1.
Amateur flight simulation
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Amateur flight simulation refers to the simulation of various aspects of flight or the flight environment for purposes other than flight training or aircraft development. There is currently a significant community of simulation enthusiasts supported by commercial software packages, as well as commercial. Flight simulators were among the first types of programs to be developed for personal computers. Bruce Artwicks subLOGIC simulators were well known for the functionality they managed to get onto 8-bit machines, key computer game technologies such as 3D graphics, online play, and modding were first showcased in combat flight simulators such as Red Baron II and European Air War. The game world in flight simulators is often based on the real world, however, they are often confined to one part of the game world by invisible boundaries. In some games, the aircraft simply halts in midair, while other games force the player to turn around, however, many games solve this boundary problem by wrapping the game world as a sphere. Although these games strive for a deal of realism, they often simplify or abstract certain elements to reach a wider audience. Many modern fighter aircraft have hundreds of controls, and flight simulator games usually simplify these controls drastically, further, certain maneuvers can knock a pilot unconscious or rip their aircraft apart, but games do not always implement these concerns. A popular type of flight simulator are combat flight simulators, which simulate combat air operations from the pilot, Combat flight simulation titles are more numerous than civilian flight simulators due to variety of subject matter available and market demand. The advent of flight simulators as home video game entertainment has prompted many users to become airplane designers for these systems. As such, they may create both military or commercial airline airplanes, and they may use names of real life airlines. Many other home flight simulator users create fictional airlines, or virtual versions of real-world airlines and these modifications to a simulation generally add to the simulations realism and often grant a significantly expanded playing experience, with new situations and content. In some cases, a simulation is much further in regards to its features than was envisioned or intended by its original developers. One way that users of flight simulation software engage is through the internet, virtual pilots and virtual air traffic controllers take part in an online flying experience which attempts to simulate real-world aviation to a high degree. There are several networks where this sort of play is possible, virtual Skies provides a low barrier of entry allowing any level member to fly or control without worrying if something goes wrong. IVAOs ATC certification process is not as strict as VATSIMs, which allows for a number of controllers to be available. Both networks receive anywhere from 300 to 900 ATC and pilot connections, much rarer but still notable are flight simulators available for various game consoles. Successful examples of these are the Pilotwings series by Nintendo and the Ace Combat series by Namco, while generally not as complex as PC based simulators, console flight simulators can still be enjoyable to play, though their simulation status is disputed by many in the flight simulation community
2.
Microsoft Flight Simulator
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Microsoft Flight Simulator is a series of flight simulator programs, marketed as video games, for the Microsoft Windows, and earlier the MS-DOS, operating systems. It is one of the longest-running, best-known and most comprehensive home flight simulator programs on the market and it was an early product in the Microsoft application portfolio and differed significantly from Microsofts other software, which was largely business-oriented. At 25 years it is the software product line for Microsoft. Bruce Artwick began the development of the Flight Simulator in 1977 and his company, subLOGIC, initially distributed it for various personal computers. In 1981, Artwick was approached by Microsofts Alan M, in 1982, Artwicks company licensed a version of Flight Simulator for the IBM PC to Microsoft, which marketed it as Microsoft Flight Simulator 1.00. In 2009 Microsoft closed down the ACES Game Studio, which was the department responsible for creating and maintaining the flight simulator series, Dovetail Games also announced the release of Flight Simulator X, Gold Edition on Steam for late 2014, named Microsoft Flight Simulator X, Steam Edition. Microsoft Flight Simulator began as a set of written by Bruce Artwick in 1976 about a 3D computer graphics program. When the magazine said that subscribers wanted to buy the program, Bruce Artwick set to work to create it. The company began selling flight simulators for several platforms, including the 8080, Altair 8800. In 1979 subLOGIC released FS1 Flight Simulator for the Apple II, in 1980, subLOGIC released a version for the TRS-80, and in 1982 they licensed an IBM PC version with CGA graphics to Microsoft, which was released as Microsoft Flight Simulator 1.00. It was unusual in that it was not a program requiring an operating system, but contained its own operating system. In the early days of less-than-100% IBM PC compatible systems, Flight Simulator and Lotus 1-2-3 were used as unofficial compatibility test software for new PC clone models. SubLOGIC continued to develop for other platforms and ported Flight Simulator II to the Apple II in 1983, the Commodore 64, MSX and Atari 800 in 1984, and to the Amiga and Atari ST in 1986. Meanwhile, Bruce Artwick left subLOGIC and founded The Bruce Artwick Organization to continue his work on subsequent Microsoft releases, Microsoft Flight Simulator reached commercial maturity with version 3.1, and went on to encompass the use of 3D graphics and graphic hardware acceleration. Microsoft continued to produce versions of the flight simulation software, adding features, such as new aircraft types. The 2000 and 2002 versions were available in Standard and Professional editions, the 2004 release marked the celebration of one hundred years of powered flight and had only one edition. Flight Simulator X, released in 2006, returned to dual versions with a Standard, the flying area encompasses planet Earth with varying degrees of detail and includes over 24,000 airports. There is a growing list of scenery representing major landmarks
3.
Payerne
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Payerne is a municipality in the Swiss canton of Vaud. It was the seat of the district of Payerne, and is now part of the district of Broye-Vully, the earliest traces of settlements near Payerne include Neolithic objects and traces of a Bronze Age settlement. There are also burial mounds from the Hallstatt and Latène cultures, There was a Celtic bridge and a Roman era road in the area of Les Aventuri. There were Roman buildings within and outside the city walls, Roman cemeteries, during the Early Middle Ages, the village of Payerne first appeared. In 587, Bishop Marius built the villa Paterniacum and a Chapel to St. Mary in the village, the chapel later developed into a parish church. The present Gothic building was built in the 14th Century over Roman foundations and it was renovated in the 1990s. In the 10th Century, the Cluniac Payerne Priory was founded, in 1033, Emperor Conrad II was crowned as the King of Burgundy in the priory church. Payerne is first mentioned in 961 as ecclesie sancte Marie Paterniacensis though this comes from a 12th Century copy of the older document, in 1049 it was mentioned as in loco Paterniaco. The town was known by its German name Peterlingen. Before 1302 the prior granted the citizens the right to establish a council, in 1348 the council created a town charter which was formally recognized. The leader of the towns Council of Twelve also served as the mayor, in the 16th Century a second twelve-member council appeared, to handle trade disputes for which it was not necessary to call together all citizens and nobles. The citizenry and the monastery were often in conflict with each other, the town concluded treaties with Bern, Fribourg, the count of Neuchâtel and Murten. In 1362 a hospital was built in the town, in 1395, a schoolmaster was mentioned, and in 1449 there was a secondary school. After the conquest of Vaud in 1536, the town was granted a legal position by Bern. The Schultheiss, who represented the Bernese interests, was a citizen of Payern, the Schultheiss was subordinate to the town military leader, who was elected by the citizens. The Bannerherr chaired the sixty member council, which was divided into the Conseil Premier Douze, the Conseil Second-Douze, the Communauté included representative from the village of Corcelles and the surrounding hamlets. In 1769, the Council was reduced to 50 members, the City Council building of Payerne was built in 1572, and since 1964 has served as the seat of the District Court. Guillaume Farel and Pierre Viret began to preach the Protestant Reformation in 1532-33 in Payerne, the town adopted the new faith even before the conquest by Bern
4.
Flight
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Flight is the process by which an object moves, through an atmosphere or beyond it, as in the case of spaceflight. This can be achieved by generating lift, propulsive thrust, aerostatically using buoyancy. Many things fly, from natural aviators such as birds, bats and insects to human inventions such as missiles, aircraft such as airplanes, helicopters and balloons, to rockets such as spacecraft. Humans have managed to construct lighter than air vehicles that raise off the ground and fly, an aerostat is a system that remains aloft primarily through the use of buoyancy to give an aircraft the same overall density as air. Aerostats include free balloons, airships, and moored balloons, an aerostats main structural component is its envelope, a lightweight skin that encloses a volume of lifting gas to provide buoyancy, to which other components are attached. Aerostats are so named because they use aerostatic lift, a buoyant force that does not require movement through the surrounding air mass to effect a lifting force. By contrast, aerodynes primarily use aerodynamic lift, which requires the movement of at least some part of the aircraft through the surrounding air mass. Some things that fly do not generate propulsive thrust through the air, for example, some other things can exploit rising air to climb such as raptors and man-made sailplane gliders. However most other birds and all powered aircraft need a source of propulsion to climb, the only groups of living things that use powered flight are birds, insects, and bats, while many groups have evolved gliding. The extinct Pterosaurs, an order of reptiles contemporaneous with the dinosaurs, were very successful flying animals. Each of these groups wings evolved independently, bats are the only mammals capable of sustaining level flight. Flying frogs use greatly enlarged webbed feet for a similar purpose, flying snakes also use mobile ribs to flatten their body into an aerodynamic shape, with a back and forth motion much the same as they use on the ground. Flying fish can glide using enlarged wing-like fins, and have been observed soaring for hundreds of meters and it is thought that this ability was chosen by natural selection because it was an effective means of escape from underwater predators. The longest recorded flight of a fish was 45 seconds. Most birds fly, with some exceptions, the largest birds, the ostrich and the emu, are earthbound, as were the now-extinct dodos and the Phorusrhacids, which were the dominant predators of South America in the Cenozoic era. The non-flying penguins have wings adapted for use under water and use the same wing movements for swimming that most other birds use for flight, most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a lifestyle where flight would offer little advantage. Among living animals that fly, the wandering albatross has the greatest wingspan, up to 3.5 meters, most species of insects can fly as adults. Insect flight makes use of either of two basic models, creating a leading edge vortex, found in most insects, and using clap and fling
5.
