1.
Specific Area Message Encoding
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Specific Area Message Encoding is the protocol used to encode the Emergency Alert System and NOAA Weather Radio in the U. S. and Weatheradio Canada in Canada. It is also used to set off receivers in Mexico City and surrounding areas as part of Mexicos Seismic Alert System and this became known as the Warning Alarm Tone. Although it served NWR well, there were many drawbacks, the intent of what became SAME was to ultimately transmit a code with the initial broadcast of all NWR messages. The NWS started implementing SAME on the full NWR system in 1998, in 2003, NOAA established a SAME technology standard for weather radio receivers. However, the roll-out moved slowly until 1995, when the U. S. Government provided the budget needed to develop the SAME technology across the radio network. Nationwide implementation occurred in 1997, when the Federal Communications Commission adopted the SAME standard as part of its new Emergency Alert System. The SAME technique was adopted by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission in 1997 for use in the EAS as well as by Environment Canada for its Weatheradio Canada service in 2004. In the SAME system, messages are constructed in four parts, the first and last of which are digital, the digital sections of a SAME message are AFSK data burst, with each individual bit lasting 1920 μs each, giving a bit rate of 520 5⁄6 bits per second. A mark bit is four cycles of a sine wave, translating to a mark frequency of 2083 1⁄3 Hz. The data is sent isochronously and encoded in 8-bit bytes with the most-significant bit of each ASCII byte set to zero, the least-significant bit of each byte is transmitted first, including the preamble. The data stream is bit and byte synchronized on the preamble, however, consumer weather radio receivers often activate after hearing only one out of the three headers. The text of the code is a fixed format, <Preamble>ZCZC-ORG-EEE-PSSCCC+TTTT-JJJHHMM-LLLLLLLL- This is broken down as follows,1. A preamble of binary 10101011 repeated sixteen times, used for receiver calibration, generally only used with test messages. EAN – Emergency Action Notification Network Used to send Emergency Action Notifications, EEE — Event code, programmed at time of event 4. In the United States, the five digits are the FIPS state code. The entire state may be specified by using county number 000, in Canada, all six digits specify the Canadian Location Code, which corresponds to a specific forecast region as used by the Meteorological Service of Canada. All forecast region numbers are six digits with the first digit always zero. TTTT — Purge time of the alert event In the format hhmm, using 15 minute increments up to one hour, using 30 minute increments up to six hours, and using hourly increments beyond six hours
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
National Weather Service
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It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration branch of the Department of Commerce, and is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970, the NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers, and 122 local weather forecast offices. As the NWS is a government agency, most of its products are in the public domain, the agency was placed under the Secretary of War as Congress felt military discipline would probably secure the greatest promptness, regularity, and accuracy in the required observations. Within the Department of War, it was assigned to the U. S. Army Signal Service under Brigadier General Albert J. Myer, General Myer gave the National Weather Service its first name, The Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce. The agency first became an enterprise in 1890, when it became part of the Department of Agriculture. The first Weather Bureau radiosonde was launched in Massachusetts in 1937, the Bureau would later be moved to the Department of Commerce in 1940. On July 12,1950, bureau chief Francis W, the Weather Bureau became part of the Environmental Science Services Administration when that agency was formed in August 1966. The Environmental Science Services Administration was renamed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on October 1,1970, at this time, the Weather Bureau became the National Weather Service. NEXRAD, a system of Doppler radars deployed to improve the detection and warning time of local storms, replaced the WSR-57. Bob Glahn has written a history of the first hundred years of the National Weather Service. The NWS, through a variety of sub-organizations, issues different forecast products to users, although, throughout history, text forecasts have been the means of product dissemination, the NWS has been using more forecast products of a digital, gridded, image or other modern format. Each of the 122 Weather Forecast Offices send their graphical forecasts to a server to be compiled in the National Digital Forecast Database. The NDFD is a collection of weather observations used by organizations and the public, including precipitation amount, temperature. Specific points in the database can be accessed using an XML SOAP service. The National Weather Service issues many products relating to wildfires daily, for example, a Fire Weather Forecast, which have a forecast period covering up to seven days, is issued by local Weather Forecast Offices daily, with updates as needed. The forecasts contain weather information relevant to fire control and smoke management for the next 12 to 48 hours, such as direction and speed. The appropriate crews use this information to plan for staffing and equipment levels, the ability to conduct scheduled controlled burns, and assess the daily fire danger. Once per day, NWS meteorologists issue a coded fire weather forecast for specific United States Forest Service observation sites that are input into the National Fire Danger Rating System
4.
Flash flood
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A flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas, washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm. Flash floods may occur after the collapse of an ice or debris dam, or a human structure such as a man-made dam. Flash floods are distinguished from regular floods by a timescale of less than six hours, the water that is temporarily available is often used by foliage with rapid germination and short growth cycles, and by specially adapted animal life. Flash floods can occur under several types of conditions, Flash flooding occurs when it rains rapidly on saturated soil or dry soil that has poor absorption ability. The runoff collects in gullies and streams and, as they join to form larger volumes, often forms a fast flowing front of water, in areas on or near volcanoes, flash floods have also occurred after eruptions, when glaciers have been melted by the intense heat. Flash floods are known to occur in the highest mountain ranges of the United States and are common in the arid plains of the Southwestern United States. Flash flooding can also be caused by extensive rainfall released by hurricanes and other tropical storms, human activities can also cause flash floods to occur. When dams fail, a quantity of water can be released. Many people tend to underestimate the dangers of flash floods, what makes flash floods most dangerous is their sudden nature and fast-moving water. A vehicle provides little to no protection against being swept away, it may make people overconfident, more than half of the fatalities attributed to flash floods are people swept away in vehicles when trying to cross flooded intersections. As little as 2 feet of water is enough to carry away most SUV-sized vehicles. The U. S. National Weather Service reported in 2005 that, using a national 30-year average, more people die yearly in floods,127 on average, than by lightning, tornadoes, in deserts, flash floods can be particularly deadly for several reasons. First, storms in arid regions are infrequent, but they can deliver an enormous amount of water in a short time. Second, these rains often fall on poorly absorbent and often clay-like soil, in fact, in some areas, desert roads frequently cross dry river and creek beds without bridges. From the drivers perspective, there may be clear weather, when a river unexpectedly forms ahead of or around the vehicle in a matter of seconds. Finally, the lack of rain to clear water channels may cause flash floods in deserts to be headed by large amounts of debris, such as rocks, branches. 1889, Johnstown Flood, Pennsylvania, U. S. more than 2,200 people dead 1903, Heppner Flood of 1903, Oregon, United States,247 dead, 25% of the city 1938, Los Angeles Flood of 1938, California, U. S. S
5.
