B♭, C, D, and E, while D natural minor consists of D, E, F, G, A, B♭. The natural minor scale can also be represented by the notation,12 ♭345 ♭6 ♭78 Each degree of the scale and their difference from the major scale is shown. Thus a number without a sharp or flat represents a major interval, a number with a flat represents a minor interval, and a number with a sharp represents an augmented interval. In this example, the mean, 1=unison, 2=major second, ♭3=minor third, 4=perfect fourth, 5=perfect fifth, ♭6=minor sixth, ♭7=minor seventh. In rock and popular examples of songs in Minor Keys include The Moody Blues Nights in White Satin, Blondies Call Me. The notes of the minor scale are the same as the natural minor except that the seventh degree is raised by one semitone
Minor scale
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Natural minor scales
31.
Soleares
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Soleares is one of the most basic forms or palos of Flamenco music, probably originated around Cádiz or Seville in Andalusia, the most southern region of Spain. It is usually accompanied by one only, in phrygian mode por arriba. Even if the singer has a plan, it is often altered on the spur of the moment. These stanzas are independent in subject matter from one another, the content of the lyrics is generally serious in nature, as appropriate to the solemn air of the music. They often have a tone and convey a feeling of intimate pain. Sometimes despair, more typical of seguiriya, can also appear, however, it is difficult to generalize, sometimes a less serious stanza can turn up in the middle of other serious ones, and irony is frequent. The stanza of the soleá has three or four lines, in four-line stanzas, the second and fourth line are in assonant rhyme, while the first and third are free. In three-line stanzas, the assonance is between the first and the third, some examples, A three-line stanza No se me daba cuidao me hago cargo que ha sío un ensueño y a lo pasaíto pasao. Translation I didnt mind I know it was just a dream, the melody of a soleá can demand repeating some lines, altering their logical order, or cutting the lines, sometimes even in the middle of words. It demands great vocal faculties, and the singer should achieve a balance between passion and restraint, the melody of a soleá stanza usually stays within a limited range. Its difficulty lies in the use of melisma and microtones, which demand great agility and it is usual to start a series of soleares with a more restrained stanza in the low register, while continuing to more and more demanding ornaments in a higher register. The series is often finished with a stanza in a much more vivid tempo in the relative Major mode. The metre or compás of the soleá is one of the most widely used in Flamenco. Other palos have derived their compás from the soleá, including Bulerías por soleá and it consists of 12 beats, and could be described as a combination of triple and duple beat bars, so its a polymetre form, with strong beats at the end of each bar. The first example of palmas is a common, simple pattern, Notice that palmas are often silent during beats 4 to 6. This is specially true when no dancing takes place, the main interest there is the singing and those beats though are often marked when there is dance, or when performing other palos in the same metre like Alegrías or Bulería por soleá. However, these are not to be taken as hard-and-fast rules, the small orange squares should be played extremely softly. The above are just two examples among the variety of variations, when there are two or more people playing palmas, one of them usually plays a base pattern, emphasizing the regular beats, while another plays the upbeats
Soleares
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Soleá at concert.
32.
Chord sequence
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A chord progression or harmonic progression is a succession of musical chords. Chord progressions are the foundation of harmony in Western musical tradition, in tonal music, chord progressions have the function of establishing or contradicting a tonality. Chord progressions are usually expressed by Roman numerals, a chord may be built upon any note of a musical scale, therefore a seven-note scale allows seven basic chords, each degree of the scale becoming the root of its own chord. A chord built upon the note A is an A chord of some type The harmonic function of any particular chord depends on the context of the chord progression in which it is found. The diatonic harmonization of any major results in three major triads. They are based on the first, fourth, and fifth scale degrees and these three triads include, and therefore can harmonize, every note of that scale. The same scale also provides three relative minor chords, one related to each of the three major chords, separate from these six common chords there is one degree of the scale, the seventh, that results in a diminished chord. In addition, extra notes may be added to any chord, if these notes are also selected from the original scale the harmony remains diatonic. If new chromatic intervals are introduced then a change of scale or modulation occurs and this in turn may lead to a resolution back to the original key, so that the entire sequence of chords helps create an extended musical form. In western classical notation, chords built on the scale are numbered with Roman numerals, other forms of chord notation have been devised, from figured bass to the chord chart. These usually allow or even require an amount of improvisation. Diatonic scales such as the major and minor scales lend themselves well to the construction of common chords because they contain a large number of perfect fifths. Such scales predominate in those regions where harmony is an part of music, as, for example. Alternation between two chords may be thought of as the most basic chord progression, many well-known pieces are built harmonically upon the mere repetition of two chords of the same scale. The Isley Brothers Shout uses I - vi throughout, three-chord tunes, though, are more common, since a melody may then dwell on any note of the scale. They are often presented as successions of four chords, in order to produce a binary harmonic rhythm, often the chords may be selected to fit a pre-conceived melody, but just as often it is the progression itself that gives rise to the melody. (Common in Elizabethan music, this also underpins the American college song Goodnight Ladies, is the exclusive progression used in Kwela, similar progressions abound in African popular music. They may be varied by the addition of sevenths to any chord or by substitution of the minor of the IV chord to give, for example
Chord sequence
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Beethoven imagined in the process of composing his
Pastoral Symphony
Chord sequence
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IV-V-I progression in C Play (
help ·
info)
Chord sequence
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Blues progressions influenced a great deal of 20th century American popular music
Chord sequence
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The Mills Brothers ' recording of "
Till Then " looked forward both to the end of World War II and to the popular music of the 1950s. (Courtesy of the Fraser MacPherson estate c/o Guy MacPherson)
33.