Density of air
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The density of air is the mass per unit volume of Earths atmosphere. Air density, like air pressure, decreases with increasing altitude and it also changes with variation in temperature or humidity. At sea level and at 15 °C air has a density of approximately 1.225 kg/m3 according to ISA.058 J/ in SI units and this quantity may vary slightly depending on the molecular composition of air at a particular location. Therefore, At IUPAC standard temperature and pressure, dry air has a density of 1.2754 kg/m3, at 20 °C and 101.325 kPa, dry air has a density of 1.2041 kg/m3. At 70 °F and 14.696 psi, dry air has a density of 0.074887 lb/ft3 and this occurs because the molar mass of water is less than the molar mass of dry air. For any gas, at a temperature and pressure, the number of molecules present is constant for a particular volume. So when water molecules are added to a volume of air. Hence the mass per volume of the gas decreases. The density of air may be calculated as a mixture of ideal gases. In this case, the pressure of water vapor is known as the vapor pressure. One formula used to find the saturation pressure is, p s a t =6.1078 ×107.5 T T +237.3 where T = is in degrees C. Despite minor differences to define all formulations the predicted mass of dry air. Importantly, some of the examples are not normalized so that the composition is equal to unity, air Density Atmosphere of Earth International Standard Atmosphere U. S
6.
Flight training
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Flight training is a course of study used when learning to pilot an aircraft. The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight training is the acquisition, flight training consists of a combination of flight lessons given in the aircraft or a simulator and ground school, where theory is learned in preparation for the written examinations. Although there are types of aircraft, many of the principles of piloting them have common techniques. In addition to providing flight instructors, flight schools commonly rent aircraft to the students, the oldest flight training school still in existence is the Royal Air Forces Central Flying School formed in May 1912 at Upavon, United Kingdom. The oldest civil flight school still active in the world is based in Germany at the Wasserkuppe and it was founded as Mertens Fliegerschule. Its current name is Fliegerschule Wasserkuppe, pilot Training Compass, Back to the Future from European Cockpit Association
7.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
8.
Link Trainer
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During World War II, they were used as a key pilot training aid by almost every combatant nation. The original Link Trainer was created in 1929 out of the need for a way to teach new pilots how to fly by instruments. More than 500,000 US pilots were trained on Link simulators, as were pilots of nations as diverse as Australia, Canada, Germany, United Kingdom, Israel, Japan, Pakistan, and the USSR. Following WWII, Air Marshall Robert Leckie said “The Luftwaffe met its Waterloo on all the fields of the free world where there was a battery of Link Trainers. ”The Link Flight Trainer has been designated as a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The Link Company, now the Link Simulation & Training division of L3 Technologies, continues to make aerospace simulators, Edwin Link had developed a passion for flying in his boyhood years, but was not able to afford the high cost of flying lessons. So, upon leaving school in 1927, he started developing a simulator and his first pilot trainer, which debuted in 1929, resembled an overgrown toy airplane from the outside, with short wooden wings and fuselage mounted on a universal joint. Links first military sales came as a result of the Air Mail scandal, twelve pilots were killed in a 78-day period due to their unfamiliarity with Instrument Flying Conditions. The large scale loss of life prompted the Air Corps to look at a number of solutions, as a result, the Air Corps ordered the first six pilot trainers at $3,500 each. During the war years, Link produced over 10,000 Blue Boxes, several models of Link Trainers were sold in a period ranging from 1934 through to the late 1950s. These trainers kept pace with the instrumentation and flight dynamics of aircraft of their period. Trainers built from 1934 up to the early 1940s had a scheme that featured a bright blue fuselage and yellow wings. These wings and tail sections had control surfaces that actually moved in response to the movement of the rudder. However, many built during mid to late World War II did not have these wings and tail sections due to material shortages. The Pilot Maker was Links first model and it was an evolution of his 1929 prototype and was used in Mr. Links Link Flying School and later by other flying schools. During the Depression years versions of the Pilot Maker were also sold to amusement parks, in fact, his patent for the Pilot Maker was titled Combination Training Device for Student Aviators and Entertainment Apparatus. The most prolific version of the Link Trainer was the ANT-18, which was in its turn and this model was also produced in Canada for both the Royal Canadian Air Force and the Royal Air Force with a somewhat modified instrument panel, where its model designation was D2. It was used by countries for pilot training before and during the Second World War. It was fitted with a removable canopy, which could be used to simulate blind flying
9.
Edwin Albert Link
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Edwin Albert Link was a pioneer in aviation, underwater archaeology, and submersibles. He is best known for inventing the flight simulator, commercialized in 1929, called the Blue Box or Link Trainer, in total, he obtained more than 27 patents for aeronautics, navigation and oceanographic equipment. Edwin Link was born in Huntington, Indiana in 1904, the son of Edwin A. Link, Sr. in 1910, he moved with his family to Binghamton, New York. He took his first flying lesson in 1920, in 1927, he obtained the first Cessna airplane ever delivered and eked out a living by barnstorming, charter flying and giving lessons. As a young man, Edwin Link used apparatus from his fathers automatic piano, a punched roll and pneumatic system from a player piano controlled sequential lights on the lower surfaces of the wings to spell out messages like ENDICOTT-JOHNSON SHOES. To attract more attention, he added a set of small but loud organ pipes, in the 1920s, he developed the Link Trainer, a fuselage-like device with a cockpit and controls that produced the motions and sensations of flying. Much of the system was adapted directly from technology used in the organ factory. He formed the Link Aeronautical Corporation in 1929 to manufacture the trainers and his few early customers were amusement parks, not flight training schools, the early models served as amusement rides. Finally, in 1934, the United States Army Air Corps bought six, during World War II, more than half a million airmen were taught by the Link Trainer. Together with his wife Marion Clayton Link, whom he had married in 1931, Edwin Link managed the very successful Link Aviation, Inc. He contributed a great deal to the Binghamton, New York area, although the company later passed through different ownership, its legacy can be traced to the current L3 division known as Link Simulation and Training, now headquartered in Arlington, Texas. The field on which Greater Binghamton Airport lies is named after him, in 1953, Edwin and Marion Link established The Link Foundation. The foundation continues to provide grants and fellowships in aeronautics, simulation and training, ocean engineering, energy, after Link sold his company to General Precision in 1954, he addressed himself to underwater archeology and underwater research. Link worked at developing equipment for deeper, longer lasting and more secure diving, to this end he designed several submersible decompression chambers. This dive served as a test run for a dive the following month by Robert Sténuit, Sténuit and Lindbergh stayed in Links SPID habitat for 49 hours underwater at a depth of 432 feet, breathing a helium-oxygen mixture. Dr. Joseph B. MacInnis participated in this dive as a life support specialist, in March 1967, Link launched Deep Diver, the first small submersible designed for lockout diving, allowing divers to leave and enter the craft while underwater. Deep Diver carried out many missions in 1967 and 1968, including a 430-foot lockout dive in 1967. Dr. MacInnis participated in both of these dives as an observer in Deep Divers forward chamber, Link proceeded to design a new lockout sub with a distinctive acrylic bubble as the forward pilot/observer compartment
10.