Weather radar
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Weather radar, also called weather surveillance radar and Doppler weather radar, is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, and estimate its type. Modern weather radars are mostly pulse-Doppler radars, capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to the intensity of the precipitation, both types of data can be analyzed to determine the structure of storms and their potential to cause severe weather. During World War II, radar operators discovered that weather was causing echoes on their screen, techniques were developed to filter them, but scientists began to study the phenomenon. Soon after the war, surplus radars were used to detect precipitation, since then, weather radar has evolved on its own and is now used by national weather services, research departments in universities, and in television newscasts. Raw images are used and specialized software can take radar data to make short term forecasts of future positions and intensities of rain, snow, hail. Radar output is even incorporated into weather prediction models to improve analyses. During World War II, military radar operators noticed noise in returned echoes due to rain, snow, after the war, military scientists returned to civilian life or continued in the Armed Forces and pursued their work in developing a use for those echoes. In the United States, David Atlas, at first working for the Air Force and later for MIT, Marshall and R. H. Douglas formed the Stormy Weather Group in Montreal. By 1950 the UK company EKCO was demonstrating its airborne cloud, in 1953 Donald Staggs, an electrical engineer working for the Illinois State Water Survey, made the first recorded radar observation of a hook echo associated with a tornadic thunderstorm. Between 1950 and 1980, reflectivity radars, which measure position, the early meteorologists had to watch a cathode ray tube. During the 1970s, radars began to be standardized and organized into networks, the first devices to capture radar images were developed. The number of scanned angles was increased to get a view of the precipitation, so that horizontal cross-sections. Studies of the organization of thunderstorms were then possible for the Alberta Hail Project in Canada, the NSSL, created in 1964, began experimentation on dual polarization signals and on Doppler effect uses. In May 1973, a tornado devastated Union City, Oklahoma, for the first time, a Dopplerized 10 cm wavelength radar from NSSL documented the entire life cycle of the tornado. The researchers discovered a mesoscale rotation in the cloud aloft before the tornado touched the ground – the tornadic vortex signature, NSSLs research helped convince the National Weather Service that Doppler radar was a crucial forecasting tool. The Super Outbreak of tornadoes on 3–4 April 1974 and their devastating destruction might have helped to get funding for further developments, between 1980 and 2000, weather radar networks became the norm in North America, Europe, Japan and other developed countries. Conventional radars were replaced by Doppler radars, which in addition to position, in the United States, the construction of a network consisting of 10 cm radars, called NEXRAD or WSR-88D, was started in 1988 following NSSLs research. In Canada, Environment Canada constructed the King City station, with a 5 cm research Doppler radar, by 1985 and this led to a complete Canadian Doppler network between 1998 and 2004
6.
Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
7.
Tornado emergency
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A tornado emergency is an enhanced version of a tornado warning, which is used by the National Weather Service in the United States during significant tornado occurrences in highly populated areas. Regardless, people in the path of a large tornado must take immediate safety precautions if they are in or near the path of the storm. This led to the issuance of the first tornado emergency, which in this instance was released as a standalone weather statement issued separately from the tornado warning. As the large tornado approached western sections of the OKC metro area, we asked ourselves more than once, Are we doing all we can do to provide the best warnings and it became apparent that unique and eye-catching phrases needed to be included in the products. At one point we used the phrase Tornado Emergency to paint the picture that a rare and we hoped that such dire phrases would prompt action from anyone that still had any questions about what was about to happen. TORNADO EMERGENCY IN SOUTH OKLAHOMA CITY METRO AREA. AT6,57 PM CDT. A LARGE TORNADO WAS MOVING ALONG INTERSTATE44 WEST OF NEWCASTLE, ON ITS PRESENT PATH. THIS LARGE DAMAGING TORNADO WILL ENTER SOUTHWEST SECTIONS OF THE OKLAHOMA CITY METRO AREA BETWEEN7,15 AND7,30 PM. PERSONS IN MOORE AND SOUTH OKLAHOMA CITY SHOULD TAKE IMMEDIATE TORNADO PRECAUTIONS, THIS IS AN EXTREMELY DANGEROUS AND LIFE THREATENING SITUATION. IF YOU ARE IN THE PATH OF THIS LARGE AND DESTRUCTIVE TORNADO. TAKE COVER IMMEDIATELY, DOPPLER RADAR HAS INDICATED THIS STORM MAY CONTAIN DESTRUCTIVE HAIL TO THE SIZE OF BASEBALLS. OR LARGER. AT324 PM EDT. A CONFIRMED LARGE AND DESTRUCTIVE TORNADO WAS LOCATED OVER KOKOMO. MOVING EAST AT30 MPH, THIS IS A PARTICULARLY DANGEROUS SITUATION. IMPACT. YOU ARE IN A LIFE-THREATENING SITUATION, FLYING DEBRIS MAY BE DEADLY TO THOSE CAUGHT WITHOUT SHELTER. BUSINESSES. AND VEHICLES IS LIKELY AND COMPLETE DESTRUCTION IS POSSIBLE, TO REPEAT. A LARGE. EXTREMELY DANGEROUS. AND POTENTIALLY DEADLY TORNADO IS ON THE GROUND. TO PROTECT YOUR LIFE. TAKE COVER NOW, MOVE TO AN INTERIOR ROOM ON THE LOWEST FLOOR OF A STURDY BUILDING. IF IN A MOBILE HOME. A VEHICLE OR OUTDOORS. MOVE TO THE CLOSEST SUBSTANTIAL SHELTER AND PROTECT YOURSELF FROM FLYING DEBRIS, a LARGE AND EXTREMELY DANGEROUS TORNADO IS ON THE GROUND. Note the differences between this bulletin and the bulletin from 1999. It should also be noted that this was issued during a tornado warning. BULLETIN - EAS ACTIVATION REQUESTED TORNADO WARNING NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE NORMAN OK301 PM CDT MON MAY202013 THE NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE IN NORMAN HAS ISSUED A * TORNADO WARNING FOR, NORTHWESTERN MCCLAIN COUNTY IN CENTRAL OKLAHOMA. SOUTHERN OKLAHOMA COUNTY IN CENTRAL OKLAHOMA, NORTHERN CLEVELAND COUNTY IN CENTRAL OKLAHOMA. * UNTIL345 PM CDT * AT259 PM CDT. NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE METEOROLOGISTS AND STORM SPOTTERS WERE TRACKING A LARGE AND EXTREMELY DANGEROUS TORNADO NEAR NEWCASTLE, DOPPLER RADAR SHOWED THIS TORNADO MOVING NORTHEAST AT20 MPH
8.