Andalusian cadence
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It is otherwise known as the minor descending tetrachord. Traceable back to the Renaissance, its effective sonorities made it one of the most popular progressions in classical music Play, despite the name it is not a true cadence, it is most often used as an ostinato. It is heard in songs such as Runaway by Del Shannon. In the third degree of the chord, the subtonic is sharpened by a semitone into a leading note in order to lead back into the minor chord that begins the sequence. A popular melodic pattern of Ancient Greece offers a starting point for the Andalusian cadence. Called the Dorian tetrachord, the sequence resembles the line of the chord progression developed centuries later. Some theorists consider that the structure may have occurred earlier in Judah. A sequence more or less close to the Greek tetrachord structure might have known to the Moors in Southern Spain. The French troubadours were influenced by the Spanish music, the Andalusian cadence known today, using triad chords, may be no earlier than the Renaissance, though the use of parallel thirds or sixths occurred from the 13th century. The progression resembles the first four measures of the 15th century Passamezzo antico, a minor seventh would be added to the dominant V chord to increase tension before resolution. The roots of the chords belong to a modern phrygian tetrachord, if the semitone falls between the highest two steps, the melody tends to be ascending, a semitone between the lowest tones in the tetrachord involves a melody inclined to descend. This said, the Phrygian tetrachord, borrowed from music of Eastern Europe and Anatolia, is to be found also in the Andalusian cadence. A rigorous analysis should note that many chord progressions are likely to back from an epoch prior to early Baroque. In such cases, explanations offered by tonality neglect the history and this is because harmonic analyses in tonal style use only two scales when explaining origins of chord moves. In exchange, the luxuriant modal system offers various plausible origins and explanations for every chord move, however, most classical and popular music which makes use of the given chord progression might treat it itself in a tonal manner. A number of musicians and theorists consider the Andalusian cadence as a chord built upon the Phrygian mode. Since tonality took the first chord in the progression for a tonic, though tonal functions have little in common with the Phrygian mode, the four chords could be roughly equalized. Thus, the iv corresponds to a subdominant chord, while ♭III is the mediant, the ♭II chord has a dominant function, and may be thought of as a tritone substitution of V, i. e. the Neapolitan sixth chord
Andalusian cadence
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Andalusian cadences are common in Flamenco music.
34.
Tonic (music)
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The triad formed on the tonic note, the tonic chord, is thus the most significant chord in these styles of music. More generally, the tonic is the pitch upon which all other pitches of a piece are hierarchically referenced, scales are named after their tonics, thus the tonic of the scale of C is the note C. Simple folk music and traditional songs may begin and end on the tonic note, in very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary harmonies, tonic, dominant, and subdominant, and especially the first two of these. The tonic is often confused with the root, which is the note of a chord. The root of a chord is different from the tonic, because different types of chords have root notes. It is also represented with the Roman numeral I, two parallel keys have the same tonic. For example, in both C major and C minor, the tonic is C, however, relative keys have different tonics. For example, C major and A minor share a key signature that feature no sharps or flats, thus a pitch center may function referentially or contextually in an atonal context, often acting as axis or line of symmetry in an interval cycle. Pitch centricity was coined by Arthur Berger in his Problems of Pitch Organization in Stravinsky
Tonic (music)
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Tonic (I) in
ii-V-I turnaround on C, found at the end of the
circle progression Play (
help ·
info)
35.
Diatonic function
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In tonal music theory, a function is a term denoting the relationship of a chord to the tonal center. The concept of function has never been clearly defined. It rests on the recognition of essential hierarchies between the degrees of the scale and the harmonies that they support, and of possible equivalences between some of these hierarchic values. This theory remains much in use for the pedagogy of harmony and analysis in German speaking countries and in other North- and this theory in origin was not explicitly about tonal functions. It considers the relation of the chords to their tonic in the context of harmonic progressions, both theories find part of their inspiration in the theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau, starting with his Traité dharmonie of 1722. Even if the concept of function was not so named before 1893, it could be shown to exist, explicitly or implicitly. Early usages of the term in music include those by Fétis, Durutte, Loquin, the concept of harmonic function originates in theories about just intonation. These three triads were soon considered the most important chords of the tonality, with the tonic in the center, the dominant above. This symmetric construction may have one of the reasons why the fourth degree of the scale. It also is one of the origins of the dualist theories which described not only the scale in just intonation as a symmetric construction, dualist theories are documented from the 16th century onwards. The term functional harmony derives from Hugo Riemann and, more particularly, Riemanns direct inspiration was Moriz Hauptmann dialectic description of tonality. Riemann described three abstract functions, the tonic, the dominant and the subdominant, despite the complexity of his theory, Riemanns ideas had huge impact, especially where German influence was strong. A good example in this regard are the textbooks by Hermann Grabner, the three tonal functions are denoted by the letters T, D and S, for Tonic, Dominant and Subdominant respectively, the letters are uppercase for functions in major, lowercase for functions in minor. Each of these functions can be fulfilled by three chords, the chord corresponding to the function, the chord a third lower. The relation between triads a third apart resides in the fact that they differ from each other by one note only, in addition, within the diatonic scale, triads a third apart necessarily are of opposite mode. Two cases must be considered, – either the triads are relative to other, the minor triad in this case is a third lower than its major relative. It will be noted that several chords could fulfill different functions depending on the context, each degree of a diatonic scale, as well as each of many chromatically-altered notes, has a different diatonic function as does each chord built upon those notes. A pitch or pitch class and its enharmonic equivalents have different meanings, in music theory, as it is commonly taught in the US, there are seven different functions
Diatonic function
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Tonic and tonic parallel in C major: CM and Am chords Play (
help ·
info).
