1.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
2.
Paris Air Show
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The Paris Air Show claims to be the worlds calendar-oldest air show. Established in 1909, it is held every odd year at Le Bourget Airport in north Paris. The 2015 Paris Air Show, from 15–21 June 2015, became the 51st, the format is similar to the Farnborough International Airshow in Britain and the ILA Berlin Air Show, both of which are staged in alternate years to the Paris show. The Paris event starts with four days closed to the general public. The Paris Air Show is organised by the French aerospace industrys primary representative body, according to GIFAS, the 2011 Paris show attracted 151,500 professional visitors and 204,000 members of the general public, and 3,250 journalists from 80 countries. It is a commercial event, with a major purpose being to demonstrate military. It claims to be the most prestigious aircraft exposition in the world, major aircraft sales contracts are announced by manufacturers during the show. All major international manufacturers, as well as representatives of the forces of many countries. The Paris Air Show traces its history back to the first decade of the 20th century, in 1908 a section of the Paris Motor Show was dedicated to aircraft. The following year, an air show was held at the Grand Palais from 25 September to 17 October, during which 100,000 visitors turned out to see products. There were four further shows before the First World War, the show restarted in 1919, and from 1924 it was held every two years before being interrupted again by the Second World War. It restarted again in 1946 and since 1949, has held in every odd year. The air show continued to be held at the Grand Palais, in 1953, the show was relocated from the Grand Palais to Le Bourget. Since the 1970s, the show emerged as the international reference of the aeronautical sector. Among major accidents, there were two crashes of Convair B-58 Hustler bombers, in 1961 and 1965, at the Paris Air Show on June 3,1973, the second Tupolev Tu-144 production aircraft crashed during its display. It stalled while attempting a rapid climb, the cause of this accident remains controversial. A Mikoyan MiG-29 crashed during a flight with no loss of life. The then Soviet space shuttle Buran and its aircraft the Antonov An-225 were displayed
3.
Warsaw University of Technology
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The Warsaw University of Technology is one of the leading institutes of technology in Poland and one of the largest in Central Europe. It employs 2,453 teaching faculty, with 357 professors, the student body numbers 36,156, mostly full-time. There are 19 faculties covering almost all fields of science and technology and they are in Warsaw, except for one in Płock. The Warsaw University of Technology has about 5,000 graduates per year, according to the 2008 Rzeczpospolita newspaper survey, engineers govern Polish companies. Warsaw Tech alums make up the highest percentage of Polish managers, every ninth president among the top 500 corporations in Poland is a graduate of the Warsaw University of Technology. The origins of Warsaw University of Technology date back to 1826 when engineering education was begun in the Warsaw Institute of Technology, the origins of Polish universities of technology go back to the 18th century. They were related to military technology or mining, which demanded complicated technological processes as a result of the exploitation of deeper seams. The model school of technology, a university of technology, was designed by the French, in the beginning of the 19th century universities of technology were opened in Prague, Vienna, and Karlsruhe. In Poland, the first multidisciplinary university of technology was the Preparatory School for the Institute of Technology, the Warsaw University of Technology still cultivates its traditions. The man who played the most important part in creating the school, kajetan Garbiński, a mathematician and Warsaw University professor became the director. The school was closed in 1831, after the November Insurrection, classes, with Russian as the language of instruction, started on 5 September in the building at 81 Marszałkowska Street. They were soon moved to new buildings, built especially for the institute and they were designed by Bronisław Rogóyski and Stefan Szyller. On the day of the opening, the university had three faculties, Mathematics, Chemistry, and Engineering and Construction, in June 1902, the Faculty of Mining was opened. Poles constituted the majority of students until 1905, when their number reached 1,100, the grand opening of both universities was held on 15 November 1915. Zygmunt Straszewicz was the first rector of the Warsaw University of Technology, World War I, together with the events connected with the restitution of the Polish State and the Polish-Bolshevik war did not help the development of the school. Daily lectures only started in November 1920, the school taught the young future engineers at the faculties of Mechanics, Electrical Engineering, Chemistry, Architecture, Civil Engineering, Aquatic Engineering, and Geodesy. The last three faculties were merged on the basis of the new Academic Schools Law of 13 March 1933, the Polish Cabinet issued a decree on 25 September 1933, in which the new Faculty of Engineering was created. The number of the Warsaw University of Technology students in the 20 years between the wars grew from 2,540 in the 1918/1819 academic year to 4,673 just before the outbreak of the World War II
4.