Hurricane Irma
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The 1978 Atlantic hurricane season was the last Atlantic hurricane season to use an all-female naming list. The hurricane season began on June 1, and ended on November 30. It was an average season due to a subsiding El Niño. The first storm, a storm, developed unusually early – on January 18 –. At the end of July and early August, short-lived Tropical Storm Amelia caused extensive flooding in Texas after dropping as much as 48 in of rain, there were 33 deaths and $110 million in damage. Tropical Storm Bess and Hurricane Cora resulted in only minor land impacts, later in August, Tropical Storm Debra produced widespread effects, though damage was also relatively minor. Hurricane Ella became the northernmost Category 4 hurricane while located at 38°N, hurricanes Flossie and Kendra as well as Tropical Storms Hope, Irma, and Juliet caused minimal land impacts as a tropical cyclone. However, the precursor to Hurricane Kendra caused flooding in Puerto Rico, Hurricane Greta brought strong winds, high tides, and flooding to Central America, particularly Belize and Honduras. Greta resulted in about $25 million in damage and at least five fatalities, overall, the storms of this season collectively caused $191 million in damage and 42 fatalities. Hurricane Greta crossed into the pacific and was renamed Olivia. The Atlantic hurricane season began on June 1,1978. Although 24 tropical cyclones developed, only twelve of them reached tropical storm intensity, of the twelve tropical storms, five of them strengthened into a hurricane, which is slightly below the 1966-2009 average of 6.2. Two of the five became major hurricanes, which is Category 3 or greater on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Three tropical storms and two hurricanes made landfall during the season and caused at least 41 fatalities and $135 million, additionally, the precursor to Hurricane Kendra brought flooding to Puerto Rico, with $6 million in damage and one death. The season officially ended on November 30,1978, Tropical cyclogenesis began very early, with the development of a subtropical storm on January 18. It dissipated about five days later, however, the next tropical cyclone, an unnumbered depression, did not develop until June 21. In July, there were two systems, including a tropical depression and Tropical Storm Amelia. Seven tropical cyclones formed in August, including Tropical Depression Four and tropical storms Bess and Debra and hurricanes Cora, there were also seven system in September – tropical depressions Eight, Nine, and Twelve, Tropical Storm Hope, and hurricanes Flossie and Greta
9.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
10.
Wisconsin
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Wisconsin is a U. S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, the state is divided into 72 counties. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline, Wisconsin is known as Americas Dairyland because it is one of the nations leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology, and tourism are major contributors to the states economy. The word Wisconsin originates from the given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian-speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845, the Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks, other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning red stone place, where the waters gather, or great rock. Wisconsin has been home to a variety of cultures over the past 12,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation and these early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, hunted now-extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the Effigy Mound culture. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho-Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact, the first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654–1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659–1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien
11.
Severe weather terminology (United States)
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This article describes severe weather terminology used by the National Weather Service in the United States. This article describes NWS terminology and related weather scales used by the agency, some terms may be specific to certain cities or regions. Winter storms – Weather hazards associated with freezing or frozen precipitation or combined effects of winter precipitation, fire weather – Weather conditions leading to an increased risk of wildfires. Flooding – Hazardous hydrologic events resulting in temporary inundation of areas not normally covered by water. Marine hazards – Hazardous events that may affect marine travel, fishing and shipping interests along large bodies of water, including hazardous seas and freezing spray. Other hazards – Weather hazards not directly associated with any of the above including extreme heat or cold, dense fog, high winds, Tornado Watch – Conditions are favorable for the development of severe thunderstorms and tornadoes in and close to the watch area. These watches are issued, and usually mean that a major tornado outbreak is possible. These watches are usually valid for a period of time and issued for a larger area by the Storm Prediction Center in Norman. This type of watch is only reserved for forecast high-end severe weather events. Tornado Warning – Strong rotation in a thunderstorm is indicated by Doppler weather radar or a tornado is sighted by Skywarn spotters or other persons and it is usually issued as the initial tornado warning or as a complete re-issuance of the previous tornado warning. These may also include wording for a Tornado Emergency, a severe thunderstorm contains large damaging hail of 1 inch diameter or larger, and/or damaging winds greater than 58 mph or greater. Isolated tornadoes are possible but not expected to be the dominant severe weather event. Isolated tornadoes are possible but not expected to be the dominant severe weather event, an expected severe wind event is the mostly likely reason for a PDS Severe Thunderstorm Watch to be issued, with widespread winds greater than 90 mph possible. These watches are usually valid for a period of time and are issued for a larger area by the Storm Prediction Center in Norman. This type of watch is only reserved for forecast high-end severe weather events. If, however, tornadoes are expected to be a major threat in addition to the preceding criteria. Severe Thunderstorm Warning – A severe thunderstorm is indicated by Doppler weather radar or sighted by Skywarn spotters or other persons, a severe thunderstorm contains large damaging hail of 1 inch in diameter or larger, and/or damaging winds of 58 mph or greater. These warnings are issued on a polygonal basis
12.
Thunderstorm
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Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus. They are usually accompanied by winds, heavy rain, and sometimes snow, sleet, hail, or, in contrast. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband, strong or severe thunderstorms, known as supercells, rotate as do cyclones. Thunderstorms result from the upward movement of warm, moist air. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, as the rising air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earths surface, as the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. Thunderstorms can form and develop in any location but most frequently within the mid-latitude. Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phenomena that occur along them, pose great hazards. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds, large hailstones, stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts. There are four types of thunderstorms, single-cell, multi-cell cluster, multi-cell lines, supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and the most associated with severe weather phenomena. Mesoscale convective systems formed by vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes. Dry thunderstorms, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the lightning that accompanies them. Several means are used to study thunderstorms, weather radar, weather stations, past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century. Beyond the Earths atmosphere, thunderstorms have also observed on the planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune. Warm air has a lower density than air, so warmer air rises upwards. Clouds form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises within cooler air, the moist air rises, and, as it does so, it cools and some of the water vapor in that rising air condenses. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form and produce lightning, Meteorological indices such as convective available potential energy and the lifted index can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds
13.