Binghamton, New York
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Binghamton /ˈbɪŋəmtən/ is a city in, and the county seat of, Broome County, New York, United States. It lies in the states Southern Tier region near the Pennsylvania border, in a valley at the confluence of the Susquehanna. Binghamton is the city and cultural center of the Binghamton metropolitan area. The population of the city itself, according to the 2010 census, is 47,376. From the days of the railroad, Binghamton was a crossroads and a manufacturing center, and has been known at different times for the production of cigars, shoes. IBM was founded nearby, and the simulator was invented in the city, leading to a notable concentration of electronics-. This sustained economic prosperity earned Binghamton the moniker of the Valley of Opportunity, however, following cuts made by defense firms after the end of the Cold War, the region has lost a significant portion of its manufacturing industry. The city was named after William Bingham, a wealthy Philadelphian who bought the 10,000 acre patent for the land in 1786, then consisting of portions of the towns of Union, significant agricultural growth led to the incorporation of the village of Binghamton in 1834. The Chenango Canal, completed in 1837, connected Binghamton to the Erie Canal and this growth accelerated with the completion of the Erie Railroad between Binghamton and New York City in 1849. With the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad arriving soon after, several buildings of importance were built at this time, including the New York State Inebriate Asylum, opened in 1858 as the first center in the United States to treat alcoholism as a disease. Binghamton incorporated as a city in 1867, and due to the presence of several homes, was nicknamed the Parlor City. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many moved to the area. During the 1880s, Binghamton grew to become the second-largest manufacturer of cigars in the United States, however, by the early 1920s, the major employer of the region became Endicott Johnson, a shoe manufacturer whose development of welfare capitalism resulted in many amenities for local residents. An even larger influx of Europeans immigrated to Binghamton, and the working class prosperity resulted in the area being called the Valley of Opportunity, in 1913,31 people perished in the Binghamton Clothing Company fire, which resulted in numerous reforms to the New York fire code. Major floods in 1935 and 1936 resulted in a number of deaths, the floods were devastating, and resulted in the construction of flood walls along the length of the Susquehanna and Chenango Rivers. During the Second World War, growth and corporate generosity continued as IBM, along with Edwin Links invention of the flight simulator in Binghamton, IBM transitioned the region to a high-tech economy. Other major manufacturers included Ansco and General Electric, until the Cold War ended, the area never experienced an economic downfall, due in part to its defense-oriented industries. The population of the city of Binghamton peaked at around 85,000 in the mid-1950s, post-war suburban development led to a decline in the city population, as the towns of Vestal and Union experienced rapid growth
11.
Celestial Navigation
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Celestial navigation uses sights, or angular measurements taken between a celestial body and the visible horizon. The sun is most commonly used, but navigators can also use the moon, Celestial navigation is the use of angular measurements between celestial bodies and the visible horizon to locate ones position on the globe, on land as well as at sea. At a given time, any celestial body is located directly over one point on the Earths surface. The latitude and longitude of that point is known as the celestial body’s geographic position, the measured angle between the celestial body and the visible horizon is directly related to the distance between the celestial bodys GP and the observers position. Sights on two celestial bodies give two such lines on the chart, intersecting at the observers position, most navigators will use sights of three to five stars, if theyre available, since that will result in only one common intersection and minimize the chance for error. That premise is the basis for the most commonly used method of celestial navigation, there are several other methods of celestial navigation which will also provide position finding using sextant observations, such as the noon sight, and the more archaic lunar distance method. Joshua Slocum used the lunar distance method during the first ever recorded single-handed circumnavigation of the world, unlike the altitude-intercept method, the noon sight and lunar distance methods do not require accurate knowledge of time. An example illustrating the concept behind the method for determining one’s position is shown to the right. In the adjacent image, the two circles on the map represent lines of position for the Sun and Moon at 1200 GMT on October 29,2005. At this time, a navigator on a ship at sea measured the Moon to be 56 degrees above the horizon using a sextant, ten minutes later, the Sun was observed to be 40 degrees above the horizon. Lines of position were calculated and plotted for each of these observations. Since both the Sun and Moon were observed at their respective angles from the location, the navigator would have to be located at one of the two locations where the circles cross. In this case the navigator is either located on the Atlantic Ocean, about 350 nautical miles west of Madeira, or in South America, about 90 nautical miles southwest of Asunción, Paraguay. In most cases, determining which of the two intersections is the one is obvious to the observer because they are often thousands of miles apart. As it is unlikely that the ship is sailing across South America, note that the lines of position in the figure are distorted because of the map’s projection, they would be circular if plotted on a globe. Accurate angle measurement evolved over the years, one simple method is to hold the hand above the horizon with ones arm stretched out. The need for accurate measurements led to the development of a number of increasingly accurate instruments, including the kamal, astrolabe. Navigators measure distance on the globe in degrees, arcminutes and arcseconds, a nautical mile is defined as 1852 meters, but is also one minute of angle along a meridian on the Earth
12.
Bomber
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A bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry, firing torpedoes or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. In 1912, during the First Balkan War, Bulgarian Air Force pilot Christo Toprakchiev suggested the use of aircraft to drop bombs on Turkish positions, captain Simeon Petrov developed the idea and created several prototypes by adapting different types of grenades and increasing their payload. This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber, the first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T. B.8, both of 1913. The Bristol T. B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company, under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914. The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century, early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and these were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships, the Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a biplane with three 67 kW Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, the improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915. Bombing raids and interdiction operations were carried out by French. Sustained attacks with a view to interrupting the enemys railway communications, in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C. III, the Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the stages of the war. With engine power as a limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors. By the start of the war included, dive bomber — specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy. Light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber — subjective definitions based on size, torpedo bomber — specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes. Ground attack aircraft — aircraft used against targets on a such as troop or tank concentrations
13.
United Airlines
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United Continental Holdings, Inc. commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. It is the worlds third-largest airline when measured by revenue, operates a domestic and international route network. In the late 1920s, just prior to the use of the United Airlines name, The Boeing Company, currently one of the worlds largest aircraft manufacturers, United was previously known as United Air Lines. United is a member of Star Alliance, the worlds largest global airline alliance. Regional service is operated by independent carriers under the brand name United Express and its main competitors are American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines. United operates out of nine airline hubs located in Chicago, Denver, Guam, Houston, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chicago-OHare is Uniteds largest hub, both in terms of passengers carried annually and in terms of departures 181,488 in 2016) and this passed George Bush Intercontinental in Houston, which carried 15.5 million with 178,019 departures. The company employs over 86,000 people while maintaining its headquarters in Chicagos Willis Tower, through the airlines parent company, United Continental Holdings, it is publicly traded under NYSE, UAL with a market capitalization of over $18 billion as of September 2014. United operates maintenance bases in Cleveland and Orlando in addition to the maintenance locations located at Uniteds hubs, United Airlines traces its roots to the Varney Air Lines air mail service of Walter Varney, who also founded Varney Speed Lines from which Continental Airlines had originated. In 1927, aviation pioneer William Boeing founded his airline Boeing Air Transport to operate the San Francisco to Chicago air mail route, in 1933, United began operating the Boeing 247 airliner. It was able to fly a transcontinental flight in 20 hours, after passage of the Air Mail Act in 1934, UATC separated into United Aircraft, the Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. In 1954 United Airlines became the first airline to purchase modern flight simulators which had visual, sound, purchased for US$3 million from Curtiss-Wright, these were the first of todays modern flight simulators for training of commercial passenger aircraft pilots. United merged with Capital Airlines in 1961 and regained its position as the United States largest airline, in 1968, the company reorganized, creating UAL Corporation, with United Airlines as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1970, the UAL Corporation acquired Western International Hotels, the 1970s also saw economic turmoil, resulting in stagflation and labor unrest. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act, resulting in industry shakeups, further added to the difficulties in a loss-making period. In 1982, United became the first carrier to operate the Boeing 767, in May 1985, the airline underwent a 29-day pilot strike over managements proposed B-scale pilot pay rates. Making it one of two US carriers permitted exclusive access to Heathrow under Bermuda II until open skies took effect in 2008, the aftermath of the Gulf War and increased competition from low-cost carriers led to losses in 1991 and 1992. In 1995, United became the first airline to introduce the Boeing 777 in commercial service, in 1997, United co-founded the Star Alliance airline partnership
14.
Twinjet
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A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. As of today, there are three most common configurations of twinjet aircraft, the first has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing, usually for standard narrow-body and wide-body airliners. The second has one engine mounted on each side of the fuselage, close to its empennage. The first twinjet ever to fly was the April 1941-debuted German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280, the twinjet configuration was originally suitable for the short-range narrow-body such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. The MD-11s long range advantage was brief as it was nullified by the Airbus A330s four-engine derivative, the Airbus A340. The Boeing 737 twinjet stands out as the most produced jet airliner, the Boeing 777 is the worlds largest twinjet, and the 777-200LR variant is the worlds longest range airliner. Other Boeing twinjets include the 767,757 and 787, competitor Airbus produces the A320 family, the A330, and the A350. Some modern commercial airplanes still use four engines like the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8, four engines are still used on the largest cargo aircraft capable of transporting outsize cargo, including strategic airlifters. There are plans to revive production of 6 engine giants like the Antonov An-225 Mriya, twin jets tend to be more fuel-efficient than trijet and quad-jet aircraft. As fuel efficiency in airliners is a priority, many airlines are increasingly retiring trijet and quad-jet designs in favor of twinjets since the 2000s. The trijet designs were phased out first, in due to the more complicated design. One of the reasons for the jets is cost of the engines itself which make up a significant proportion of the planes final cost. Each engine also require service, paperwork, and certificates, so fewer engines means less to repair or replace and this is also the reason why private aviation generally consists of aircraft with only 1-2 engines. The stability and fewer errors of modern engines leads naturally to as few engines as possible, when flying far from diversionary airports, the aircraft must be able to reach an alternate on the remaining engine within a specified time in case of one engine failure. When aircraft are certified according to ETOPS standards, thrust is not an issue, mostly, ETOPS certification involves maintenance and design requirements ensuring that a failure of one engine cannot make the other one fail also. The engines and related systems need to be independent and independently maintained, ETOPS/LROPS is often incorrectly thought to apply only to long overwater flights, but it applies to any flight more than a specified distances from an available diversion airport. Overwater flights near diversion airports need not be ETOPS/LROPS-compliant, in other words, a fully laden twinjet must be able to climb on one engine. Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate Transatlantic flight, on a nonstop flight from America to Asia the long-range aircraft usually follows the great circle route
15.