Turboprop
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A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller. In contrast to a turbojet, the engines exhaust gases do not contain enough energy to create significant thrust, in its simplest form a turboprop consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle. Air is drawn into the intake and compressed by the compressor, fuel is then added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture then combusts. The hot combustion gases expand through the turbine, some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller, further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to atmospheric pressure. The propelling nozzle provides a small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop. Exhaust thrust in a turboprop is sacrificed in favor of shaft power, owing to the additional expansion in the turbine system, the residual energy in the exhaust jet is low. Consequently, the exhaust jet typically produces around or less than 10% of the total thrust, turboprops can have bypass ratios up to 50-100 although the propulsion airflow is less clearly defined for propellers than for fans. The propeller is coupled to the turbine through a gear that converts the high RPM, low torque output to low RPM. The propeller itself is normally a constant speed type similar to that used with larger reciprocating aircraft engines, unlike the small diameter fans used in turbofan jet engines, the propeller has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air. This permits a lower velocity for a given amount of thrust. Propellers lose efficiency as speed increases, so turboprops are normally not used on high-speed aircraft above Mach 0. 6-0.7. However, propfan engines, which are similar to turboprop engines. To increase propeller efficiency, a mechanism can be used to alter their pitch relative to the airspeed, a variable-pitch propeller, also called a controllable-pitch propeller, can also be used to generate negative thrust while decelerating on the runway. Additionally, in the event of an outage, the pitch can be adjusted to a vaning pitch. While most modern turbojet and turbofan engines use axial-flow compressors, turboprop engines usually contain at least one stage of centrifugal compression, centrifugal compressors have the advantage of being simple and lightweight, at the expense of a streamlined shape. While the power turbine may be integral with the gas generator section and this enables the propeller to rotate freely, independent of compressor speed. Residual thrust on a turboshaft is avoided by further expansion in the turbine system and/or truncating and turning the exhaust 180 degrees, apart from the above, there is very little difference between a turboprop and a turboshaft
5.
General aviation
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General aviation is the term for all civil aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire. General aviation flights range from gliders and powered parachutes to corporate business jet flights, the majority of the worlds air traffic falls into this category, and most of the worlds airports serve general aviation exclusively. General aviation covers a range of activities, both commercial and non-commercial, including flying clubs, flight training, agricultural aviation, light aircraft manufacturing. Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK,96 per cent are engaged in GA operations, there are 28,000 Private Pilot Licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities, GA operates from more than 1,800 airports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips. GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority, although regulatory powers are being transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency. The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing, general aviation is particularly popular in North America, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft. In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 560 airports in the U. S, aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States GDP, accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing. Most countries have authorities that oversee all civil aviation, including general aviation, Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours
6.
Business jet
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A business jet, private jet, or bizjet, or simply B. J. is a jet aircraft designed for transporting small groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as the evacuation of casualties or express parcel deliveries, the Lockheed JetStar, seating ten passengers and two crew, first flew on 4 September 1957. The smaller,17,760 pounds MTOW North American Sabreliner first flew on 16 September 1958, powered by two Pratt & Whitney JT12 turbojet engines then Garrett TFE731, more than 800 were produced from 1959 to 1982. The 25,000 pounds MTOW British Aerospace 125 first flew on 13 August 1962 and its engine were replaced by Garrett TFE731, then Pratt & Whitney Canada PW300 turbofans. Almost 1,700 aircraft were produced between 1962 and 2013 after being marketed as the Hawker 800, the 23,500 pounds MTOW IAI Westwind, developed by Aero Commander, first flew on 27 January 1963, powered by two General Electric CJ610 turbojets, then Garrett TFE731. 