Severe thunderstorm watch
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A Severe Thunderstorm Watch is issued when weather conditions are favorable for the development of severe thunderstorms. If thunderstorms are expected to be of sufficient strength such that there is a significant risk that they may produce tornadoes, a Severe Thunderstorm Watch can also be upgraded to a Tornado Watch if conditions originally forecasted for limited to no tornadic development change to allow possible tornado formation. A watch must not be confused with a Severe Thunderstorm Warning, a watch does not necessarily mean that severe weather is actually occurring, only that atmospheric conditions have created a significant risk for severe weather to occur. If severe weather actually does occur, a severe thunderstorm warning or tornado warning will be issued, in the United States, the Storm Prediction Center issues watches for areas of the lower 48 states that are likely to produce tornadoes and/or severe thunderstorms. The local NWS forecast offices in Hawaii and Alaska issue their own Severe Thunderstorm, for example,50 miles either side of a line from 10 miles northeast of Columbia, South Carolina to 15 miles south-southwest of Montgomery, Alabama. When displayed on a map, they are shown as either a blue or yellow outline. In addition, a list of all included in its area of responsibility is now issued by each local NWS forecast office for each watch. In the event that a Severe Thunderstorm Watch is likely to lead to very destructive winds or hail and it is far more common with Tornado Watches. Similar watches and warnings are issued by Environment Canadas Meteorological Service of Canada from their offices in Vancouver, Edmonton, Toronto, Montreal and Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. A Watch Status Message works in a fashion, the SPC designates which areas it thinks where a threat still exists. The following severe thunderstorm watch was issued for a portion of the path of the June 2012 North American derecho. HAIL TO2 INCHES IN DIAMETER. THUNDERSTORM WIND GUSTS TO80 MPH. AND DANGEROUS LIGHTNING ARE POSSIBLE IN THESE AREAS. THE SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH AREA IS APPROXIMATELY ALONG AND80 STATUTE MILES NORTH AND SOUTH OF A LINE FROM35 MILES WEST NORTHWEST OF DAYTON OHIO TO45 MILES EAST OF PARKERSBURG WEST VIRGINIA, FOR A COMPLETE DEPICTION OF THE WATCH SEE THE ASSOCIATED WATCH OUTLINE UPDATE. REMEMBER. A SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WATCH MEANS CONDITIONS ARE FAVORABLE FOR SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS IN AND CLOSE TO THE WATCH AREA, PERSONS IN THESE AREAS SHOULD BE ON THE LOOKOUT FOR THREATENING WEATHER CONDITIONS AND LISTEN FOR LATER STATEMENTS AND POSSIBLE WARNINGS. SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS CAN AND OCCASIONALLY DO PRODUCE TORNADOES, DISCUSSION. A DEVELOPING MCS/BOW ECHO ACROSS INDIANA IS EXPECTED TO MOVE ESEWD THROUGH THE AFTERNOON/EVENING AT ROUGHLY50 KT. AVIATION. A FEW SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS WITH HAIL SURFACE AND ALOFT TO2 INCHES, EXTREME TURBULENCE AND SURFACE WIND GUSTS TO70 KNOTS. A FEW CUMULONIMBI WITH MAXIMUM TOPS TO650, MEAN STORM MOTION VECTOR29050. THIS IS A PARTICULARLY DANGEROUS SITUATION. WIDESPREAD DAMAGING WINDS WIND GUSTS TO90 MPH LIKELY SCATTERED LARGE HAIL ISOLATED HAIL TO1, FOR A COMPLETE DEPICTION OF THE WATCH SEE THE ASSOCIATED WATCH OUTLINE UPDATE
14.
Severe thunderstorm warning
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In the United States, severe thunderstorm warnings do not account for lightning, a significant hazard in any thunderstorm, or flooding caused by a thunderstorms extreme rainfall. A similar warning is issued by Environment Canadas Meteorological Service of Canada from their offices in Vancouver, Edmonton, Toronto, Montreal, skywarn issues the severe thunderstorm warnings for the United Kingdom. Also, just as in the United States, lightning does not warrant a severe thunderstorm warning, in Australia, severe thunderstorm warnings are issued by the Bureau of Meteorology for all Australian states. In the United States, the National Weather Service defines a severe thunderstorm as having large hail of at least 1 inch, surface wind speeds of 58 miles per hour or greater, or both. Prior to January 2010, the size for which a thunderstorm would be considered severe was 0. In Australia, the Bureau of Meteorology issues severe thunderstorm warnings advising of damaging winds, heavy rainfall, large hail, similar official warnings are also issues for tropical cyclones, severe weather including heatwaves, tsunamis, and bushfires. A severe thunderstorm warning indicates that the area is in impending danger. Occasionally, severe thunderstorms can and do produce tornadoes without warning, if a tornado is detected on radar or is sighted visually, a tornado warning will be issued either in replacement of or concurrently to the existing severe thunderstorm warning. Generally, but not always, a thunderstorm watch or tornado watch will precede a warning. If a tornado warning is issued, based on Doppler weather radar, usually, if a thunderstorm is producing only weak rotation, it will only yield hazardous weather warranting a severe thunderstorm warning. However, the public will usually be advised that this type of rotation has been detected, or a similar reference in their severe thunderstorm warnings, usually when there is a tornado threat or especially when a tornado watch is in effect. Some storms, especially in the Great Plains, may produce massive hailstones the size of baseballs or larger which may fall fast enough to kill a person by repeated blunt trauma. Depending on the severity of the storm, some NWS offices may also request activation of the Emergency Alert System at their discretion. Examples of Severe Thunderstorm Warnings issued by the National Weather Service in the United States, EAST CENTRAL MADISON COUNTY IN CENTRAL MISSISSIPPI. NORTHEASTERN RANKIN COUNTY IN CENTRAL MISSISSIPPI, NORTHWESTERN SCOTT COUNTY IN CENTRAL MISSISSIPPI. * UNTIL615 PM CDT * AT510 PM CDT. A SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WAS LOCATED NEAR PISGAH. AND MOVING NORTHEAST AT35 MPH, HAZARD.60 MPH WIND GUSTS AND QUARTER SIZE HAIL. IMPACT. HAIL DAMAGE TO VEHICLES IS EXPECTED, EXPECT WIND DAMAGE TO ROOFS. SIDING AND TREES. * THE SEVERE THUNDERSTORM WILL BE NEAR, LEESBURG AND PISGAH AROUND515 PM CDT
15.