Grumman S-2 Tracker
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The Grumman S-2 Tracker was the first purpose-built, single airframe anti-submarine warfare aircraft to enter service with the U. S. Navy. Designed and initially built by Grumman, the Tracker was of conventional design with twin reciprocating propeller engines, the type was exported to a number of navies around the world. Argentina and Brazil are the last countries to use the Tracker. The Tracker combined both functions in one aircraft, grummans design was for a large high-wing monoplane with twin Wright Cyclone R-1820 nine cylinder radial engines, a yoke type arrestor hook and a crew of four. Both the two prototypes XS2F-1 and 15 production aircraft, S2F-1 were ordered at the time, on 30 June 1950. The first flight was conducted on 4 December 1952, and production aircraft entered service with VS-26, follow-on versions included the WF Tracer and TF Trader, which became the Grumman E-1 Tracer and Grumman C-1 Trader in the tri-service designation standardization of 1962. The S-2 carried the nickname Stoof throughout its career. At least 99 and possibly 100 aircraft carrying the CS2F designation were manufactured in Canada under license by de Havilland Canada, U. S. -built versions of the Tracker were sold to various nations, including Australia, Japan, Turkey and Taiwan. The Tracker carried an internal torpedo bay capable of carrying two torpedoes or one nuclear depth charge. There were six underwing hard points for rocket pods and conventional depth charges or up to four additional torpedoes, a ventrally mounted retractable radome for AN/APS-38 radar and a Magnetic Anomaly Detector AN/ASQ-8 mounted on an extendable rear mounted boom were also fitted. Early model Trackers had an Electronic Surveillance Measures pod mounted dorsally just aft of the front seat overhead hatches and were fitted with a smoke particle detector or sniffer. Later S-2s had the sniffer removed and had the ESM antennae moved to four rounded extensions on the wingtips, a 70 million candlepower searchlight was mounted on the starboard wing. The engine nacelles carried JEZEBEL sonobouys in the rear, smoke dispensers were mounted on the port ventral surface of the nacelles in groups of three each. The Tracker was eventually superseded in U. S. military service by the Lockheed S-3 Viking, the last Navy S-2 was withdrawn from service on 29 August 1976. For many years the TS-2A version of the Tracker was used by U. S, a number of Trackers live on as firefighting aircraft while the design also continued to provide excellent service with the naval forces of other countries for years after the U. S. retired them. For example, the Royal Australian Navy continued to use Trackers as front line ASW assets until the mid-1980s, the Argentine Naval Aviation received seven S-2A in 1962, six S-2E in 1978 and three S-2G in the 1990s. They were used both aircraft carriers, ARA Independencia and ARA Veinticinco de Mayo and used in the COD, Maritime Patrol. In the 1990s, six remaining airframes where refurbished by Israel Aerospace Industries with turboprop engines as S-2T Turbo Trackers, between 1967 and 1984 the Royal Australian Navy operated two Squadrons of S-2E and S-2G variants, based at NAS Nowra
16.
Collimated light
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Collimated light is light whose rays are parallel, and therefore will spread minimally as it propagates. A perfectly collimated beam, with no divergence, would not disperse with distance, such a beam cannot be created, due to diffraction. Light can be collimated by a number of processes, for instance by means of a collimator. Perfectly collimated light is said to be focused at infinity. Thus, as the distance from a point source increases, the spherical wavefronts become flatter and closer to plane waves, the word collimate comes from the Latin verb collimare, which originated in a misreading of collineare, to direct in a straight line. In practice, gas lasers can use concave mirrors, flat mirrors, the divergence of high-quality laser beams is commonly less than 1 milliradian, and can be much less for large-diameter beams. Laser diodes emit less-collimated light due to their short cavity, synchrotron light is very well collimated. It is produced by bending relativistic electrons around a circular track, when the electrons are at relativistic speeds, the resulting radiation is highly collimated, a result which does not occur at slower speeds. The light from stars can be considered collimated for almost any purpose, because they are so far away they have almost no angular size, light from the Sun is nearly collimated by the time it reaches Earth because of its distance from the Earth. A perfect parabolic mirror will bring parallel rays to a focus at a single point, conversely, a point source at the focus of a parabolic mirror will produce a beam of collimated light creating a Collimator. Since the source needs to be small, such a system cannot produce much optical power. Spherical mirrors are easier to make than parabolic mirrors and they are used to produce approximately collimated light. Many types of lenses can also produce collimated light from point-like sources and this principle is used in full flight simulators, that have specially designed systems for displaying imagery of the Out-The-Window scene to the pilots in the replica aircraft cabin. Collimation refers to all the elements in an instrument being on their designed optical axis. It also refers to the process of adjusting an optical instrument so that all its elements are on that designed axis. With regards to a telescope, the term refers to the fact that the axis of each optical component should be centered and parallel. Most amateur reflector telescopes need to be re-collimated every few years to maintain optimum performance, collimation can also be tested using a shearing interferometer, which is often used to test laser collimation. Decollimation is any mechanism or process which causes a beam with the minimum possible ray divergence to diverge or converge from parallelism, decollimation must be accounted for to fully treat many systems such as radio, radar, sonar, and optical communications
17.
Stewart platform
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Devices placed on the top plate can be moved in the six degrees of freedom in which it is possible for a freely-suspended body to move. These are the three linear movements x, y, z, and the three rotations pitch, roll, & yaw, the terms six-axis or 6-DoF platform are also used, also synergistic. Although the short title Stewart Platform is now used for this jack layout, to be more precise, the original Stewart platform had a slightly different design. See the more detailed references at the end of this article, because the device has six jacks, it is often also known as a hexapod. The trademarked name hexapod was originally for Stewart platforms used in machine tools, however, the term is now used for 6-jack platforms outside of the machine tool area, since it simply means six legs. The Stewart platform design is used in flight simulation, particularly in the so-called full flight simulator for which all 6 degrees of freedom are required. In this role, the payload is a replica cockpit and a display system, normally of several channels. Payload weights in the case of a flight simulator for a large transport aircraft can be up to about 15,000 kilogrammes. Similar platforms are used in driving simulators, typically mounted on large x-y tables to simulate short term acceleration, long term acceleration can be simulated by tilting the platform, and an active research area is how to mix the two. James S. Albus of the National Institute of Standards and Technology developed the RoboCrane, the Low impact docking system developed by NASA uses a Stewart platform to manipulate space vehicles during the docking process. The Computer Assisted Rehabilitation Environment developed by Motek Medical uses a Stewart platform coupled with virtual reality to do advanced biomechanical and clinical research, dr. J. Eric Gough was an automotive engineer and worked at Fort Dunlop, the Dunlop Tyres factory in Birmingham, England. He developed his Universal Tyre-Testing Machine in the 1950s and his platform was operational by 1954, the rig was able to mechanically test tyres under combined loads. Dr. Gough died in 1972 but his testing rig continued to be used up until the late 1980s when the factory was closed down and his rig was saved and transported to the Science Museum storage facility at Wroughton near Swindon. Parallel manipulator Robot kinematics Acceleration onset cueing Linear actuator Bonev, I. A, the True Origins of Parallel Robots, ParalleMIC online review Pictures of the NIST/Ingersoll prototype octahedral hexapod Hexapod Structures for Surgery Hexapod for Astronomy
18.