442 were built from 1965 to 1987 and it was developed in the IAI Astra, the 29,000 pounds MOTW Dassault Falcon 20 first flew on 4 May 1963, powered by two General Electric CF700, then Garrett ATF3 turbofans and Garrett TFE731. From 1963 to 1988,508 were built and it is the basis of the Dassault Falcon family, the first light jet first flew on 7 October 1963, the Learjet 23. Powered by two 2,850 pounds-force General Electric CJ610, its 12,500 pounds MTOW complies with FAR Part 23 regulations,104 were built between 1962 and 1966 and it is the first member of the Learjet Family. On 2 October 1966 the first large business jet first flew, from 1967 to the late 70s,258 were built and it led to the ongoing Gulfstream Aerospace long range family. The 11,850 pounds MTOW Cessna Citation I first flew on 15 September 1969, produced between 1969 and 1985 at 689 samples, it is the first of the Cessna Citation family. The trijet Dassault Falcon 50 made its first flight the 7 November 1976, the 40,000 pounds MTOW airplane is powered by three 3,700 pounds-force TFE731. With the cross-section of the Falcon 20, it is the basis of the larger Falcon 900, on 8 November 1978, the prototype Canadair Challenger took off. The 43, 000–48,000 pounds MTOW craft, usually powered by two 9,200 pounds-force General Electric CF34, the basis of the long range Global Express family, the 1000th Challenger has entered service in 2015. On May 30,1979 took off the clean-sheet 22,000 pounds MTOW Cessna Citation III powered by two 3,650 pounds-force TFE731, basis of the larger Citation X, the Mitsubishi MU-300 Diamond made its first flight on 29 August 1978. The 16,100 pounds MTOW jet was powered by two 2,900 pounds-force JT15D,950 has been produced, it was renamed Beechjet 400 then Hawker 400. The 1980s only saw the introduction of derivatives and no new design. The clean-sheet Learjet 45 took off on 7 October 1995, the 21,500 pounds is powered by two 3,500 pounds-force TFE731. Powered by two 2,300 pounds-force Williams FJ44, the 12,500 pounds Beechcraft Premier I light jet made its first flight on December 22,1998, nearly 300 has been made before the production stopped in 2013
7.
Cabin pressurization
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For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often cryogenic tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air if necessary, the cabin pressure is regulated by the outflow valve. It also serves to increase passenger comfort and is a regulatory requirement above 15,000 feet in the U. S. A. The principal physiological problems are listed below, Pressurization of the cargo hold is also required to prevent damage to pressure-sensitive goods that might leak, expand, burst or be crushed on re-pressurization. In some individuals, particularly those with heart or lung disease, symptoms may begin as low as 5,000 feet, at this altitude, there is about 25% less oxygen than there is at sea level. Hypoxia may be addressed by the administration of oxygen, either through an oxygen mask or through a nasal cannula. Without pressurization, sufficient oxygen can be delivered up to an altitude of about 40,000 feet. At 40,000 feet, the ambient air pressure falls to about 0.2 bar, emergency oxygen supply masks in the passenger compartment of airliners do not need to be pressure-demand masks because most flights stay below 40,000 feet. Above that altitude the pressure of oxygen will fall below 0.2 bar even at 100% oxygen. Passengers may experience fatigue, nausea, headaches, sleeplessness, and these are the same symptoms that mountain climbers experience, but the limited duration of powered flight makes the development of pulmonary oedema unlikely. The mechanism is the same as that of compressed-air divers on ascent from depth, symptoms may include the early symptoms of the bends—tiredness, forgetfulness, headache, stroke, thrombosis, and subcutaneous itching—but rarely the full symptoms thereof. Decompression sickness may also be controlled by a suit as for altitude sickness. Barotrauma As the aircraft climbs or descends, passengers may experience discomfort or acute pain as gases trapped within their bodies expand or contract, the most common problems occur with air trapped in the middle ear or paranasal sinuses by a blocked Eustachian tube or sinuses. Pain may also be experienced in the tract or even the teeth. The pressure inside the cabin is technically referred to as the equivalent effective cabin altitude or more commonly as the cabin altitude and this is defined as the equivalent altitude above mean sea level having the same atmospheric pressure according to a standard atmospheric model such as the International Standard Atmosphere. Thus a cabin altitude of zero would have the pressure found at sea level. Federal Aviation Administration regulations in the U. S. mandate that under normal operating conditions, the rate of change of cabin altitude strongly affects comfort as humans are sensitive to pressure changes in the inner ear and sinuses and this has to be managed carefully. The cabin altitude of the Boeing 767 is typically about 6,900 feet when cruising at 39,000 feet and this is typical for older jet airliners
8.
