1.
Amateur flight simulation
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Amateur flight simulation refers to the simulation of various aspects of flight or the flight environment for purposes other than flight training or aircraft development. There is currently a significant community of simulation enthusiasts supported by commercial software packages, as well as commercial. Flight simulators were among the first types of programs to be developed for personal computers. Bruce Artwicks subLOGIC simulators were well known for the functionality they managed to get onto 8-bit machines, key computer game technologies such as 3D graphics, online play, and modding were first showcased in combat flight simulators such as Red Baron II and European Air War. The game world in flight simulators is often based on the real world, however, they are often confined to one part of the game world by invisible boundaries. In some games, the aircraft simply halts in midair, while other games force the player to turn around, however, many games solve this boundary problem by wrapping the game world as a sphere. Although these games strive for a deal of realism, they often simplify or abstract certain elements to reach a wider audience. Many modern fighter aircraft have hundreds of controls, and flight simulator games usually simplify these controls drastically, further, certain maneuvers can knock a pilot unconscious or rip their aircraft apart, but games do not always implement these concerns. A popular type of flight simulator are combat flight simulators, which simulate combat air operations from the pilot, Combat flight simulation titles are more numerous than civilian flight simulators due to variety of subject matter available and market demand. The advent of flight simulators as home video game entertainment has prompted many users to become airplane designers for these systems. As such, they may create both military or commercial airline airplanes, and they may use names of real life airlines. Many other home flight simulator users create fictional airlines, or virtual versions of real-world airlines and these modifications to a simulation generally add to the simulations realism and often grant a significantly expanded playing experience, with new situations and content. In some cases, a simulation is much further in regards to its features than was envisioned or intended by its original developers. One way that users of flight simulation software engage is through the internet, virtual pilots and virtual air traffic controllers take part in an online flying experience which attempts to simulate real-world aviation to a high degree. There are several networks where this sort of play is possible, virtual Skies provides a low barrier of entry allowing any level member to fly or control without worrying if something goes wrong. IVAOs ATC certification process is not as strict as VATSIMs, which allows for a number of controllers to be available. Both networks receive anywhere from 300 to 900 ATC and pilot connections, much rarer but still notable are flight simulators available for various game consoles. Successful examples of these are the Pilotwings series by Nintendo and the Ace Combat series by Namco, while generally not as complex as PC based simulators, console flight simulators can still be enjoyable to play, though their simulation status is disputed by many in the flight simulation community
2.
Microsoft Flight Simulator
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Microsoft Flight Simulator is a series of flight simulator programs, marketed as video games, for the Microsoft Windows, and earlier the MS-DOS, operating systems. It is one of the longest-running, best-known and most comprehensive home flight simulator programs on the market and it was an early product in the Microsoft application portfolio and differed significantly from Microsofts other software, which was largely business-oriented. At 25 years it is the software product line for Microsoft. Bruce Artwick began the development of the Flight Simulator in 1977 and his company, subLOGIC, initially distributed it for various personal computers. In 1981, Artwick was approached by Microsofts Alan M, in 1982, Artwicks company licensed a version of Flight Simulator for the IBM PC to Microsoft, which marketed it as Microsoft Flight Simulator 1.00. In 2009 Microsoft closed down the ACES Game Studio, which was the department responsible for creating and maintaining the flight simulator series, Dovetail Games also announced the release of Flight Simulator X, Gold Edition on Steam for late 2014, named Microsoft Flight Simulator X, Steam Edition. Microsoft Flight Simulator began as a set of written by Bruce Artwick in 1976 about a 3D computer graphics program. When the magazine said that subscribers wanted to buy the program, Bruce Artwick set to work to create