Tornado
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A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that spins while in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour, are about 250 feet across, the most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour, are more than two miles in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles. Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout, waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water and these spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes. Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is dissimilar. Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica, however, the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States, although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America. There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes, the Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, an F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes, Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating. The word tornado is a form of the Spanish word tronada. This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning to thunder and it most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar, however, this may be a folk etymology. A tornado is also referred to as a twister, and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone. The term cyclone is used as a synonym for tornado in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the term twister is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister. A tornado is a rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud. For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a definition of the word, for example. Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud and this results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel. There is some disagreement over the definition of cloud and condensation funnel
16.
Tornado watch
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See Severe weather terminology for a comprehensive article on related weather terms. A tornado watch is issued when conditions are favorable for the development of severe thunderstorms called a Supercell that are capable of producing tornadoes. A tornado watch therefore implies that it is also a severe thunderstorm watch, a tornado watch must not be confused with a tornado warning. In most cases, the potential exists for large hail and/or damaging winds in addition to tornadoes, a watch does not mean that the severe weather is actually occurring, only that atmospheric conditions have created a significant risk for it. If severe weather actually does occur, a warning or severe thunderstorm warning would then be issued. In the United States, the Storm Prediction Center issues watches for areas likely to produce tornadoes, for example,50 miles either side of a line from 10 miles northeast of Columbia, South Carolina to 15 miles south-southwest of Montgomery, Alabama. In addition, a list of all included in its area of responsibility is now issued by each NWS forecast office for each watch. A Watch Status Message works in a fashion, the SPC designates which areas it thinks where a threat still exists. TORNADOES. HAIL TO1 INCH IN DIAMETER. THUNDERSTORM WIND GUSTS TO70 MPH. AND DANGEROUS LIGHTNING ARE POSSIBLE IN THESE AREAS. THE TORNADO WATCH AREA IS APPROXIMATELY ALONG AND55 STATUTE MILES EAST AND WEST OF A LINE FROM15 MILES EAST OF ATLANTA GEORGIA TO30 MILES SOUTH SOUTHEAST OF CRESTVIEW FLORIDA, FOR A COMPLETE DEPICTION OF THE WATCH SEE THE ASSOCIATED WATCH OUTLINE UPDATE. REMEMBER. A TORNADO WATCH MEANS CONDITIONS ARE FAVORABLE FOR TORNADOES AND SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS IN AND CLOSE TO THE WATCH AREA, PERSONS IN THESE AREAS SHOULD BE ON THE LOOKOUT FOR THREATENING WEATHER CONDITIONS AND LISTEN FOR LATER STATEMENTS AND POSSIBLE WARNINGS. DISCUSSION. SQUALL LINE WITH EMBEDDED BOW ECHOES AND SUPERCELLS WILL CONTINUE EAST THROUGH SE AL. WRN AND CNTRL GA. AND THE FL PANHANDLE NEXT FEW HOURS. INSTABILITY IS MARGINAL AHEAD OF THE LINE. BUT MAY BE SUFFICIENT FOR A THREAT OF ISOLATED DAMAGING WIND AND PERHAPS ISOLATED TORNADOES GIVEN THE FAVORABLY SHEARED ENVIRONMENT, AVIATION. TORNADOES AND A FEW SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS WITH HAIL SURFACE AND ALOFT TO1 INCH. EXTREME TURBULENCE AND SURFACE WIND GUSTS TO60 KNOTS, a FEW CUMULONIMBI WITH MAXIMUM TOPS TO500. MEAN STORM MOTION VECTOR25035. NEW. KWNS. TO. A.0068. 090326T1225Z-090326T1800Z/ AL, ADJACENT COASTAL WATERS INCLUDED ARE COASTAL WATERS FROM APALACHICOLA TO DESTIN FL OUT20 NM ATTN. WFO. TAE. FFC. STATUS REPORT #1 ON WW68 VALID 261425Z - 261540Z SEVERE WEATHER THREAT CONTINUES RIGHT OF A LINE FROM20 ESE PNS TO30 N DHN TO15 E ATL. SPC. 03/26/09 ATTN. WFO. TAE. FFC
17.
Tornado warning
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A tornado warning is an alert issued by national weather forecasting agencies to warn the public that severe thunderstorms with tornadoes are imminent or occurring. It can be issued after a tornado, funnel cloud and rotation in the clouds has been spotted by the public, storm chasers, emergency management or law enforcement. When this happens, the tornado sirens may sound in that if any sirens are present. The issuance of a tornado warning indicates that residents should take immediate safety precautions and it is a higher level of alert than a tornado watch, but it can be surpassed by an even higher alert known as a tornado emergency. The first official tornado forecast – and tornado warning – was made by United States Air Force Capt. Robert C. Miller and Major Ernest Fawbush, on March 25,1948. S. Fawbush wrote the forecast message that Miller would type and issued it to base operations at 2,50 p. m. as thunderstorms were approaching from North Texas. Defying the high odds of two tornadoes hitting the area in five days, one hit the Tinker campus around 6,00 p. m. to the surprise of Miller. Miller and Fawbush would not put out another tornado forecast until March 25,1949, the relative accuracy of the forecasts restarted a debate over their reliability and whether military or civilian agencies should have jurisdiction over the issuance of weather warnings. The USAF had pioneered tornado forecasting and tornado warnings, although John P and this position on tornado forecasting would be shared with the U. S. In 1938, the Weather Bureau rescinded its ban on the usage of the tornado in weather products disseminated to emergency management personnel. The Bureau would develop a network of volunteer storm spotters in the early 1940s during World War II, to provide warning of tornadoes to workers in munitions plants, the ban on issuing tornado warnings to the general public would not be revoked until Chief of Bureau Francis W. Weather Bureau officials were displeased with his move, WKY-TV received numerous telephone calls, in theory, tornado alerts covered situations such as visible rotation in clouds and certain other phenomena which are portents of funnel cloud formation. With fewer false-positives, radar also helped reduce public confusion over storm types, strengths, the last tornado alert to be officially issued was discussed in earnest following the 1974 Super Outbreak. This category of weather statement is the highest and most urgent level relating to tornadoes, the first tornado emergency was declared on May 3,1999, when an F5 tornado struck southern portions of the Oklahoma City metropolitan area, causing major damage exceeding $1 billion. Those in the path of such a storm are urged to take cover immediately, a warning is different from a tornado watch which only indicates that conditions are favorable for the formation of tornadoes. Generally, a tornado warning indicates that the potential is there for severe straight-line winds and/or large hail from the thunderstorm. A severe thunderstorm warning can be upgraded suddenly to a warning should conditions warrant. Prior to October 2007, warnings were issued by the National Weather Service on a per-county basis, Tornado sirens are also usually activated for the affected areas if present
18.