36.
Dominant (music)
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The dominant is sung as so in solfege. The dominant function has the role of creating instability that requires the tonic for resolution, in very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the primary harmonies, tonic, dominant, and subdominant, and especially the first two of these. The scheme I-x-V-I symbolizes, though naturally in a very summarizing way, for example, in the C major scale, the dominant is the note G, and the dominant triad consists of the notes G, B, and D. In music theory, the dominant triad is a triad, symbolized by the Roman numeral V. It is, however, a triad, denoted v. For instance, in G-B♭-D, the B♭ is sharpened to B natural, a dominant seventh chord is a chord built upon the dominant of a major diatonic scale. It contains a major triad and a seventh of the root of the triad. An example is G7 in C major, G-B-D-F, with G being both the dominant of C major and the root of the major triad G-B-D, and F being the seventh of the root. In a general context, the dominant seventh is denoted V7, a cadential dominant chord followed by a tonic chord is denominated as authentic cadence. If the roots are in the bass and the tonic is in the highest voice, the dominant key in a given musical composition is the key whose tonic is a perfect fifth above the tonic of the main key of the piece. Put another way, the key whose tonic is the dominant scale degree in the main key, if, for example, a piece is written in the key of C major, then the key of C is the tonic key. The key of G major is the dominant key since it is based on the dominant note for the key of C major, with a key signature of one sharp, G major features one more sharp than C major. In sonata form in major keys, the subject group is usually in the dominant key. Even with the widest roaming modulations in the development, the dominant key exerts influence, the movement to the dominant was part of musical grammar, not an element of form. Almost all music in the century went to the dominant, before 1750 it was not something to be emphasized, afterward. This means that every eighteenth century listener expected the movement to the dominant in the sense that would have been puzzled if did not get it, it was a condition of intelligibility. Dominant also refers to a relationship of musical keys, for example, relative to the key of C major, the key of G major is the dominant key. Music which modulates often modulates into the dominant, modulation into the dominant key often creates a sense of increased tension, as opposed to modulation into subdominant, which creates a sense of musical relaxation
Dominant (music)
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The second to last chord in this example is built on the dominant (V) and found here in the
circle progression on C: I-IV-vii o -iii-vi-ii-V-I Play (
help ·
info)
37.
Subdominant
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In music, the subdominant is the technical name for the fourth tonal degree of the diatonic scale. It is so called because it is the distance below the tonic as the dominant is above the tonic – in other words. It also happens to be the note immediately below the dominant and it is sung as fa in solfege. In the C major scale, the subdominant is the note F, and the subdominant chord uses the notes F, A, and C. In music theory, Roman numerals are used to symbolize the subdominant chord as IV if it is within the mode or iv if it is within the minor mode. In very much conventionally tonal music, harmonic analysis will reveal a broad prevalence of the harmonies, tonic, dominant, and subdominant. A cadential subdominant chord followed by a tonic chord produces the so-called plagal cadence, Subdominant also refers to a relationship of musical keys. For example, relative to the key of C major, the key of F major is the subdominant, music which modulates often modulates into the subdominant when the leading tone is lowered by a half step to the subtonic. Modulation into the subdominant key often creates a sense of relaxation, as opposed to modulation into dominant. The use of the subdominant in this location serves as a way of keeping the rest of recapitulation in the tonic. As with other chords which may or tend to precede the dominant the subdominant diatonic function acts as a dominant preparation or predominant, in theories after Hugo Riemann it is considered to balance the dominant around the tonic. Media related to Subdominant at Wikimedia Commons
Subdominant
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Subdominant (IV) in IV-V-I progression, in C Play (
help ·
info)
38.
Mediant
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In music, the mediant is the third scale degree of a diatonic scale, being the note halfway between the tonic and the dominant. It is sung as mi in solfege, similarly, the submediant is halfway between the tonic and subdominant. The fifth note is almost always a perfect fifth, while the note can equally be a minor or major third. Schenkerian analysts consider this scale degree as expansion of the Tonic since they have two common tones, on the other hand, in German theory derived from Hugo Riemann the mediant in major is considered the dominant parallel, Dp, and in minor the tonic parallel, tP. In Roman numeral analysis, the mediant chord can take several forms, in major scales, the mediant chord is minor and is noted with the Roman numeral iii. In a natural scale, the mediant occurs as a major chord. For example, in the C major scale, the mediant is the note E, and the mediant chord is E-minor consisting of the notes E, G, Therefore, Em is the iii chord in the C major scale. Also, in the A natural minor scale, the mediant is the note C, and the mediant chord is C consisting of the notes C, E, mediant also refers to a relationship of musical keys
Mediant
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Tonic and mediant (dominant parallel or tonic counter parallel) in C major: CM and Em chords Play (
help ·
info).
39.