it. The company began selling flight simulators for several platforms, including the 8080, Altair 8800. In 1979 subLOGIC released FS1 Flight Simulator for the Apple II, in 1980, subLOGIC released a version for the TRS-80, and in 1982 they licensed an IBM PC version with CGA graphics to Microsoft, which was released as Microsoft Flight Simulator 1.00. It was unusual in that it was not a program requiring an operating system, but contained its own operating system. In the early days of less-than-100% IBM PC compatible systems, Flight Simulator and Lotus 1-2-3 were used as unofficial compatibility test software for new PC clone models. SubLOGIC continued to develop for other platforms and ported Flight Simulator II to the Apple II in 1983, the Commodore 64, MSX and Atari 800 in 1984, and to the Amiga and Atari ST in 1986. Meanwhile, Bruce Artwick left subLOGIC and founded The Bruce Artwick Organization to continue his work on subsequent Microsoft releases, Microsoft Flight Simulator reached commercial maturity with version 3.1, and went on to encompass the use of 3D graphics and graphic hardware acceleration. Microsoft continued to produce versions of the flight simulation software, adding features, such as new aircraft types. The 2000 and 2002 versions were available in Standard and Professional editions, the 2004 release marked the celebration of one hundred years of powered flight and had only one edition. Flight Simulator X, released in 2006, returned to dual versions with a Standard, the flying area encompasses planet Earth with varying degrees of detail and includes over 24,000 airports. There is a growing list of scenery representing major landmarks
3.
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
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The McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet is a twin-engine supersonic, all-weather carrier-capable multirole combat jet, designed as both a fighter and attack aircraft. Designed by McDonnell Douglas and Northrop, the F/A-18 was derived from the latters YF-17 in the 1970s for use by the United States Navy and Marine Corps. The Hornet is also used by the air forces of other nations and, since 1986, by the U. S. Navys Flight Demonstration Squadron. The F/A-18 has a top speed of Mach 1.8 and it can carry a wide variety of bombs and missiles, including air-to-air and air-to-ground, supplemented by the 20-mm M61 Vulcan cannon. It is powered by two General Electric F404 turbofan engines, which give the aircraft a high thrust-to-weight ratio, the F/A-18 has excellent aerodynamic characteristics, primarily attributed to its leading edge extensions. The fighters primary missions are fighter escort, fleet air defense, Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses, air interdiction, close air support, the Hornet first saw combat action during the 1986 United States bombing of Libya and subsequently participated in the 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War. The F/A-18 Hornet provided the design for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, its larger. In August 1973, Congress mandated that the Navy pursue a lower-cost alternative to the F-14, grumman proposed a stripped F-14 designated the F-14X, while McDonnell Douglas proposed a naval variant of the F-15, but both were nearly as expensive as the F-14. That summer, Secretary of Defense Schlesinger ordered the Navy to evaluate the competitors in the Air Forces Lightweight Fighter program, the Air Force competition specified a day fighter with no strike capability. On 2 May 1975, the Navy announced its selection of the YF-17, since the LWF did not share the design requirements of the VFAX, the Navy asked McDonnell Douglas and Northrop to develop a new aircraft from the design and principles of the YF-17. On 1 March 1977, Secretary of the Navy W. Graham Claytor announced that the F-18 would be named Hornet. Northrop had partnered with McDonnell Douglas as a contractor on NACF to capitalize on the latters experience in building carrier aircraft. On the F-18, the two agreed to evenly split component manufacturing, with McDonnell Douglas conducting final assembly. McDonnell Douglas would build the wings, stabilators, and forward fuselage, while Northrop would build the center and aft fuselage and vertical stabilizers. McDonnell Douglas was the contractor for the naval versions. The F-18, initially known as McDonnell Douglas Model 267, was modified from the YF-17. For carrier operations, the airframe, undercarriage, and tailhook were strengthened, folding wings and catapult attachments were added, and the landing gear widened. To meet Navy range and reserves requirements, McDonnell increased fuel capacity by 4,460 pounds, by enlarging the dorsal spine, a snag was added to the wings leading edge and stabilators to prevent an Aeroelastic flutter discovered in the F-15 stabilator
4.