Ames Research Center
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Ames Research Center, also known as NASA Ames, is a major NASA research center at Moffett Federal Airfield in Californias Silicon Valley. It was founded as the second National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics laboratory and that agency was dissolved and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration on October 1,1958. NASA Ames is named in honor of Joseph Sweetman Ames, a physicist, at last estimate NASA Ames has over US$3.0 billion in capital equipment,2,300 research personnel and a US$860 million annual budget. Ames was founded to conduct research on the aerodynamics of propeller-driven aircraft, however, its role has expanded to encompass spaceflight. Ames plays a role in many NASA missions, Ames also develops tools for a safer, more efficient national airspace. The centers current director is Eugene Tu, the site is mission center for several key current missions and a major contributor to the new exploration focus as a participant in the Orion crew exploration vehicle. Although Ames is a NASA Research Center, and not a center, it has nevertheless been closely involved in a number of astronomy. The Pioneer programs eight successful missions from 1965 to 1978 were managed by Charles Hall at Ames. By 1972, it supported the bold flyby missions to Jupiter and Saturn with Pioneer 10 and those two missions were trail blazers for the planners of the more complex Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 missions, launched five years later. In 1978, the end of the program brought about a return to the solar system, with the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Multiprobe. Lunar Prospector was the mission selected by NASA for full development. Based on Lunar Prospector Neutron Spectrometer data, mission scientists have determined that there is indeed water ice in the craters of the Moon. The 11-pound GeneSat-1, carrying bacteria inside a laboratory, was launched on December 16,2006. The very small NASA satellite has proven that scientists can quickly design, the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite mission to look for water on the moon was a secondary payload spacecraft. LCROSS began its trip to the moon on the rocket as the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. It launched in April 2009 on an Atlas V rocket from Kennedy Space Center, the Kepler mission is NASAs first mission capable of finding Earth-size and smaller planets. The Kepler mission will monitor the brightness of stars to find planets that pass in front of them during the planets orbits, during such passes or transits, the planets will slightly decrease the stars brightness. Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy is a joint venture of the U. S, the aircraft is supplied by the U. S. and the infrared telescope by Germany
19.
Pilot-induced oscillation
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An aircraft in such a condition can appear to be porpoising switching between upward and downward directions. As such it is a coupling of the frequency of the pilots inputs, during flight test, pilot-induced oscillation is one of the handling qualities factors that is analyzed, with the aircraft being graded by an established scale. In order to avoid any assumption that oscillation is necessarily the fault of the pilot and these include aircraft-pilot coupling, pilot–in-the-loop oscillations and pilot-assisted oscillations. In a controls sense, the oscillation is the result of reduced phase margin induced by the lag of the pilots response, the physics of flight make such oscillations more probable for pilots than for automobile drivers. An attempt to cause the aircraft to climb, say, by applying up-elevator, another factor is the response rate of flight instruments in comparison to the response rate of the aircraft itself. An increase in power will not result in an increase in airspeed. An increase in climb rate will not show up immediately on the speed indicator. A pilot aiming for a 500 foot per minute descent, for example and he begins to apply up elevator until the vertical speed indicator shows 500 feet per minute. However, because the speed indicator lags the actual vertical speed. The pilot then begins applying down elevator until the speed indicator reads 500 feet per minute. Its harder than it might seem to stabilize the speed because the airspeed also constantly changes. Pilot-induced oscillations may be the fault of the aircraft, the pilot and it is a common problem for inexperienced pilots, and especially student pilots, although it was also a problem for the top research test pilots on the NASA lifting body program. The problem is most acute when the wing and tail section are close together in so called short coupled aircraft, the most dangerous pilot-induced oscillations can occur during landing. Too much up elevator during the flare can result in the plane getting dangerously slow, a natural reaction to this is to push the nose down harder than one pulled it up, but then the pilot ends up staring at the ground. An even larger amount of up elevator starts the cycle over again, while Pilot-Induced oscillations often start with fairly low amplitudes, which can adequately be treated with small perturbation linear theory, several PIOs will by definition become very large. In February 1989 a JAS39 Gripen prototype crashed when landing in Linköping, pilot-induced oscillation as a result of an over-sensitive, yet slow-response steering system was determined to be the cause. Subsequently, the system was redesigned. Pilot-induced oscillation was blamed for the 1992 crash of the prototype F-22 Raptor and this crash was linked to actuator rate limiting, causing the pilot, Tom Morgenfeld, to overcompensate for pitch fluctuations
20.
Simulation video game
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A simulation video game describes a diverse super-category of video games, generally designed to closely simulate real world activities. A simulation game attempts to copy various activities from real life in the form of a game for purposes such as training, analysis. Usually there are no strictly defined goals in the game, with players allowed to freely control a character. Well-known examples are war games, business games, and role play simulation, comparisons of the merits of simulation games versus other teaching techniques have been carried out by many researchers and a number of comprehensive reviews have been published. While many credit simulation games beginning with Will Wright and SimCity in 1989, certain games such as SimLife and SimEarth were subsequently created and are capable of teaching players the basics of genetics and global ecosystems. In a study where adolescents played SimCity 2000, the found that those participants who played the game had a greater appreciation and expectation of their government officials after playing. Construction and management simulation is a type of game in which players build. Strategy games sometimes incorporate CMS aspects into their economy, as players must manage resources while expanding their project. But pure CMS games differ from games in that the players goal is not to defeat an enemy. Games in this category are also called management games. Life simulation games is a subgenre of video games in which the player lives or controls one or more artificial lifeforms. A life simulation game can revolve around individuals and relationships, or it could be a simulation of an ecosystem, a sports game is a video game that simulates the playing of sports. Most sports have been recreated with a game, including sports, athletics. Some games emphasize playing the sport, whilst others emphasize strategy, some, such as Arch Rivals, satirize the sport for comic effect. This genre has been throughout the history of video games and is competitive. A number of game series feature the names and characteristics of real teams and players, dating sims focuses on dating as the principal theme. In medical simulation games, players take the role of a surgeon and this includes the Trauma Center and LifeSigns series. In photography simulation games, players take photographs of animals or people and this includes games such as Pokémon Snap and Afrika
21.
Space flight simulation game
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A space flight simulation game is a genre of flight simulator video games that lets players experience space flight. Examples of true simulators which aim at piloting a craft in a manner that conforms with the laws of nature include Orbiter, Kerbal Space Program. Space flight games and simulators, at one time popular, had for most of the new millennium been considered a dead genre. Some more recent games, most notably Star Citizen, Elite, Dangerous, others focus on gameplay rather than simulating space flight in all its facets. The realism of the games is limited to what the game designer deems to be appropriate for the gameplay. Most of the pseudo simulators feature faster than light travel, realistic space simulators seek to represent a vessels behaviour under the influence of the Laws of Physics. As such, the player concentrates on following checklists or planning tasks. Piloting is generally limited to dockings, landings or orbital maneuvers, the reward for the player is on mastering real or realistic spacecraft, celestial mechanics and astronautics. Classical games with this approach include Space Shuttle, A Journey into Space, Rendezvous, A Space Shuttle Simulation, The Halley Project, Shuttle and Microsoft Space Simulator. If the definition is expanded to include making and planning, then Buzz Aldrins Race Into Space is also notable for historical accuracy. On this game the player takes the role of Administrator of NASA or Head of the Soviet Space Program with the goal of being the first side to conduct a successful manned moon landing. Most recently Orbiter and Space Shuttle Mission 2007 provide more elaborate simulations, with realistic 3D virtual cockpits, Kerbal Space Program can be considered a space simulator, even though it portrays an imaginary universe with tweaked physics, masses and distances to enhance gameplay. Nevertheless, the physics and rocket design principles are more realistic than in the space combat or trading subgenres. The game Lunar Flight simulates flying around the surface in a craft resembling the Apollo Lunar Module. Most games in the space combat genre feature futuristic scenarios involving space flight, the prominent Wing Commander, Tachyon, The Fringe, X-Wing and Freespace series all use this approach. Exceptions include the first Independence War and the Star Trek, Bridge Commander series and it should be noted that I-War also features Newtonian style physics for the behaviour of the space craft, but not orbital mechanics. Space combat games tend to be mission-based, as opposed to the more open-ended nature of space trading, the ship the player controls is generally larger than that in pure space combat simulator. Notable examples of the genre include Elite, Wing Commander, Privateer, in some instances, plot plays only a limited role and only a loose narrative framework tends to be provided
22.
FlightSimCon
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FlightSimCon is an annual aviation and flight simulation conference held on the grounds of Hartfords Bradley International Airport, just north of Hartford, Connecticut. Until 2016, the event was held at the nearby New England Air Museum, the event has grown in size every year since its inception, from about 40 attendees in 2013 to over 320 in 2015. FlightSimCon 2016 was the fourth annual FlightSimCon event, and was held June 11–12,2016, FlightSimCon 2016 saw over 520 people attend the event. FlightSimCon 2017 is scheduled for June 10-11,2017, the first FlightSimCon was held in March 2013 in downtown Hartford, Connecticut. For FlightSimCon 2014, the event was moved just north of Hartford to the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, as of 2016, FlightSimCon is the only flight simulation-focused conference in North America. The event has a focus on flight simulation, specifically Microsoft Flight Simulator X and X-Plane Notable speakers have included PMDGs Robert Randazzo
23.