Chord (music)
–
A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches consisting of two or more notes that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. In everyday use by musical ensembles such as bands and orchestras, however, the notes of a chord do not have to be played together at the same time, arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, also constitute chords. Other chords with more than three notes include added tone chords, extended chords and tone clusters, which are used in classical music, jazz. Triads commonly found in the Western classical tradition are major and minor chords, the descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also classified by their root note—for instance, a C major triad consists of the pitch classes C, E. While most chords have at least three notes, power chords, which are used in rock music, particularly in hard rock. An ordered series of chords is called a chord progression, one example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression, the simplest versions of which include tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practice of numbering chords using Roman numerals which represent the number of steps up from the tonic note of the scale. Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music include Roman numerals, figured bass, macro symbols, the chords in a song or piece are also given names which refer to their function. The chord built on the first note of a scale is called the tonic chord. The chord built on the note of a major scale is called the subdominant chord. The chord built on the degree of the major scale is called the dominant chord. There are names for the built on every note of the major scale. Chords can be played on instruments, including piano, pipe organ, guitar. Chords can also be performed when multiple musicians play together in an ensemble or when multiple singers sing in a choir. The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a shortening of accord in the sense of agreement and later. A sequence of chords is known as a progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music, a chord progression aims for a definite goal of establishing a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord
Chord (music)
–
Instruments and voices playing and singing different
notes create chords.
40.
Transposition (music)
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In music transposition refers to the process, or operation, of moving a collection of notes up or down in pitch by a constant interval. For example, one might transpose a piece of music into another key. Similarly, one might transpose a tone row or a collection of pitches such as a chord so that it begins on another pitch. The transposition of a set A by n semitones is designated by Tn, thus the set consisting of 0–1–2 transposed by 5 semitones is 5–6–7 since 0 +5 =5,1 +5 =6, and 2 +5 =7. There are two different kinds of transposition, depending on one is measuring intervals according to the chromatic scale or some other scale. In chromatic transposition one shifts every pitch in a collection of notes by a number of semitones. For instance, if one transposes the pitches C4–E4–G4 upwards by four semitones, in scalar transposition one shifts every pitch in a collection by a fixed number of scale steps relative to some scale. For example, if one transposes the pitches C4–E4–G4 up by two steps relative to the familiar C major scale, one obtains the pitches E4–G4–B4, if one transposes the same pitches up by two steps relative to the F major scale, one obtains instead E4–G4–B♭4. Scalar transposition is sometimes called diatonic transposition, but this term can be misleading, however, scalar transposition can occur with respect to any type of scale, not just the diatonic. There are two kinds of transposition, by pitch interval or by pitch interval class, applied to pitches or pitch classes. Transposition may be applied to pitches or to pitch classes, although transpositions are usually written out, musicians are occasionally asked to transpose music at sight, that is, to read the music in one key while playing in another. There are three basic techniques for teaching sight transposition, interval, clef, and numbers, first one determines the interval between the written key and the target key. Then one imagines the notes up by the corresponding interval, a performer using this method may calculate each note individually, or group notes together. Clef transposition is routinely taught in Belgium and France, one imagines a different clef and a different key signature than the ones printed. The change of clef is used so that the lines and spaces correspond to different notes than the lines and spaces of the original score. Seven clefs are used for this, treble, bass, baritone, and C-clefs on the four lowest lines, the signature is then adjusted for the actual accidental one wants on that note. The octave may also have to be adjusted, but this is a matter for most musicians. Transposing by numbers means, one determines the degree of the written note in the given key
Transposition (music)
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Transposition example from Koch Play top (
help ·
info) Play bottom (
help ·
info). The melody on the first line is in the key of D, while the melody on the second line is identical except that it is
major third lower, in the key of B ♭.
41.
Capo
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It is frequently used on guitars, mandolins, and banjos. The word derives from the Italian capotasto which means the nut of a stringed instrument, the earliest known use of the term capotasto is by Giovanni Battista Doni who, in his Annotazioni of 1640, uses it to describe the nut of a viola da gamba. The first patented capo was designed by James Ashborn of Wolcottville, musicians commonly use a capo to raise the pitch of a fretted instrument so they can play in a different key using the same fingerings as playing open. In effect, a capo uses a fret of an instrument to create a new nut at a higher note than the actual nut. There are several different capo designs, but most commercial capos consist of a bar that clamps to the instruments neck in some way to hold down the strings. Capos come in different sizes and shapes for different instruments and fretboard curvatures, all types of capo should be applied after a fresh tuning by laying the barre, descending from above, and directly behind the fret, so that all of the strings have uniform position and pressure. If the strings are bent or mispositioned, the instrument will sound out of tune in the new key, some types of capo can mar the neck of the guitar if applied incorrectly. Musicians use capos on many stringed instruments, guitars, mandolins, mandolas, banjos, capos exist for square-necked resonator guitars, some of which do not contact the neck, but clamp above and below the strings. Song arrangements often cite capo position, just as they cite alternate tunings, when referencing fingerings for a song that uses a capo, the player must determine whether the chart references absolute finger positions, or positions relative to the capo. For example, in tablature, a note played on the fret of an instrument capoed at the second fret can be listed as 5 or 3. Similarly, a D-shaped chord can be referred to as D, neither method strongly prevails over the other. For this reason, the phrase chord-shape is commonly used to clarify that the fingering shape, in this manner, the two guitars create a fuller sound than they would playing in unison. Playing with a capo creates the musical effect as retuning all strings up the same number of steps. However, using a capo only affects the open note of each string, every other fret remains unaffected, and thus a performer does not need to adjust for or relearn the entire fretboard as they might with retuning. The scale length of the strings of an instrument affects the timbre of the strings, musicians also use capos to bring a guitar tuned below standard up to standard tuning. Manufacturers sometimes recommend tuning a guitar a whole-step or more below standard to offset the additional stress of the additional strings. A capo can raise it to standard tuning, however, improved manufacturing techniques have allowed many modern 12-strings to be tuned to standard pitch. In many cases, they have extended its use past the traditional purpose of changing the key, an example of using a partial capo to produce alternative sounds can be heard from guitar artist Antoine Dufour
Capo
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Spring clamp capo
Capo
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A guitar capo, which uses a lever-operated over-centre locking action clamp
Capo
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A guitar being played with a spring clamp capo
42.