USS Independence (CV-62)
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The fifth USS Independence was an aircraft carrier of the United States Navy. She was the fourth and final member of the Forrestal class of conventionally powered supercarriers and she entered service in 1959, with much of her early years spent in the Mediterranean Fleet. Independence was decommissioned in 1998 after 39 years of active service, stored in recent years at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, the ex-Independence was towed beginning on 10 March 2017 to Brownsville, Texas for dismantling. The Forrestal-class aircraft carriers were designed in the early 1950s as a version of the cancelled United States-class Supercarriers. The carriers were designed around the large new Douglas A3D Skywarrior bomber, Independence was built with an angled flight deck with four C-7 steam catapults, two on the bow and two on the angled deck. She was fitted with AN/SPS-37 long-range search radar and AN/SPS-8B height finding radar, defensive armament consisted of eight 5/54 caliber Mark 42 guns mounted on sponsons jutting out from the sides of the ship so they did not interfere with the flight deck. The initial air wing of the Forrestal-class carriers was about 90 aircraft, the contract to build Independence, the fourth Forrestal-class carrier was awarded to the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 2 July 1954, with the ship being laid down on 1 July 1955. She was launched on 6 June 1958 by the wife of Thomas S. Gates, the Secretary of the Navy, Independence conducted shakedown training under her first captain, Captain R. Y. McElroy, with the first landing-on being carried out by a Grumman Trader carrier onboard delivery aircraft on 2 March 1959 and she arrived at her new homeport of Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia on 30 June 1959, and then carried out a ten-week training cruise in the Caribbean. Independence operated off the Virginia Capes for the year on training maneuvers. There, she added her great strength to the power of the 6th Fleet in that troubled region. On 4 August 1961, she departed again for the Mediterranean to join the US 6th fleet for another cruise and returned on 19 December 1961 to Norfolk. Independence sailed on 19 April 1962 for Sixth Fleet duty in support of President John F. Kennedys firm stand on Berlin during a recurrence of stress in a critical area and she returned to Norfolk 27 August and sailed 11 October for the Caribbean Sea. She arrived off Puerto Rico in response to the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba and she then returned to Norfolk on 25 November for readiness exercises along the eastern seaboard, overhaul in the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, and refresher training out of Guantanamo Bay. She returned to Norfolk on 4 March 1964 and she returned to Norfolk 5 November 1964 and entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for overhaul. On 10 May 1965, Independence deployed for more than seven months, including 100 days in the South China Sea, off the coast of Vietnam and she also was the fifth U. S. carrier to operate off Vietnam. Independence and her embarked Air Wing 7 received the Navy Unit Commendation for exceptionally meritorious service from 5 June to 21 November 1965. The carrier launched more than 7,000 sorties, sustaining an exceptional pace of day and night operations against military
5.