Federal Aviation Administration
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The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. The FAAs roles include, Regulating U. S, each LOB has a specific role within the FAA. Airports — plans and develops projects involving airports, overseeing their construction, Air Traffic Organization — primary duty is to safely and efficiently move air traffic within the National Airspace System. ATO employees manage air traffic facilities including Airport Traffic Control Towers, Aviation Safety — Responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Commercial Space Transportation — ensures protection of U. S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles, the FAA is headquartered in Washington, D. C. as well as the William J. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, in fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the system of lighted airways. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control along the airways, in 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency. The legislation also expanded the role by giving them the authority. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Civil Aeronautics Board, CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines, the CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency, on the eve of Americas entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war, the application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions and this legislation gave the CAAs functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, the FAAs first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower
24.
Popular Science
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Popular Science is an American bi-monthly magazine carrying popular science content, which refers to articles for the general reader on science and technology subjects. Popular Science has won over 58 awards, including the American Society of Magazine Editors awards for its excellence in both 2003 and 2004. With roots beginning in 1872, PopSci has been translated into over 30 languages and is distributed to at least 45 countries. The Popular Science Monthly, as the publication was called, was founded in May 1872 by Edward L. Youmans to disseminate scientific knowledge to the educated layman. Youmans had previously worked as an editor for the weekly Appletons Journal, early issues were mostly reprints of English periodicals. William Jay Youmans, Edwards brother, helped found Popular Science Monthly in 1872 and was an editor as well and he became editor-in-chief on Edwards death in 1887. The publisher, D. Appleton & Company, was forced for economic reasons to sell the journal in 1900, james McKeen Cattell became the editor in 1900 and the publisher in 1901. Cattell had a background in academics and continued publishing articles for educated readers, by 1915 the readership was declining and publishing a science journal was a financial challenge. The existing journal would continue the tradition as Scientific Monthly. Existing subscribers would remain subscribed under the new name, Scientific Monthly was published until 1958 when it was absorbed into Science. The Modern Publishing Company acquired the Popular Science Monthly name and this company had purchased Electrician and Mechanic magazine in 1914 and over the next two years merged several magazines together into a science magazine for a general audience. The October 1915 issue was titled Popular Science Monthly and Worlds Advance, the volume number was that of Popular Science but the content was that of Worlds Advance. The new editor was Waldemar Kaempffert, an editor of Scientific American. The change in Popular Science Monthly was dramatic, the old version was a scholarly journal that had eight to ten articles in a 100-page issue. There would be ten to twenty photographs or illustrations, the new version had hundreds of short, easy to read articles with hundreds of illustrations. Editor Kaempffert was writing for the craftsman and hobbyist who wanted to know something about the world of science. The circulation doubled in the first year, from the mid-1930s to the 1960s, the magazine featured fictional stories of Gus Wilsons Model Garage, centered on car problems. An annual review of changes to the new model year cars ran in 1940 and 41 and it continued until the mid-1970s when the magazine reverted to publishing the new models over multiple issues as information became available
25.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Beat 'em up
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Beat em up is a video game genre featuring hand-to-hand combat between the protagonist and an improbably large number of opponents. These games typically take place in settings and feature crime-fighting and revenge-based plots, though some games may employ historical. Traditional beat em ups take place in scrolling, two-dimensional levels and these games are noted for their simple gameplay, a source of both critical acclaim and derision. Two-player cooperative gameplay and multiple characters are also hallmarks of the genre. The first influential beat em up was 1984s Kung-Fu Master, with 1986s Renegade introducing the urban settings, Games such as Streets of Rage, Final Fight and Golden Axe are other classics to emerge from this period. The genre has been popular since the emergence of 3D-based mass-market games. A beat em up is a type of game where the player character must fight a large number of enemies in unarmed combat or with melee weapons. Gameplay consists of walking through a level, one section at a time, defeating a group of enemies before advancing to the next section, however arcade versions of these games are often quite difficult to win, causing players to spend more money to try to win. Beat em ups are related to—but distinct from—fighting games, which are based around one-on-one matches rather than scrolling levels, such terminology is loosely applied, however, as some commentators prefer to conflate the two terms. At times, both one-on-one fighting games and scrolling beat em ups have influenced each other in terms of graphics and style, occasionally, a game will feature both kinds of gameplay. Beat em up games usually employ vigilante crime fighting and revenge plots with the taking place on city streets, though historical. Players must walk from one end of the world to the other. Some later beat em ups dispense with 2D-based scrolling levels, instead allowing the player to roam around larger 3D environments, though they retain the simple gameplay. Throughout the level, players may acquire weapons that they can use as well as power-ups that replenish the players health, as players walk through the level, they are stopped by groups of enemies who must be defeated before they can continue. The level ends when all the enemies are defeated, each level contains many identical groups of enemies, making these games notable for their repetition. In beat em up games, players fight a boss—an enemy much stronger than the other enemies—at the end of each level. Beat em ups often allow the player to choose between a selection of protagonists—each with their own strengths, weaknesses, and set of moves, attacks can include rapid combinations of basic attacks as well as jumping and grappling attacks. Characters often have their own attacks, which leads to different strategies depending on which character the player selects
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Fighting game
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A fighting game is a video game genre in which the player controls an on-screen character and engages in close combat with an opponent, which can be either an AI or controlled by another player. The fight matches typically consist of several rounds and take place in an arena, while each character has widely differing abilities, players must master techniques such as blocking, counter-attacking, and chaining attacks together into combos. Since the early 1990s, most fighting games allow the player to special attacks by performing specific input combinations. The fighting game genre is related to but distinct from beat em ups, the first video game to feature fist fighting was arcade game Heavyweight Champ in 1976, but it was Karate Champ which popularized one-on-one martial arts games in arcades in 1984. In 1985, Yie Ar Kung-Fu featured antagonists with differing fighting styles, in 1987, Street Fighter introduced hidden special attacks. In 1991, Capcoms highly successful Street Fighter II refined and popularized many of the conventions of the genre, the fighting game subsequently became the preeminent genre for competitive video gaming in the early to mid-1990s, particularly in arcades. Fighting games are a type of game where two on-screen characters fight each other. These games typically feature special moves that are triggered using rapid sequences of carefully timed button presses, games traditionally show fighters from a side-view, even as the genre has progressed from two-dimensional to three-dimensional graphics. Fighting games typically involve hand-to-hand combat, but may also feature melee weapons and this genre is distinct from beat em ups, another action genre involving combat, where the player character must fight many weaker enemies at the same time. During the 1980s publications used the fighting game and beat em up interchangeably. With hindsight, critics have argued that the two types of game gradually became dichotomous as they evolved, though the two terms may still be conflated, Fighting games are sometimes grouped with games that feature boxing, UFC, or wrestling. As such, boxing games, mixed martial arts games, and wrestling games are described as distinct genres, without comparison to fighting games. Fighting games involve combat between pairs of fighters using highly exaggerated martial arts moves and they typically revolve around primarily brawling or combat sport, though some variations feature weaponry. Games usually display on-screen fighters from a view, and even 3D fighting games play largely within a 2D plane of motion. Games usually confine characters to moving left and right and jumping, although some such as Fatal Fury. Recent games tend to be rendered in three dimensions and allow side-stepping, but otherwise play like those rendered in two dimensions, aside from moving around a restricted space, fighting games limit the players actions to different offensive and defensive maneuvers. Players must learn which attacks and defenses are effective against each other, often by trial, blocking is a basic technique that allows a player to defend against attacks. Some games feature more advanced blocking techniques, for example, Capcoms Street Fighter III features a move termed parrying which causes the attacker to become momentarily incapacitated, in addition to blows such as punches and kicks, players can utilize throwing or grappling to circumvent blocks
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Platform game
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A platform game is a video game which involves guiding an avatar to jump between suspended platforms and/or over obstacles to advance the game. The player controls the jumps to avoid letting the avatar fall from platforms or miss necessary jumps, the most common unifying element of games of this genre is the jump button, but now there are other alternative like swiping in touchscreen. Jumping, in genre, may include swinging from extendable arms, as in Ristar or Bionic Commando, or bouncing from springboards or trampolines. These mechanics, even in the context of genres, are commonly called platforming. Games where jumping is automated completely, such as 3D games in The Legend of Zelda series, Platform games originated in the early 1980s, with 3D successors popularized in the mid-1990s. The term itself describes games where jumping on platforms is an part of the gameplay and came into use after the genre had been established. While commonly associated with gaming, there have been many important platform games released to video arcades, as well as for handheld game consoles. North America, Europe and Japan have played major parts in the genres evolution, Platform themes range from cartoon-like games to science fiction and fantasy epics. At one point, platform games were the most popular genre of video game, at the peak of their popularity, it is estimated that between one-quarter and one-third of console games were platformers. No genre either before or since has been able to achieve a market share. Since 2010, a variety of endless running platformers for mobile devices have brought renewed popularity to the genre, Platform games originated in the early 1980s. Because of the limitations of the day, early examples were confined to a static playing field. Space Panic, a 1980 arcade release by Universal, is credited as being the first platform game. While the player had the ability to fall, there was no ability to jump, swing, or bounce, however, it clearly influenced the genre, with gameplay centered on climbing ladders between different floors, a common element in many early platform games. Another precursor to the genre released that year was Nichibutsus Crazy Climber. Donkey Kong, a game created by Nintendo and released in July 1981, was the first game that allowed players to jump over obstacles and across gaps. Donkey Kong had an amount of platforming in its first two screens, but its last two screens had a more pronounced platform jumping component. This game also introduced Mario, an icon of the genre