Dorian mode
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The Dorian mode is named after the Dorian Greeks. Applied to an octave, the Dorian octave species was built upon two tetrachords separated by a whole tone, running from the hypate meson to the nete diezeugmenon. In the enharmonic genus, the intervals in each tetrachord are quarter-tone–quarter-tone–major third, in the genus, semitone-semitone-minor third, in the diatonic genus. Placing the single tone at the bottom of the scale followed by two conjunct tetrachords, produces the Hypodorian octave species, A | B C D E | F G A. Placing the two together and the single tone at the top of the scale produces the Mixolydian octave species. Originally used to one of the traditional harmoniai of Greek theory. Four centuries later, Boethius interpreted Ptolemy in Latin, still with the meaning of transposition keys, when chant theory was first being formulated in the 9th century, these seven names plus an eighth, Hypermixolydian, were again re-appropriated in the anonymous treatise Alia Musica. A commentary on that treatise, called the Nova expositio, first gave it a new sense as one of a set of eight species of the octave. In medieval theory, the authentic Dorian mode could include the note B♭ by licence, the same scalar pattern, but starting a fourth or fifth below the mode final D, and extending a fifth above, was numbered as mode 2 in the medieval system. This was the plagal mode corresponding to the authentic Dorian, and was called the Hypodorian mode. It may be considered an excerpt of a major scale played from the pitch a whole tone above the scales tonic. The resulting scale is, however, minor in quality, because, as the D becomes the new tonal centre, when a triad is built upon the tonic, it is a minor triad. Examples of the Dorian mode include, The D Dorian mode, the G Dorian mode, which contains all notes the same as the F major scale starting on G. The A♭ Dorian mode, which all notes the same as the G♭ major scale starting on A♭. The B Dorian mode, which all notes the same as the A major scale starting on B. The Dorian mode is a scale, meaning that the pattern of whole. The modern Dorian mode is equivalent to the minor scale. The modern Dorian mode resembles the Greek Phrygian harmonia in the diatonic genus, the only difference between the Dorian and Aeolian scales is whether or not the sixth is major
Dorian mode
43.
Tarantella
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Tarantella is a group of various folk dances characterized by a fast upbeat tempo, usually in 68 time, accompanied by tambourines. It is among the most recognized forms of traditional southern Italian music, the specific dance-name varies with every region, for instance tammurriata in Campania, pizzica in the Salento region, Sonu a ballu in Calabria. Tarantella is popular in Southern Italy and Argentina and this became known as the Tarantella. R. Lowe Thompson proposed that the dance is a survival from a Dianic or Dionysiac cult, john Compton later proposed that the Roman Senate had suppressed these ancient Bacchanalian rites. In 186 BC the tarantella went underground, reappearing under the guise of emergency therapy for bite victims, the stately courtship tarantella danced by a couple or couples, short in duration, is graceful and elegant and features characteristic music. However, other forms of the dance were and still are couple dances usually either mimicking courtship or a sword fight. The confusion appears to arrive from the fact that the spiders, the condition, its sufferers, the dance originated in the Apulia region, and spread throughout the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Neapolitan tarantella is a dance performed by couples whose rhythms, melodies, gestures. Its origins may lie in a fifteenth-century fusion between the Spanish Fandango and the Moresque ballo di sfessartia. The magico-religious tarantella is a dance performed supposedly to cure through perspiration the delirium. The dance was later applied as a cure for the behavior of neurotic women. There are several traditional tarantella groups, Cantori di Carpino, Officina Zoé, Uccio Aloisi gruppu, Canzoniere Grecanico Salentino, Selva Cupina, the tarantella is most commonly played with a mandolin, a guitar, an accordion and tambourines. Flute, fiddle, trumpet and clarinet are also used, the tarantella is a dance in which the dancer and the drum player constantly try to upstage each other by playing faster or dancing longer than the other, subsequently tiring one person out first. Tarantism, as a ritual, has roots in the ancient Greek myths, reportedly, victims who had collapsed or were convulsing would begin to dance with appropriate music and be revived as if a tarantula had bitten them. The music used to treat dancing mania appears to be similar to that used in the case of tarantism though little is known about either, justus Hecker, describes in his work Epidemics of the Middle Ages, A convulsion infuriated the human frame. Entire communities of people would join hands, dance, leap, scream, the Balanchine ballet Tarantella is set to the Grande Tarantelle for Piano and Orchestra, Op.67 by Louis Moreau Gottschalk, reconstructed and orchestrated by Hershy Kay. Benjamin Britten wrote a tarantella as the third and final movement of his Sinfonietta, mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco wrote a Tarantella for solo guitar, Op. 87b. Frédéric Chopin wrote a Tarantelle in A-flat, Op.43 with the characteristic 68 time signature and it was inspired specifically by Rossiniss song La Danza
Tarantella
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Italian women dance the tarantella, 1846
44.