Winter storm
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In temperate continental climates, these storms are not necessarily restricted to the winter season, but may occur in the late autumn and early spring as well. Very rarely, they may form in summer, though it would have to be a cold summer. Snowstorms are storms where large amounts of snow fall, two inches of snow is enough to create serious disruptions to traffic and school transport. This is particularly true in places where snowfall is not typical, snowfalls in excess of 6 inches are usually universally disruptive. A massive snowstorm with winds and other conditions meeting certain criteria is known as a blizzard. A large number of heavy snowstorms, some of which were blizzards, occurred in the United States during 1888 and 1947 as well as the early and mid-1990s. The snowfall of 1947 exceeded 2 feet with drifts and snow piles from plowing that reached 12 feet and for months, the 1993 Superstorm manifested as a blizzard in most of the affected areas. Large snowstorms could be dangerous, a 6 in snowstorm will make some unplowed roads impassable. Snowstorms exceeding 12 in especially in southern or generally warm climates will cave the roofs of some homes, standing dead trees can also be brought down by the weight of the snow, especially if it is wet or very dense. Even a few inches of dry snow can form drifts many feet high under windy conditions, snowstorms are usually considered less dangerous than ice storms. However, the snow can bring secondary dangers, mountain snowstorms can produce cornices and avalanches. An additional danger, following a winter, is spring flooding if the snow melts suddenly because of a dramatic rise in air temperature. Deaths can occur from hypothermia, infections brought on by frostbite or car accidents due to slippery roads, fires and carbon monoxide poisoning can occur after a storm causes a power outage. There are also cases of heart attacks caused by overexertion while shoveling heavy wet snow. It is difficult to predict what form this precipitation will take, therefore, weather forecasters just predict a wintry mix. Usually, this type of precipitation occurs at temperatures between −2 and 2 °C, snowstorms generally occur when different types of air masses in the mid-latitudes interact. These storms feed on differences in temperature and moisture, initially, a wave is typically formed in the mid levels of the atmosphere as a result of a variety of things, be it a mountain range, injection of vorticity, or several other reasons. The boundaries between the air masses constitute the warm and cold fronts of the new cyclone/storm, snowstorms that produce a lot of snow require an outside source of moisture, such as the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean in the United States
19.
Blizzard
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A blizzard is a severe snowstorm characterized by strong sustained winds of at least 35 mph and lasting for a prolonged period of time—typically three hours or more. A ground blizzard is a condition where snow is not falling but loose snow on the ground is lifted. In the United States, the National Weather Service defines a blizzard as a severe Snow storm characterized by strong winds causing blowing snow that results in low visibilities, the difference between a blizzard and a snowstorm is the strength of the wind, not the amount of snow. While severe cold and large amounts of drifting snow may accompany blizzards, Blizzards can bring whiteout conditions, and can paralyze regions for days at a time, particularly where snowfall is unusual or rare. A severe blizzard has winds over 72 km/h, near zero visibility, in Antarctica, blizzards are associated with winds spilling over the edge of the ice plateau at an average velocity of 160 km/h. Ground blizzard refers to a condition where loose snow or ice on the ground is lifted. The Australia Bureau of Meteorology describes a blizzard as, Violent and very cold wind which is laden with snow, some part, at least, Blizzard conditions of cold temperatures and strong winds can cause wind chill values that can result in hypothermia or frostbite. The wind chill factor is the amount of cooling the body feels due to the combination of wind. They are most common in the Great Plains, the Great Lakes states, and the states along the coast. Another storm system occurs when a cold core low over the Hudson Bay area in Canada is displaced southward over southeastern Canada, the Great Lakes, and New England. When the rapidly moving cold front collides with warmer air coming north from the Gulf of Mexico, strong winds, significant cold air advection. With few trees or other obstructions to wind and blowing. In a true whiteout there is no visible horizon, people can become lost in their own front yards, when the door is only 3 m away, and they would have to feel their way back. Motorists have to stop their cars where they are, as the road is impossible to see, a noreaster is a macro-scale storm along the upper East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada. It gets its name from the direction the wind is coming from, the term is most often used in the coastal areas of New England and Atlantic Canada. This type of storm has characteristics similar to a hurricane, more specifically it describes a low-pressure area whose center of rotation is just off the East Coast and whose leading winds in the left-forward quadrant rotate onto land from the northeast. High storm waves may sink ships at sea and cause coastal flooding, notable noreasters include The Great Blizzard of 1888, one of the worst blizzards in U. S. history. It dropped 100–130 cm of snow and had sustained winds of more than 45 miles per hour that produced snowdrifts in excess of 50 feet, railroads were shut down and people were confined to their houses for up to a week
20.