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Shooter game
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Shooter games are a subgenre of action game, which often test the players speed and reaction time. It includes many subgenres that have the commonality of focusing on the actions of the avatar using some sort of weapon, usually this weapon is a gun, or some other long-range weapon. A common resource found in many games is ammunition. Most commonly, the purpose of a game is to shoot opponents. There are many criteria to determine the type of shooter, listed below are some of the major divisions, using the following, it is possible to categorize almost all shooters developed. It is also possible for a game to have a camera, especially shooting gallery games. Tactical shooters are games that attempt to emulate lifelike ballistics and character damage, other shooter games range further away from realism and towards fantasy, like the Sci-Fi action shooting series titled Lost Planet. Games which feature non-player characters fighting alongside the player, but which are not directly controllable are not considered squad-based games, if a shooter game is playable online, there are several other sharp divisions it can take. Many games will offer differing modes which allow players to choose from various types. In team modes, players are assigned to one of two factions which are competing for some goal, co-op modes have several players on the same faction playing through either single-player or custom missions against computer-controlled enemies. Individual has all players competing with each other and this is often an optional way to categorize a shooter, but in some cases its needed to help distinguish it. A game may quite often heavily rely on stealth as opposed to direct action, others might have large horror elements to them. However, the one thing in common with all shooters is that combat with a gun or similar long range/projectile weapon is the focus of gameplay itself. Shoot em ups are a subgenre of shooters wherein the player may move up and down and left and right around the screen. Shoot em ups share common gameplay, but are categorized by viewpoint. This genre also includes run and gun games which emphasize greater maneuvering or even jumping, such as Thexder, Contra and Metal Slug. Shooting gallery games include light gun games, although many can also be played using a regular joypad, when these debuted, they were typically played from a first-person perspective, with enemy fire that occurred anywhere on the screen damaging or killing the player. One of the earliest examples is the 1985 arcade game Shootout produced by Data East, other games in this subgenre include Blood Bros
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First-person shooter
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The first-person shooter shares common traits with other shooter games, which in turn fall under the heading action game. From the genres inception, advanced 3D or pseudo-3D graphics have challenged hardware development, the first-person shooter has since been traced as far back as Maze War, development of which began in 1973, and 1974s Spasim. 1998s Half-Life—along with its 2004 sequel Half-Life 2—enhanced the narrative and puzzle elements, in 1999, Half-Lifes mod Counter-Strike was released and, together with Doom, is perhaps one of the most influential first-person shooters. GoldenEye 007 was a landmark first-person shooter for home consoles, while the Halo series heightened the consoles commercial and critical appeal as a platform for first-person shooter titles. In the 21st century, the shooter is the most commercially viable video game genre. Several first-person shooters have been popular games for eSports and competitive gaming competitions as well, first-person shooters are a type of three-dimensional shooter game, featuring a first-person point of view with which the player sees the action through the eyes of the player character. They are unlike third-person shooters, in which the player can see the character they are controlling, the primary design element is combat, mainly involving firearms. A more important key difference is that first-person light-gun shooters like Virtua Cop often feature on-rails movement, the first-person shooter may be considered a distinct genre in itself, or a type of shooter game, in turn a subgenre of the wider action game genre. Following the release of Doom in 1993, games in this style were commonly termed Doom clones, in time this term has largely been replaced by first-person shooter. Wolfenstein 3D, released in 1992, the year before Doom, has credited with inventing the genre. There are occasional disagreements regarding the design elements which constitute a first-person shooter. For example, Deus Ex or BioShock may be considered as first-person shooters, some commentators extend the definition to include combat flight simulators where the cockpit or vehicle takes place of the hands and weapons. Like most shooter games, first-person shooters involve an avatar, one or more ranged weapons, and a varying number of enemies. Because they take place in a 3D environment, these tend to be somewhat more realistic than 2D shooter games. First-person shooters played on computers are most often controlled with a combination of a keyboard. This system has claimed as superior to that found in console games. It is common to display the characters hands and weaponry in the view, with a head-up display showing health. Often, it is possible to overlay a map of the surrounding area, first-person shooters often focus on action gameplay, with fast-paced and bloody firefights, though some place a greater emphasis on narrative, problem-solving and logic puzzles
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Third-person shooter
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Third-person shooter is a subgenre of 3D shooter games in which the player character is visible on-screen, and the gameplay consists primarily of shooting. A third-person shooter is a game structured around shooting, and in which the player can see the avatar on-screen in a third-person view, a 3D game type that has grown to prominence in recent years, especially on consoles. It combines the elements of the first-person shooter with the jumping and climbing puzzles of a 3D platformer. Third-person shooter games almost always incorporate an aim-assist feature, since aiming from a camera is difficult. Most also have a view, which allows precise shooting and looking around at environment features that are otherwise hidden from the default camera. These games are related to first-person shooters, which also tie the perspective of the player to an avatar. Thus, the third-person perspective allows the designer to create a more strongly characterized avatar. In contrast, a first-person perspective provides the player with greater immersion into the game universe and this difference in perspective also affects gameplay. Third-person shooters allow players to see the surrounding the avatar more clearly. This viewpoint facilitates more interaction between the character and their environment, such as the use of tactical cover in Gears of War. As such, the perspective is better for interacting with objects in the game world, such as jumping on platforms, engaging in close combat. However, the perspective can interfere with tasks that require fine aiming. Third-person shooters sometimes compensate for their distinct perspective by designing larger, the boundaries between third-person and first-person shooters are not always clear. For example, many third-person shooters allow the player to use a first-person viewpoint for challenges that require precise aiming, the first-person shooter Halo, Combat Evolved was actually designed as a third-person shooter, but added a first-person perspective to improve the interface for aiming and shooting. The game switches to a third-person viewpoint when the avatar is piloting a vehicle, metroid Prime is another first-person shooter that switches to a third-person perspective when rolling around the environment using the morph ball. Alexander R. Galloway writes that the real-time, over-the-shoulder tracking shots of Gus Van Sants Elephant evoke third-person shooter games like Max Payne, silpheed, a forward-scrolling third-person space combat game by Game Arts, was an early example of a fully 3D polygonal shooter. Konamis run and gun shooter Contra featured several third-person shooter levels where the player trudges through indoor enemy bases, devastators also featured various obstacles that could be used to take cover from enemy fire, as well as two-player cooperative gameplay. A similar shooter released that year was Cabal, which inspired many of its own Cabal clones, such as NAM-1975
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Shoot 'em up
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Shoot em up is a subgenre of the shooter genre of video games. In a shoot em up, the character engages in a lone assault, often in a spacecraft or aircraft. There is no consensus as to design elements compose a shoot em up. Some restrict the definition to games featuring spacecraft and certain types of movement, others allow a broader definition including characters on foot. Shoot em ups call for fast reactions and for the player to memorize levels, bullet hell games feature overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles. The genres origins can be traced back to Spacewar, one of the earliest computer games, developed in 1962 and eventually released in amusement arcades in the early 1970s. However, Tomohiro Nishikado, creator of Space Invaders, is credited with inventing the genre. Space Invaders premiered in Japanese arcades in 1978, shoot em ups were popular throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. In the mid-1990s, shoot em ups became a genre based on design conventions established in the 1980s. A shoot em up, also known as a shmup or STG, is a game in which the protagonist combats a large number of enemies by shooting at them while dodging their fire, the controlling player must rely primarily on reaction times to succeed. Beyond this, critics differ on exactly which design elements constitute a shoot em up, some restrict the genre to games featuring some kind of craft, using fixed or scrolling movement. Others widen the scope to include games featuring such protagonists as robots or humans on foot, as well as including games featuring on-rails, mark Wolf restricts the definition to games featuring multiple antagonists, calling games featuring one-on-one shooting combat games. Shoot em ups are a subgenre of shooter game, in turn a type of action game and these games are usually viewed from a top-down or side-view perspective, and players must use ranged weapons to take action at a distance. The players avatar is typically a vehicle under constant attack, thus, the players goal is to shoot as quickly as possible anything that moves or threatens him. In some games, the character can withstand some damage, in others. The main skills required in shoot em ups are fast reactions, some games feature overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and the player has to memorise their patterns to survive. These games belong to one of the video game genres. Large numbers of characters are typically featured