Scordatura
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Scordatura, is a tuning of a stringed instrument different from the normal, standard tuning. It typically attempts to allow special effects or unusual chords or timbre and it is common to notate the finger position as if played in regular tuning, while the actual pitch resulting is altered. When all the strings are tuned by the same interval up or down, as in the case of the viola in Mozarts Sinfonia Concertante for Violin, Viola and Orchestra, the part is transposed as a whole. Of course, German violinist Hans Hake includes 3 works in Vorstimmung (upset tuning] for 2 violins in his collection Ander Theil Newer Pavanen, Scordatura was much used by composers for viola damore, violin and cello, including J. S. Bach, Biber, Vivaldi, Ariosti, Vilsmayr, and others in compositions for violin during the early 18th century, a special type of notation was used to make it easier to read. This notation was used to notate music for the viola damore. The viola damore used a number of different tunings and writing music for it in scordatura notation was a natural choice for composers of the time. Heinrich Ignaz Franz Bibers Rosary Sonatas for violin and continuo, aside from the first and last works of this collection, wherein the instrument is set to the common G-D-A-E tuning, the violin for each sonata is tuned to a different array of pitches. VII in C minor is written in a form of scordatura on a nine line stave, see viola damore for more information. Johann Joseph Vilsmayr Artificiosus Consentus Pro Camera, a set of six published in 1715. The middle four partitas use scordatura tunings, johann Pachelbels Musikalische Ergötzung bestehend in 6 verstimmten Partien, six suites for two violins and continuo. Tunings include C-F-C-F, C-G-C-F, B♭-E♭-B♭-E♭, B-E-B-E, C-G-C-F, and B♭-F-B♭-E♭. Antonio Vivaldi, violin concerto in A major, Op.9, No.6, in which the violins G string is tuned up to an A, allowing for a beautifully resonant scale and arpeggio motif ending on the retuned string. Georg Philipp Telemann, Concerto in A Major for two Violins, TWV43,7, the title of the symphony means the absent-minded man – so it is as if the violins have forgotten to tune their strings. The music fully pauses for the violins to re-tune before continuing, camille Saint-Saëns, solo violin in Danse Macabre, where the E-string is tuned to E♭. This changes the open intervals of the double stop A and E to the tri-tone, gustav Mahler, scordatura violin soloist in the 2nd movement of his 4th Symphony. In this case, the composer desired the specific tone of the sound produced by a scordatura violin. Franz von Vecseys Nuit du Nord, a 1921 work for violin and piano, in Max Schereks Sérénade et boléro for solo violin, Op.27, the violin must be tuned to F, F, D, B♭
Scordatura
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Violin with strings crossed for Biber's Resurrection sonata
45.
Tonality
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Tonality is a musical system that arranges pitches or chords to induce a hierarchy of perceived relations, stabilities, and attractions. In this hierarchy, the pitch or triadic chord with the greatest stability is called the tonic. The root of the chord is considered to be the key of a piece or song. Thus a piece in which the chord is C major is said to be in the key of C. Simple folk music songs often start and end with the tonic note, the most common use of the term. is to designate the arrangement of musical phenomena around a referential tonic in European music from about 1600 to about 1910. Contemporary classical music from 1910 to the 2000s may practice or avoid any sort of harmony in almost all Western popular music remains tonal. Harmony in jazz music includes many, if not all, tonal characteristics, All harmonic idioms in popular music are tonal, and none is without function. Tonality is a system of tones in which one tone becomes the central point for the remaining tones. The other tones in a piece are all defined in terms of their relationship to the tonic. In tonality, the tonic is the tone of complete relaxation and stability, the cadence in which the dominant chord or dominant seventh chord resolves to the tonic chord plays an important role in establishing the tonality of a piece. Tonal music is music that is unified and dimensional, the term tonalité originated with Alexandre-Étienne Choron and was borrowed by François-Joseph Fétis in 1840. According to Carl Dahlhaus, however, the term tonalité was only coined by Castil-Blaze in 1821, major-minor tonality is also called harmonic tonality, diatonic tonality, common practice tonality, functional tonality, or just tonality. This sense also applies to the tonic/dominant/subdominant harmonic harmonic constellations in the theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau as well as the 144 basic transformations of twelve-tone technique, any rational and self-contained theoretical arrangement of musical pitches, existing prior to any concrete embodiment in music. For example, Sainsbury, who had Choron translated into English in 1825, while tonality qua system constitutes a theoretical abstraction from actual music, it is often hypostatized in musicological discourse, converted from a theoretical structure into a musical reality. As a term to contrast with modal and atonal, implying that tonal music is discontinuous as a form of expression from modal music on the one hand. Musical phenomena arranged or understood in relation to a referential tonic, Musical phenomena perceived or preinterpreted in terms of the categories of tonal theories. In major and minor harmonies, the fifth is often implied. To function as a tonic, a chord must be either a major or a minor triad, dominant function requires a major-quality triad with a root a perfect fifth above the affiliated tonic and containing the leading tone of the key
Tonality
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Perfect authentic cadence (IV–V–I progression, in four-part harmony) in C major Play (
help ·
info). "Tonal music is built around these tonic and dominant arrival points [cadences], and they form one of the fundamental building blocks of musical structure" (Benjamin, Horvitz, and Nelson 2008, 63).
46.