Lake-effect snow
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The same effect also occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores. This uplifting can produce narrow but very intense bands of precipitation, the areas affected by lake-effect snow are called snowbelts. A lake-effect blizzard is the blizzard-like conditions resulting from lake-effect snow, if the air temperature is low enough to keep the precipitation frozen, it falls as lake-effect snow. For lake-effect rain or snow to form, the air moving across the lake must be significantly cooler than the surface air. Specifically, the air temperature at an altitude where the air pressure is 850 millibars should be 13 °C lower than the temperature of the air at the surface. Lake-effect occurring when the air at 850 millibars is much colder than the surface can produce thundersnow, snow showers accompanied by lightning. A temperature difference of 13 °C between the temperature and the height in the atmosphere provides for absolute instability and allows vigorous heat. The distance that an air mass travels over a body of water is called fetch, because most lakes are irregular in shape, different angular degrees of travel will yield different distances, typically a fetch of at least 100 km is required to produce lake effect precipitation. Generally, the larger the fetch the more precipitation that will be produced, larger fetches provide the boundary layer with more time to become saturated with water vapor and for heat energy to move from the water to the air. If directional shear between the surface and the height in the atmosphere at which the pressure measures 700 mb is greater than 60 degrees. If the directional shear between the body of water and the height at which the pressure measures 700 mb is between 30 and 60 degrees, weak lake-effect bands are possible. In environments where the shear is less than 30 degrees, strong, speed shear is less critical, but should be relatively uniform. However, assuming the surface to 700 mb winds are uniform, an overall velocity will work to transport moisture quicker from the water. A lower upstream relative humidity will make it difficult and time consuming for lake effect condensation, clouds. The opposite is true if the moisture has a high relative humidity, allowing lake effect condensation, cloud and precipitation to form more readily. Any large body of water upwind will impact lake-effect precipitation to the lee of a lake by adding moisture or pre-existing lake-effect bands. Upwind lakes do not always lead to an increase of precipitation downwind, vorticity advection aloft and large upscale ascent help increase mixing and the convective depth, while cold air advection lowers the temperature and increases instability
21.
Snowsquall
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A snowsquall is a sudden moderately heavy snow fall with blowing snow and strong, gusty surface winds. It is often referred to as a whiteout and is similar to a blizzard but is localized in time or in location, there are two primary types of snowsqualls, lake effect and frontal. When arctic air moves over large expanses of open waters in winter. Whiteout conditions will affect narrow corridors from shores to inland areas aligned along the wind direction. This will be enhanced when the air mass is uplifted by higher elevations. The name originates from the Great Lakes area of North America, regions in lee of oceans, such as the Canadian Maritimes could experience such snowsqualls. The areas affected by lake-effect snow are called snowbelts and deposition rate of many inches of snow per hour are common in these situations, extremely cold air over still warm water in early winter can even produce thundersnow, snow showers accompanied by lightning and thunder. A frontal snowsquall is an intense frontal convective line, when temperature is near freezing at the surface, the strong convection that develops has enough moisture to produce whiteout conditions at places which line passes over as the wind causes intense blowing snow. This type of snowsquall generally lasts less than 30 minutes at any point along its path and this is similar to a line of thunderstorms in the summer but the tops of the clouds are only 5,000 to 10,000 feet, often difficult to see on radar. Forecasting these types of events is equivalent to summer severe weather forecast for squall lines, presence of a frontal trough with wind shift. However, the dome behind the trough is at 850 mbar instead of a higher level. In cases where there is an amount of vertical growth and mixing the squall may develop embedded cumulonimbus clouds resulting in lightning. Both types of snowsqualls are very dangerous for motorists and airplanes or generally any traveler unfortunate enough to get stuck in one, the change in conditions is very sudden, and slippery conditions and abrupt loss of visibility due to whiteouts often cause multiple-vehicle collisions. In the case of lake effect snow, heavy amounts of snow can accumulate in short periods of time, possibly causing road closures, for instance, on January 9,2015, a localized, heavy snow squall caused a 193-vehicle pile-up on I-94 highway near Galesburg, Michigan
22.
Ice storm
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An ice storm is a type of winter storm characterized by freezing rain, also known as a glaze event or, in some parts of the United States, as a silver thaw. The U. S. National Weather Service defines an ice storm as a storm results in the accumulation of at least 0. 25-inch of ice on exposed surfaces. From 1982 to 1994, ice storms were more common than blizzards and they are generally not violent storms but instead are commonly perceived as gentle rains occurring at temperatures just below freezing. The formation of ice begins with a layer of above-freezing air above a layer of sub-freezing temperatures closer to the surface, frozen precipitation melts to rain while falling into the warm air layer, and then begins to refreeze in the cold layer below. If the precipitate refreezes while still in the air, it will land on the ground as sleet, alternatively, the liquid droplets can continue to fall without freezing, passing through the cold air just above the surface. This thin layer of air then cools the rain to a temperature below freezing, however, the drops themselves do not freeze, a phenomenon called supercooling. When the supercooled drops strike ground or anything else below 0 °C, while meteorologists can predict when and where an ice storm will occur, some storms still occur with little or no warning. In the United States, most ice storms are in the part of the country. An ice storm in February 1994 resulted in ice accumulation as far south as Mississippi. More timber was damaged than that caused by Hurricane Camille, an ice storm in eastern Washington in November 1996 directly followed heavy snowfall. The combined weight of the snow and 25 to 37 millimeters of ice caused damage and was considered the most severe ice storm in the Spokane area since 1940. The freezing rain from an ice storm covers everything with heavy, in addition to hazardous driving or walking conditions, branches or even whole trees may break from the weight of ice. Falling branches can block roads, tear down power and telephone lines, even without falling trees and tree branches, the weight of the ice itself can easily snap power lines and also break and bring down power/utility poles, even electricity pylons with steel frames. This can leave people without power for anywhere from days to a month. According to most meteorologists, just one quarter of an inch of ice accumulation can add about 500 pounds of weight per line span, damage from ice storms is easily capable of shutting down entire metropolitan areas. Additionally, the loss of power during ice storms has indirectly caused numerous illnesses, at lower levels, CO poisoning causes symptoms such as nausea, dizziness, fatigue, and headache, but high levels can cause unconsciousness, heart failure, and death. The relatively high incidence of CO poisoning during ice storms occurs due to the use of methods of heating and cooking during prolonged power outages. Gas generators, charcoal and propane barbecues, and kerosene heaters contribute to CO poisoning when they operate in confined locations, CO is produced when appliances burn fuel without enough oxygen present, such as basements and other indoor locations
23.