Flight
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Flight is the process by which an object moves, through an atmosphere or beyond it, as in the case of spaceflight. This can be achieved by generating lift, propulsive thrust, aerostatically using buoyancy. Many things fly, from natural aviators such as birds, bats and insects to human inventions such as missiles, aircraft such as airplanes, helicopters and balloons, to rockets such as spacecraft. Humans have managed to construct lighter than air vehicles that raise off the ground and fly, an aerostat is a system that remains aloft primarily through the use of buoyancy to give an aircraft the same overall density as air. Aerostats include free balloons, airships, and moored balloons, an aerostats main structural component is its envelope, a lightweight skin that encloses a volume of lifting gas to provide buoyancy, to which other components are attached. Aerostats are so named because they use aerostatic lift, a buoyant force that does not require movement through the surrounding air mass to effect a lifting force. By contrast, aerodynes primarily use aerodynamic lift, which requires the movement of at least some part of the aircraft through the surrounding air mass. Some things that fly do not generate propulsive thrust through the air, for example, some other things can exploit rising air to climb such as raptors and man-made sailplane gliders. However most other birds and all powered aircraft need a source of propulsion to climb, the only groups of living things that use powered flight are birds, insects, and bats, while many groups have evolved gliding. The extinct Pterosaurs, an order of reptiles contemporaneous with the dinosaurs, were very successful flying animals. Each of these groups wings evolved independently, bats are the only mammals capable of sustaining level flight. Flying frogs use greatly enlarged webbed feet for a similar purpose, flying snakes also use mobile ribs to flatten their body into an aerodynamic shape, with a back and forth motion much the same as they use on the ground. Flying fish can glide using enlarged wing-like fins, and have been observed soaring for hundreds of meters and it is thought that this ability was chosen by natural selection because it was an effective means of escape from underwater predators. The longest recorded flight of a fish was 45 seconds. Most birds fly, with some exceptions, the largest birds, the ostrich and the emu, are earthbound, as were the now-extinct dodos and the Phorusrhacids, which were the dominant predators of South America in the Cenozoic era. The non-flying penguins have wings adapted for use under water and use the same wing movements for swimming that most other birds use for flight, most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a lifestyle where flight would offer little advantage. Among living animals that fly, the wandering albatross has the greatest wingspan, up to 3.5 meters, most species of insects can fly as adults. Insect flight makes use of either of two basic models, creating a leading edge vortex, found in most insects, and using clap and fling
6.
Density of air
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The density of air is the mass per unit volume of Earths atmosphere. Air density, like air pressure, decreases with increasing altitude and it also changes with variation in temperature or humidity. At sea level and at 15 °C air has a density of approximately 1.225 kg/m3 according to ISA.058 J/ in SI units and this quantity may vary slightly depending on the molecular composition of air at a particular location. Therefore, At IUPAC standard temperature and pressure, dry air has a density of 1.2754 kg/m3, at 20 °C and 101.325 kPa, dry air has a density of 1.2041 kg/m3. At 70 °F and 14.696 psi, dry air has a density of 0.074887 lb/ft3 and this occurs because the molar mass of water is less than the molar mass of dry air. For any gas, at a temperature and pressure, the number of molecules present is constant for a particular volume. So when water molecules are added to a volume of air. Hence the mass per volume of the gas decreases. The density of air may be calculated as a mixture of ideal gases. In this case, the pressure of water vapor is known as the vapor pressure. One formula used to find the saturation pressure is, p s a t =6.1078 ×107.5 T T +237.3 where T = is in degrees C. Despite minor differences to define all formulations the predicted mass of dry air. Importantly, some of the examples are not normalized so that the composition is equal to unity, air Density Atmosphere of Earth International Standard Atmosphere U. S
7.
Turbulence
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Turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime in fluid dynamics characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity. It is in contrast to a flow regime, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers. Turbulence is caused by kinetic energy in parts of a fluid flow. For this reason turbulence is easier to create in low viscosity fluids, in general terms, in turbulent flow, unsteady vortices appear of many sizes which interact with each other, consequently drag due to friction effects increases. This would increase the energy needed to pump fluid through a pipe, however this effect can also be exploited by such as aerodynamic spoilers on aircraft, which deliberately spoil the laminar flow to increase drag and reduce lift. The onset of turbulence can be predicted by a constant called the Reynolds number. However, turbulence has long resisted detailed physical analysis, and the interactions within turbulence creates a complex situation. Richard Feynman has described turbulence as the most important unsolved problem of classical physics, smoke rising from a cigarette is mostly turbulent flow. However, for the first few centimeters the flow is laminar, the smoke plume becomes turbulent as its Reynolds number increases, due to its flow velocity and characteristic length increasing. If the golf ball were smooth, the boundary layer flow over the front of the sphere would be laminar at typical conditions. However, the layer would separate early, as the pressure gradient switched from favorable to unfavorable. To prevent this happening, the surface is dimpled to perturb the boundary layer. This results in higher skin friction, but moves the point of boundary layer separation further along, resulting in form drag. The flow conditions in industrial equipment and machines. The external flow over all kind of such as cars, airplanes, ships. The motions of matter in stellar atmospheres, a jet exhausting from a nozzle into a quiescent fluid. As the flow emerges into this external fluid, shear layers originating at the lips of the nozzle are created and these layers separate the fast moving jet from the external fluid, and at a certain critical Reynolds number they become unstable and break down to turbulence. Biologically generated turbulence resulting from swimming animals affects ocean mixing, snow fences work by inducing turbulence in the wind, forcing it to drop much of its snow load near the fence
8.