Chord substitution
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In music theory, chord substitution is the technique of using a chord in the place of another - often related - chord, in a chord progression. Jazz musicians often substitute chords in the progression to create variety. The substitute chord must have some quality and degree of function in common with the original chord. Scott DeVeaux describes a penchant in modern jazz for harmonic substitution, the ii-V substitution is when a chord or each chord in a progression is preceded by its supertonic and dominant, or simply its dominant. For example, a C major chord would be preceded by Dm7, since secondary dominant chords are often inserted between the chords of a progression rather than replacing one, this may be considered as addition rather than substitution. The diminished seventh chord is used in place of a dominant 7th chord. In the key of A Major the V chord, E dominant 7th can be replaced with a G♯ diminished seventh chord. The diminished seventh chord on the second scale degree, ♯IIo7, may be used as a substitute dominant, for example in C. In a tritone substitution, the substitute chord only differs slightly from the original chord, if the original chord in a song is G7, the tritone substitution would be D♭7. Note that the 3rd and 7th notes of the G7 chord are found in the D♭7 chord, the tritone substitution is widely used for V7 chords in the popular jazz chord progression ii-V-I. In the key of C, this progression is d minor, G7, with tritone substitution, this progression would become d minor, D♭7, C Major, which contains chromatic root movement. When performed by the player, this chromatic root movement creates a smooth-sounding progression. Tritone substitutions and altered dominants are nearly identical. Good improvisers will liberally sprinkle their solos with both devices, tonic substitution is the use of chords that sound similar to the tonic chord in place of the tonic. In major keys, the iii and vi are often substituted for the I chord. In the key of C Major, the I Major 7 chord is C, E, G, B, the iii chord is E minor 7 and the vi minor 7 chord is A minor 7. Both of the substitute chords use notes from the tonic chord. The relative major/minor substitution shares two common tones and is so called because it involves the relation between major and minor keys with the key signatures, such as C major and A minor. The chord a third above, ♭VII7, may be substituted for the dominant
Chord substitution
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The final two chords in the first progression are each preceded by their dominants in the second progression Play (
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info).
47.
Modulation (music)
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In music, modulation is most commonly the act or process of changing from one key to another. This may or may not be accompanied by a change in key signature, modulations articulate or create the structure or form of many pieces, as well as add interest. Treatment of a chord as the tonic for less than a phrase is considered tonicization, Modulation is the essential part of the art. Without it there is music, for a piece derives its true beauty not from the large number of fixed modes which it embraces. The modulating dominant is the dominant of the quasi-tonic, the pivot chord is a predominant to the modulating dominant and a chord common to both the keys of the tonic and the quasi-tonic. For example, in a modulation to the dominant, ii/V-V/V-V could be a chord, modulating dominant. For example, G major and D major share 4 chords in common, G, B minor and this can be easily determined by a chart similar to the one below, which compares chord qualities. The I chord in G major—a G major chord—is also the IV chord in D major, so I in G major, any chord with the same root note and chord quality can be used as the pivot chord. However, chords that are not generally found in the style of the piece are not likely to be chosen as the pivot chord. The most common chords are the predominant chords in the new key. In analysis of a piece that uses this style of modulation, an enharmonic modulation takes place when one treats a chord as if it were spelled enharmonically as a functional chord in the destination key, and then proceeds in the destination key. There are two types of enharmonic modulations, dominant seventh/augmented sixth, and diminished seventh. A diminished seventh chord meanwhile, can be respelled in multiple ways to form a diminished seventh chord in a key a minor third. C♯-E-G-B♭, A-C♯-E-G, D-F♯-A takes us to the key of D major - a parallel modulation, enharmonically, C♯-E-G-B♭, A-C♯-E-G = A-C♯-E-G, C♯-E-G♯ modulates to C# minor - a major seventh modulation/half-step descending. C♯-E-G-B♭, C♯-E♭-G-B♭ = E♭-G-B♭-D♭, A♭-C-E♭ leads to A♭ major - a minor third AND relative modulation, in short, lowering any note of a diminished seventh chord a half tone leads to a dominant seventh chord, the lowered note being the root of the new chord. Raising any note of a seventh chord a half tone leads to a half-diminished seventh chord. This means that any diminished chord can be modulated to eight different chords by simply lowering or raising any of its notes and this type of modulation is particularly common in Romantic music, in which chromaticism rose to prominence. Other types of enharmonic modulation include the augmented triad and French sixth, augmented triad modulation occurs in the same fashion as the diminished seventh, that is, to modulate to another augmented triad in a key, a major third or minor sixth away
Modulation (music)
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Example of modulation from the tonic to the dominant as in vocal music. Play (
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48.
Fandangos
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Fandango is a lively couples dance from Spain, usually in triple metre, traditionally accompanied by guitars, castanets, or hand-clapping. Fandango can both be sung and danced, sung fandango is usually bipartite, it has an instrumental introduction followed by variaciones. Sung fandango usually follows the structure of cante that consist of four or five octosyllabic verses or musical phrases, occasionally, the first copla is repeated. The meter of fandango is similar to that of the bolero and it was originally notated in 68 time, but later in 38 or 34. The fandangos first sighting in a work was in Francisco de Leefadeals entremés El novio de la aldeana staged in Seville. By the late 18th century it had become fashionable among the aristocracy and was included in tonadillas, zarzuelas, ballets and operas, not only in Spain. The form of Fandango have been used by many European composers, rameaus Les trois mains, Domenico Scarlattis Fandango portugués and Fandango del SigR Escarlate. Luis de Freitas Brancos third movement of his Suite Alentejana no.1 is inspired on the popular fandango of the regions of Alentejo and Ribatejo. The current 34 pattern of the fandango, its distinctive progression lyrics with octosyllabic verses, the fandangos grandes are normally danced by couples, which start out slowly with gradually increasing tempo. Many varieties are derived from this one, the fandanguillos are livelier, more festive derivations of fandangos. Some regions of Spain have developed their own style of fandangos, such as Huelva, northern areas such as the Asturias Principality of Asturias, the Basque Country and Castile and LeónCastile have preserved a more relaxed performance. Although Spanish in origin, Fandango is one of the folk dances in Portugal. The dancers can be boy and girl, boy and boy or rarely two girls, while one of the dancers dances, the other just goes along. Afterwards, they drag their feet for a while until the other one takes his turn. They stay there, disputing, seeing one of them makes the feet transitions more eye-catching. The fandango do Ribatejo refers specifically the form of fandango practiced in Ribatejo, the dance is usually performed by two Campinos. As a result of the extravagant features of the dance, the word fandango is used as a synonym for a quarrel, in Veracruz, Mexico, a fandango is a party where people get together to dance, to play and to sing in a community setting. As local musicians perform the Son Jarocho music, people dance zapateado atop a wooden platform known as a Tarima
Fandangos
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Eighteenth century
Castillian fandango dancers (by
Pierre Chasselat (1753-1814)
49.