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Light gun shooter
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Light gun shooter, also called light gun game or simply gun game, is a shooter video game genre in which the primary design element is aiming and shooting with a gun-shaped controller. Light gun shooters revolve around the protagonist shooting targets, either antagonists or inanimate objects, light gun shooters generally feature action or horror themes and some may employ a humorous, parodic treatment of these conventions. These games typically feature on-rails movement, which gives the player control only over aiming, games featuring this device are sometimes termed rail shooters, though this term is also applied to games of other genres in which on-rails movement is a feature. Some, particularly later, games give the player control over movement. Light gun shooters employ light gun controllers, so named because they function through the use of light sensors, mechanical games using light guns had existed since the 1930s, though they operated differently from those used in video games. Throughout the 1970s mechanical games were replaced by video games. The genre was most popular in the 1990s, subsequent to the release of Virtua Cop, the genre is less popular in the new millennium, as well as being hampered by compatibility issues, but retains a niche appeal for fans of old school gameplay. While light gun games may feature a first-person perspective, they are distinct from first person shooters, light gun games which feature on-rails movement are sometimes termed rail shooters, though this term is also applied to other types of shooters featuring similar movement. The light gun itself is so termed because it functions through the use of a light sensor, targets in light gun shooters may be threatening antagonists such as criminals, terrorists or zombies, or they may be inanimate objects such as apples or bottles. Although these games may be played without a gun, the use of more conventional input methods has been deemed inferior. Light gun shooters typically feature generic action or horror themes, though some later games employ more humorous, light gun shooters primarily revolve around shooting large numbers of enemies attacking in waves. The protagonist may be required to defend himself by taking cover, or by shooting incoming thrown weapons, the player may also compete against the clock, however, with some games also featuring boss battles. Games may also reward the player for shooting, with extra points. Games which do not pit the player against antagonists instead feature elaborate challenges constructed mainly from inanimate objects, testing the players speed, more conventional games may feature these types of challenges as minigames. Light gun shooters typically feature on-rails movement, which gives the player no control over the direction the protagonist moves in, some games, however, may allow the protagonist to take cover at the push of a button. Other games may eschew on-rails movement altogether and allow the player to move the protagonist freely around the games environment, still others may feature a static environment. Light gun shooters utilise a first person perspective for aiming, though games may allow the player to switch to a third person perspective in order to maneuver the protagonist. Mechanical gun games existed before the emergence of video games
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Action-adventure game
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The action-adventure video game genre includes video games that combine core elements from the action and adventure genres. With the decline of the game genre from mainstream popularity. It is not uncommon for gamers to apply the term adventure or action adventure to describe the genre of fiction to which a game belongs, typically, pure adventure games have situational problems for the player to solve, with very little or no action. If there is action, it is confined to isolated minigames. Pure action games have gameplay based on real-time interactions that challenge the reflexes, therefore, action-adventure games engage both reflexes and problem-solving, in both violent and non-violent situations. An action-adventure game can be defined as a game with a mix of elements from an action game and an adventure game, especially crucial elements like puzzles. Action-adventures require many of the physical skills as action games, but also offer a storyline, numerous characters, an inventory system, dialogue. They are faster-paced than pure adventure games, because they include both physical and conceptual challenges, action-adventure games normally include a combination of complex story elements, which are displayed for players using audio and video. The story is heavily reliant upon the characters movement, which triggers story events. Some examples of games include The Legend of Zelda, God of War. Exactly when a game stops being a game and becomes an action game is a matter of interpretation. There are quite a few disagreements in the community and in the media over what constitutes an action-adventure game. In some cases a game with puzzles will be classified as an action-adventure game. Others see action games as a genre, while an action-adventure is an action game that includes situational problem-solving. Adventure gamers may also be purists, rejecting any game that makes use of physical challenges or time pressure, regardless, the action-adventure label is prominent in articles over the internet and media. The term action-adventure is usually substituted for a particular subgenre due to its wide scope, although action-adventure games are diverse and difficult to classify, there are some distinct subgenres. These are sometimes called Real-Time Adventure games or RTAs for short, notable examples of this include Metroid Prime, Half-Life 2, Dishonored, and Far Cry 3. Third-person action-adventure, in gameplay is in the third-person
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Grand Theft Auto clone
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Grand Theft Auto clone is a subgenre of open world action-adventure video games, characterized by their likeness to the Grand Theft Auto series in either gameplay, or overall design. These types of world games are games in which players may find and use a variety of vehicles. The objective of such games is to complete a sequence of missions involving driving and shooting. The storylines of games in this typically have strong themes of crime. The subgenre has its origins in open-world action adventure games popularized in Europe throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the release of Grand Theft Auto marked a major commercial success for open-ended game design in North America, and featured a more marketable crime theme. But it was the popularity of its 3D sequel Grand Theft Auto III in 2001 that led to the propagation of a more specific set of gameplay conventions consistent with a subgenre. The subgenre now includes many games from different developers all over the world where the player can control wide ranges of vehicles, the subgenre has evolved with greater levels of environmental detail and more realistic behaviors. Since calling a game a clone usually has a negative connotation, names such as sandbox games, however, are applied to a wider range of games that do not share key features of the Grand Theft Auto series. These games are treated as a 3D action-adventure game, or third-person shooter. They are noted for frequently bearing strong violent or criminal themes, though exceptions like American McGee Presents, Scrapland have copied its gameplay, calling a game a Grand Theft Auto clone is sometimes considered unfair or insulting. However, this term can also be used as a description of a game. Reviewers have used Grand Theft Auto clone to describe games that rest on their own merits, Games of this type are sometimes defined under the broader terminology open world games or sandbox games. However, many games that predate Grand Theft Auto III, such as Metroid from 1986, are called open world games. Conflictingly, games such as Grand Theft Auto III and Body Harvest are credited with inventing this genre more than a decade later. The terminology is inconsistent, sometimes including any game with level design. Without clear classifications to describe the genre popularized by Grand Theft Auto, some reviewers have focused on the pervasive criminal themes and content in the genre, using terminology such as crime games, crime-based action games, and what CNN called the gangsta genre. Other journalists have emphasized gameplay by describing the genre as free roaming action adventure games, driving-and-shooting games, Grand Theft Auto clones offer players the ability to steal and drive a number of vehicles. Games have included all kinds of vehicles, such as cars, helicopters, boats, jet-skis, fixed-wing aircraft, reviewers have compared these games based on the number of vehicles they offer, with greater choice resulting in better reviews
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Metroidvania
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Metroidvania is a subgenre of the action-adventure video game with gameplay concepts similar to the Metroid series and the Castlevania series. The genre name is a portmanteau of the two series names, acquiring such improvements can also aid the player in defeating more difficult enemies and locating shortcuts and secret areas, and often includes retracing ones steps across the map. Metroidvania games typically are two-dimensional platformers, but can include other genre types. Though popularized during the console generations, the genre has seen a resurgence since the 2000s due to critically praised. While not the first game of its kind, Metroid is generally considered the most influential game in the Metroidvania genre, the series was popular, and future titles refined the exploration approach while adding more story elements to the title such as with Super Metroid. During this time, the gothic/horror-themed platformer series Castlevania was gaining popularity, the original Castlevania featured discrete levels that the player completed in a sequential manner. The change proved popular with players, and subsequent games in the series would follow this formula, with the releases of Super Metroid and Castlevania, Symphony of the Night, the formula these games presented would form the foundations of what are considered Metroidvanias today. While both series continued to develop titles in this format, the concept of Metroidvanias started to more traction when other parties began to develop games in the same style. Shadow Complex by Chair Entertainment was developed based on the premise that Super Metroid was the pinnacle of 2D game design, the game received highly positive reviews, and remains one of the best-selling downloadable titles on the Xbox 360 service. Due to games like these, the Metroidvania genre began to take off in both publisher-driven and independent games development, a similar portmanteau Castleroid is sometimes used as well for describing this genre. The term Metroidvania is most often used to refer to a game that features a single large, interconnected map. Not all areas of this map are available at the start, often, this item is protected by a boss character, providing story-driven challenges throughout the game. Maps are non-linear, and often require the player to traverse the map multiple times during the course of the game. Weaker monsters will inhabit other parts of the level, respawning when the player revisits those rooms, access to new abilities can also open up shortcuts that reduce travel time, as well as discover secrets that help to improve the characters abilities. As such, the focuses on exploration of a large world map. Metroidvanias are sometimes referred to as adventure games due to this scope. Metroidvania is generally associated with game levels/maps that are out as two-dimensional side scrollers, with the player character moving left, right, up. The exploration and character development concepts of Metroidvanias can be used in other genres, for example, the Metroid Prime trilogy is a first-person shooter that builds on the same style of exploration play as Metroid