Flight training
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Flight training is a course of study used when learning to pilot an aircraft. The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight training is the acquisition, flight training consists of a combination of flight lessons given in the aircraft or a simulator and ground school, where theory is learned in preparation for the written examinations. Although there are types of aircraft, many of the principles of piloting them have common techniques. In addition to providing flight instructors, flight schools commonly rent aircraft to the students, the oldest flight training school still in existence is the Royal Air Forces Central Flying School formed in May 1912 at Upavon, United Kingdom. The oldest civil flight school still active in the world is based in Germany at the Wasserkuppe and it was founded as Mertens Fliegerschule. Its current name is Fliegerschule Wasserkuppe, pilot Training Compass, Back to the Future from European Cockpit Association
9.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
10.
Link Trainer
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During World War II, they were used as a key pilot training aid by almost every combatant nation. The original Link Trainer was created in 1929 out of the need for a way to teach new pilots how to fly by instruments. More than 500,000 US pilots were trained on Link simulators, as were pilots of nations as diverse as Australia, Canada, Germany, United Kingdom, Israel, Japan, Pakistan, and the USSR. Following WWII, Air Marshall Robert Leckie said “The Luftwaffe met its Waterloo on all the fields of the free world where there was a battery of Link Trainers. ”The Link Flight Trainer has been designated as a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The Link Company, now the Link Simulation & Training division of L3 Technologies, continues to make aerospace simulators, Edwin Link had developed a passion for flying in his boyhood years, but was not able to afford the high cost of flying lessons. So, upon leaving school in 1927, he started developing a simulator and his first pilot trainer, which debuted in 1929, resembled an overgrown toy airplane from the outside, with short wooden wings and fuselage mounted on a universal joint. Links first military sales came as a result of the Air Mail scandal, twelve pilots were killed in a 78-day period due to their unfamiliarity with Instrument Flying Conditions. The large scale loss of life prompted the Air Corps to look at a number of solutions, as a result, the Air Corps ordered the first six pilot trainers at $3,500 each. During the war years, Link produced over 10,000 Blue Boxes, several models of Link Trainers were sold in a period ranging from 1934 through to the late 1950s. These trainers kept pace with the instrumentation and flight dynamics of aircraft of their period. Trainers built from 1934 up to the early 1940s had a scheme that featured a bright blue fuselage and yellow wings. These wings and tail sections had control surfaces that actually moved in response to the movement of the rudder. However, many built during mid to late World War II did not have these wings and tail sections due to material shortages. The Pilot Maker was Links first model and it was an evolution of his 1929 prototype and was used in Mr. Links Link Flying School and later by other flying schools. During the Depression years versions of the Pilot Maker were also sold to amusement parks, in fact, his patent for the Pilot Maker was titled Combination Training Device for Student Aviators and Entertainment Apparatus. The most prolific version of the Link Trainer was the ANT-18, which was in its turn and this model was also produced in Canada for both the Royal Canadian Air Force and the Royal Air Force with a somewhat modified instrument panel, where its model designation was D2. It was used by countries for pilot training before and during the Second World War. It was fitted with a removable canopy, which could be used to simulate blind flying
11.