Flight test
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The flight test phase can range from the test of a single new system for an existing vehicle to the complete development and certification of a new aircraft, launch vehicle, or reusable spacecraft. Therefore, the duration of a flight test program can vary from a few weeks to many years. There are typically two categories of flight test programs – commercial and military, commercial flight testing is conducted to certify that the aircraft meets all applicable safety and performance requirements of the government certifying agency. Since commercial aircraft development is funded by the aircraft manufacturer and/or private investors. These civil agencies are concerned with the safety and that the pilot’s flight manual accurately reports the aircraft’s performance. The market will determine the suitability to operators. Normally, the certification agency does not get involved in flight testing until the manufacturer has found. Military programs differ from commercial in that the government contracts with the manufacturer to design. These performance requirements are documented to the manufacturer in the aircraft specification, in this case, the government is the customer and has a direct stake in the aircraft’s ability to perform the mission. Since the government is funding the program, it is involved in the aircraft design. Often military test pilots and engineers are integrated as part of the flight test team. The final phase of the aircraft flight test is the Operational Test. OT is conducted by a government-only test team with the dictate to certify that the aircraft is suitable, Flight testing of military aircraft is often conducted at military flight test facilities. The US Navy tests aircraft at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, the U. S. Air Force Test Pilot School and the U. S. Naval Test Pilot School are the programs designed to teach military test personnel. In the UK, most military flight testing is conducted by three organizations, the RAF, BAE Systems and QinetiQ, all launch vehicles, as well as a few reusable spacecraft, must necessarily be designed to deal with aerodynamic flight loads while moving through the atmosphere. Many launch vehicles are flight tested, with more extensive data collection. Reusable spacecraft or reusable booster test programs are more involved. For both commercial and military aircraft, as well as vehicles, flight test preparation begins well before the test vehicle is ready to fly
9.
EAA AirVenture Oshkosh
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EAA AirVenture Oshkosh is an annual gathering of aviation enthusiasts held each summer at Wittman Regional Airport in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, United States. The airshow is sponsored by the Experimental Aircraft Association, an organization based in Oshkosh. The show lasts a week, usually beginning on the last Monday in July, during the gathering, the airports control tower is the busiest in the world. EAA was founded in Hales Corners, Wisconsin in 1953 by Paul Poberezny, although homebuilding is still a large part of the organizations activities, it has grown to include almost every aspect of recreational aviation and aeronautics. In 1959, the EAA fly-in grew too large for the Air Pageant and moved to Rockford, in 1970, when it outgrew its facilities at the Rockford airport, it moved to Oshkosh, Wisconsin. For many years the name of the event was The EAA Annual Convention. In 1998, the name was changed to AirVenture Oshkosh, for many years, access to the flight line was restricted to EAA members. In 1997, the fee structure for the show was changed allowing all visitors access to the entire grounds, EAA AirVenture holds nearly 1,000 forums and workshops. AirVenture has been the breeding ground throughout history for the debuts of numerous revolutionary designs. Richard VanGrunsven debuted his Vans RV-3 at the 1972 AirVenture Oshkosh, VanGrunsven would eventually go on to build more homebuilts than anyone else in the world, exceeding the annual production of all commercial general aviation companies combined. Other past notable designs introduced at AirVenture include Frank Christensens Christen Eagle II aerobatic kit biplane in 1978, Tom Hamiltons Glasair 1 in 1980, the EAA estimated the attendance in 2014 at over 500,000, with 2,081 visitors registered from 69 nations. There were approximately 10,000 aircraft,2,000 show planes, in the past, attendance at the event is tabulated on daily basis rather than an individual basis. For example, in 2006 the Oshkosh Northwestern reported that attendance was estimated at 625,000 by the EAA, the estimate was for total attendees each day, so one person attending 7 days would count as 7 attendees. The paper estimated that between 200,000 and 300,000 individuals attended the event and it is unclear whether this practice still exists at EAA Airventure. The large number of arrivals and departures during the fly-in week makes the Wittman Field FAA Control Tower the busiest in the world for that week in number of movements. To accommodate the flow of aircraft around the airport and the nearby airspace. More than 4,000 volunteers contribute approximately 250,000 hours before, during, the EAA AirVenture fly-in has a large economic impact to the Oshkosh area as well as the state of Wisconsin. In 1982, the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reported that the fly-in had an economic benefit to the Fox Valley region
10.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