Ice storm warning
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An Ice Storm Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when freezing rain produces a significant and possibly damaging accumulation of ice. A freezing rain advisory or freezing drizzle advisory will be issued when a small amount of icing is possible, in Canada, a Freezing Rain Warning has the same meaning. AT930 PM. RADAR INDICATED LIGHT TO MODERATE PRECIPITATION EXTENDING FROM OSCEOLA IN ST, CLAIR COUNTY TO NEOSHO IN NEWTON COUNTY. THIS BAND OF PRECIPITATION ALSO LIKELY CONTAINS EMBEDDED THUNDERSTORMS PRODUCING HEAVY PRECIPITATION, OTHER SCATTERED TO NUMEROUS SHOWERS AND ISOLATED THUNDERSTORMS WERE ALSO DEVELOPING ACROSS EAST CENTRAL OKLAHOMA AND SPREADING NORTHEAST TOWARDS SOUTH CENTRAL MISSOURI. MEANWHILE. THE FREEZING LINE CONTINUES TO SLOWLY PUSH SOUTHEAST THIS EVENING, AT9 PM. THE FREEZING LINE EXTENDED FROM BRANSON TO AVA IN DOUGLAS COUNTY TO JUST SOUTH OF SALEM IN DENT COUNTY. THE FREEZING LINE WILL NUDGE A BIT FARTHER TO THE SOUTH AND EAST OVERNIGHT BEFORE STALLING ROUGHLY ALONG A LINE FROM RUETER IN SOUTHEAST TANEY COUNTY TO WEST PLAINS TO WINONA IN SHANNON COUNTY, NORTH OF THIS LINE. ICE ACCUMULATIONS ARE LIKELY FROM TONIGHT INTO MONDAY MORNING. SIGNIFICANT ICE ACCUMULATIONS ARE EXPECTED NORTH OF A CASSVILLE IN BARRY COUNTY TO SPARTA IN CHRISTIAN COUNTY TO SALEM IN DENT COUNTY LINE, YET ANOTHER ROUND OF FREEZING RAIN IS AGAIN POSSIBLE MONDAY NIGHT INTO TUESDAY. KIMBERLING CITY. GALENA945 PM CST SUN DEC92007. ICE STORM WARNING REMAINS IN EFFECT UNTIL12 PM CST MONDAY. WINTER STORM WATCH REMAINS IN EFFECT FROM MONDAY AFTERNOON THROUGH TUESDAY AFTERNOON, AN ICE STORM WARNING REMAINS IN EFFECT UNTIL12 PM CST MONDAY. A WINTER STORM WATCH REMAINS IN EFFECT FROM MONDAY AFTERNOON THROUGH TUESDAY AFTERNOON, ADDITIONAL ICE ACCUMULATIONS FROM A QUARTER TO A HALF OF AN INCH WILL BE LIKELY TONIGHT INTO MONDAY MORNING. WITH LOCALIZED HIGHER AMOUNTS. ANOTHER ROUND OF PRECIPITATION WILL LIKELY SPREAD OVER THE REGION FROM MONDAY NIGHT INTO TUESDAY, UP TO ONE HALF OF AN INCH. WILL AGAIN BE POSSIBLE OVER PORTIONS OF THE MISSOURI OZARKS AND SOUTHEAST KANSAS. THE MOST LIKELY AREA FOR ADDITIONAL ICE ACCUMULATION WOULD BE NORTH OF INTERSTATE44, BUT THE EXACT LOCATION OF THE HEAVIEST ACCUMULATION REMAINS UNCLEAR. MAKE SURE YOU HAVE AN ADEQUATE SUPPLY OF FOOD, CHECK PRESCRIPTIONS TO ENSURE AN ADEQUATE SUPPLY THROUGH THE DURATION OF THE STORM. DO NOT RUN GENERATORS IN ENCLOSED AREAS, TRAVEL IS DISCOURAGED BUT IF NECESSARY. MAKE SURE YOUR CAR IS WINTERIZED AND IN GOOD WORKING ORDER AND CARRY ALONG A SAFETY SUPPLY KIT THAT INCLUDES FOOD. POWER OUTAGES AND THE ACCUMULATION OF ICE ON TRANSMITTERS MAY ALSO LEAD TO THE INTERRUPTION OF NOAA WEATHER RADIO BROADCASTS, DAVIS. THOMAS744 PM EST TUE JAN152013. ICE STORM WARNING REMAINS IN EFFECT UNTIL10 AM EST WEDNESDAY. * HAZARD TYPES. FREEZING RAIN. POSSIBLY BEGINNING AS A MIX WITH SLEET AND SNOW, * ICE ACCUMULATIONS. ONE QUARTER TO ONE HALF OF AN INCH OF ICE. * SLEET AND SNOW ACCUMULATIONS. LESS THAN ONE INCH, * TIMING. A WINTRY MIX OF FREEZING RAIN. SLEET. AND SNOW WILL DEVELOP BEFORE9 PM. AND CHANGE TO MOSTLY FREEZING RAIN THROUGH THE NIGHT. * LOCATIONS. ALL OF GARRETT COUNTY. AND PARTICULARLY THE EASTERN HALF OF TUCKER COUNTY, * IMPACTS. HAZARDOUS TRAVEL CONDITIONS ARE EXPECTED DUE TO ICE COVERED ROADS. POWER LINES MAY ALSO BE BROUGHT DOWN DUE TO ICE ACCUMULATION, AN ICE STORM WARNING MEANS THAT ICE ACCUMULATION WILL MAKE TRAVEL DANGEROUS OR IMPOSSIBLE
24.
Tropical cyclone
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Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane, typhoon /taɪˈfuːn/, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, and simply cyclone. A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean, a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface and this energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms, such as noreasters and European windstorms, which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts. The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of momentum imparted by the Earths rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, they form within 5° of the equator. Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km in diameter, Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclone refers to their nature, with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect, in addition to strong winds and rain, tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves, damaging storm surge, and tornadoes. They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their energy source. For this reason, coastal regions are vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions. Heavy rains, however, can cause significant flooding inland, though their effects on human populations are often devastating, tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes. Tropical cyclones are areas of low pressure in the troposphere. On Earth, the pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the lowest ever observed at sea level, the environment near the center of tropical cyclones is warmer than the surroundings at all altitudes, thus they are characterized as warm core systems. The near-surface wind field of a cyclone is characterized by air rotating rapidly around a center of circulation while also flowing radially inwards. At the outer edge of the storm, air may be nearly calm, however, due to the Earths rotation, as air flows radially inward, it begins to rotate cyclonically in order to conserve angular momentum. At an inner radius, air begins to ascend to the top of the troposphere and this radius is typically coincident with the inner radius of the eyewall, and has the strongest near-surface winds of the storm, consequently, it is known as the radius of maximum winds. Once aloft, air flows away from the center, producing a shield of cirrus clouds