Microtonality
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Microtonal music or microtonality is the use in music of microtones—intervals smaller than a semitone, which are also called microintervals. It may also be extended to any music using intervals not found in the customary Western tuning of twelve equal intervals per octave. Microtonal music can refer to any music containing microtones, therefore it is important to comprehend what a microtone is, the words microtone and microtonal were coined before 1912 by Maud MacCarthy Mann in order to avoid the misnomer quarter tone when speaking of the srutis of Indian music. Prior to this time the quarter tone was used, confusingly, not only for an interval actually half the size of a semitone. 1998, Wallon 1980,13, Whitfield 1989,13, microinterval is a frequent alternative in English, especially in translations of writings by French authors and in discussion of music by French composers. In English, the two terms microtone and microinterval are synonymous, microtone is also sometimes used to refer to individual notes, microtonal pitches added to and distinct from the familiar twelve notes of the chromatic scale, as enharmonic microtones, for example. In English the word microtonality is mentioned in 1946 by Rudi Blesh who related it to microtonal inflexions of the blues scales. It was used earlier by W. McNaught with reference to developments in modernism in a 1939 record review of the Columbia History of Music. The term microinterval is used alongside microtone by American musicologist Margo Schulter in her articles on medieval music, the term microtonal music usually refers to music containing very small intervals but can include any tuning that differs from Western twelve-tone equal temperament. Microtonal variation of intervals is standard practice in the African-American musical forms of spirituals, blues, many microtonal equal divisions of the octave have been proposed, usually in order to achieve approximation to the intervals of just intonation. Terminology other than microtonal has been used or proposed by some theorists, in 1914, A. H. Fox Strangways objected that heterotone would be a better name for śruti than the usual translation microtone. Modern Indian researchers yet write, microtonal intervals called shrutis, a similar term, subchromatic, has been used recently by theorist Marek Žabka. Ivor Darreg proposed the term xenharmonic, another Russian authors use more international adjective microtonal and rendered it in Russian as микротоновый, but not microtonality. However are used микротональность and микротоника also, some authors writing in French have adopted the term micro-intervallique to describe such music. Italian musicologist Luca Conti dedicated two his monographs to microtonalismo, which is the term in Italian, and also in Spanish. The analogous English form, microtonalism, is found occasionally instead of microtonality. At the time when serialism and neoclassicism were still incipient a third movement emerged, the term macrotonal has also been used for musical form. The Hellenic civilizations of ancient Greece left fragmentary records of their music—e. g, ancient Greek intervals were of many different sizes, including microtones
Microtonality
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Composer Charles Ives chose the chord above as a good candidate for a "fundamental" chord in the quarter tone scale, akin not to the tonic but to the major chord of traditional tonality (Boatwright 1971, 8–9). Play (
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info) or play (
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50.
Interval (music)
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In music theory, an interval is the difference between two pitches. In Western music, intervals are most commonly differences between notes of a diatonic scale, the smallest of these intervals is a semitone. Intervals smaller than a semitone are called microtones and they can be formed using the notes of various kinds of non-diatonic scales. Some of the very smallest ones are called commas, and describe small discrepancies, observed in some tuning systems, Intervals can be arbitrarily small, and even imperceptible to the human ear. In physical terms, an interval is the ratio between two sonic frequencies, for example, any two notes an octave apart have a frequency ratio of 2,1. This means that successive increments of pitch by the same result in an exponential increase of frequency. For this reason, intervals are often measured in cents, a derived from the logarithm of the frequency ratio. In Western music theory, the most common naming scheme for intervals describes two properties of the interval, the quality and number, examples include the minor third or perfect fifth. These names describe not only the difference in semitones between the upper and lower notes, but also how the interval is spelled, the importance of spelling stems from the historical practice of differentiating the frequency ratios of enharmonic intervals such as G–G♯ and G–A♭. The size of an interval can be represented using two alternative and equivalently valid methods, each appropriate to a different context, frequency ratios or cents, the size of an interval between two notes may be measured by the ratio of their frequencies. When a musical instrument is tuned using a just intonation tuning system, Intervals with small-integer ratios are often called just intervals, or pure intervals. Most commonly, however, musical instruments are tuned using a different tuning system. As a consequence, the size of most equal-tempered intervals cannot be expressed by small-integer ratios, for instance, an equal-tempered fifth has a frequency ratio of 2 7⁄12,1, approximately equal to 1.498,1, or 2.997,2. For a comparison between the size of intervals in different tuning systems, see section Size in different tuning systems, the standard system for comparing interval sizes is with cents. The cent is a unit of measurement. If frequency is expressed in a scale, and along that scale the distance between a given frequency and its double is divided into 1200 equal parts, each of these parts is one cent. In twelve-tone equal temperament, a system in which all semitones have the same size. Hence, in 12-TET the cent can be defined as one hundredth of a semitone
Interval (music)
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Melodic and harmonic intervals. Play (
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Andalusia, Spain