Edwin Albert Link
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Edwin Albert Link was a pioneer in aviation, underwater archaeology, and submersibles. He is best known for inventing the flight simulator, commercialized in 1929, called the Blue Box or Link Trainer, in total, he obtained more than 27 patents for aeronautics, navigation and oceanographic equipment. Edwin Link was born in Huntington, Indiana in 1904, the son of Edwin A. Link, Sr. in 1910, he moved with his family to Binghamton, New York. He took his first flying lesson in 1920, in 1927, he obtained the first Cessna airplane ever delivered and eked out a living by barnstorming, charter flying and giving lessons. As a young man, Edwin Link used apparatus from his fathers automatic piano, a punched roll and pneumatic system from a player piano controlled sequential lights on the lower surfaces of the wings to spell out messages like ENDICOTT-JOHNSON SHOES. To attract more attention, he added a set of small but loud organ pipes, in the 1920s, he developed the Link Trainer, a fuselage-like device with a cockpit and controls that produced the motions and sensations of flying. Much of the system was adapted directly from technology used in the organ factory. He formed the Link Aeronautical Corporation in 1929 to manufacture the trainers and his few early customers were amusement parks, not flight training schools, the early models served as amusement rides. Finally, in 1934, the United States Army Air Corps bought six, during World War II, more than half a million airmen were taught by the Link Trainer. Together with his wife Marion Clayton Link, whom he had married in 1931, Edwin Link managed the very successful Link Aviation, Inc. He contributed a great deal to the Binghamton, New York area, although the company later passed through different ownership, its legacy can be traced to the current L3 division known as Link Simulation and Training, now headquartered in Arlington, Texas. The field on which Greater Binghamton Airport lies is named after him, in 1953, Edwin and Marion Link established The Link Foundation. The foundation continues to provide grants and fellowships in aeronautics, simulation and training, ocean engineering, energy, after Link sold his company to General Precision in 1954, he addressed himself to underwater archeology and underwater research. Link worked at developing equipment for deeper, longer lasting and more secure diving, to this end he designed several submersible decompression chambers. This dive served as a test run for a dive the following month by Robert Sténuit, Sténuit and Lindbergh stayed in Links SPID habitat for 49 hours underwater at a depth of 432 feet, breathing a helium-oxygen mixture. Dr. Joseph B. MacInnis participated in this dive as a life support specialist, in March 1967, Link launched Deep Diver, the first small submersible designed for lockout diving, allowing divers to leave and enter the craft while underwater. Deep Diver carried out many missions in 1967 and 1968, including a 430-foot lockout dive in 1967. Dr. MacInnis participated in both of these dives as an observer in Deep Divers forward chamber, Link proceeded to design a new lockout sub with a distinctive acrylic bubble as the forward pilot/observer compartment
12.
Binghamton, New York
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Binghamton /ˈbɪŋəmtən/ is a city in, and the county seat of, Broome County, New York, United States. It lies in the states Southern Tier region near the Pennsylvania border, in a valley at the confluence of the Susquehanna. Binghamton is the city and cultural center of the Binghamton metropolitan area. The population of the city itself, according to the 2010 census, is 47,376. From the days of the railroad, Binghamton was a crossroads and a manufacturing center, and has been known at different times for the production of cigars, shoes. IBM was founded nearby, and the simulator was invented in the city, leading to a notable concentration of electronics-. This sustained economic prosperity earned Binghamton the moniker of the Valley of Opportunity, however, following cuts made by defense firms after the end of the Cold War, the region has lost a significant portion of its manufacturing industry. The city was named after William Bingham, a wealthy Philadelphian who bought the 10,000 acre patent for the land in 1786, then consisting of portions of the towns of Union, significant agricultural growth led to the incorporation of the village of Binghamton in 1834. The Chenango Canal, completed in 1837, connected Binghamton to the Erie Canal and this growth accelerated with the completion of the Erie Railroad between Binghamton and New York City in 1849. With the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad arriving soon after, several buildings of importance were built at this time, including the New York State Inebriate Asylum, opened in 1858 as the first center in the United States to treat alcoholism as a disease. Binghamton incorporated as a city in 1867, and due to the presence of several homes, was nicknamed the Parlor City. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many moved to the area. During the 1880s, Binghamton grew to become the second-largest manufacturer of cigars in the United States, however, by the early 1920s, the major employer of the region became Endicott Johnson, a shoe manufacturer whose development of welfare capitalism resulted in many amenities for local residents. An even larger influx of Europeans immigrated to Binghamton, and the working class prosperity resulted in the area being called the Valley of Opportunity, in 1913,31 people perished in the Binghamton Clothing Company fire, which resulted in numerous reforms to the New York fire code. Major floods in 1935 and 1936 resulted in a number of deaths, the floods were devastating, and resulted in the construction of flood walls along the length of the Susquehanna and Chenango Rivers. During the Second World War, growth and corporate generosity continued as IBM, along with Edwin Links invention of the flight simulator in Binghamton, IBM transitioned the region to a high-tech economy. Other major manufacturers included Ansco and General Electric, until the Cold War ended, the area never experienced an economic downfall, due in part to its defense-oriented industries. The population of the city of Binghamton peaked at around 85,000 in the mid-1950s, post-war suburban development led to a decline in the city population, as the towns of Vestal and Union experienced rapid growth
13.
Celestial Navigation
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Celestial navigation uses sights, or angular measurements taken between a celestial body and the visible horizon. The sun is most commonly used, but navigators can also use the moon, Celestial navigation is the use of angular measurements between celestial bodies and the visible horizon to locate ones position on the globe, on land as well as at sea. At a given time, any celestial body is located directly over one point on the Earths surface. The latitude and longitude of that point is known as the celestial body’s geographic position, the measured angle between the celestial body and the visible horizon is directly related to the distance between the celestial bodys GP and the observers position. Sights on two celestial bodies give two such lines on the chart, intersecting at the observers position, most navigators will use sights of three to five stars, if theyre available, since that will result in only one common intersection and minimize the chance for error. That premise is the basis for the most commonly used method of celestial navigation, there are several other methods of celestial navigation which will also provide position finding using sextant observations, such as the noon sight, and the more archaic lunar distance method. Joshua Slocum used the lunar distance method during the first ever recorded single-handed circumnavigation of the world, unlike the altitude-intercept method, the noon sight and lunar distance methods do not require accurate knowledge of time. An example illustrating the concept behind the method for determining one’s position is shown to the right. In the adjacent image, the two circles on the map represent lines of position for the Sun and Moon at 1200 GMT on October 29,2005. At this time, a navigator on a ship at sea measured the Moon to be 56 degrees above the horizon using a sextant, ten minutes later, the Sun was observed to be 40 degrees above the horizon. Lines of position were calculated and plotted for each of these observations. Since both the Sun and Moon were observed at their respective angles from the location, the navigator would have to be located at one of the two locations where the circles cross. In this case the navigator is either located on the Atlantic Ocean, about 350 nautical miles west of Madeira, or in South America, about 90 nautical miles southwest of Asunción, Paraguay. In most cases, determining which of the two intersections is the one is obvious to the observer because they are often thousands of miles apart. As it is unlikely that the ship is sailing across South America, note that the lines of position in the figure are distorted because of the map’s projection, they would be circular if plotted on a globe. Accurate angle measurement evolved over the years, one simple method is to hold the hand above the horizon with ones arm stretched out. The need for accurate measurements led to the development of a number of increasingly accurate instruments, including the kamal, astrolabe. Navigators measure distance on the globe in degrees, arcminutes and arcseconds, a nautical mile is defined as 1852 meters, but is also one minute of angle along a meridian on the Earth
14.
Bomber
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A bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry, firing torpedoes or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. In 1912, during the First Balkan War, Bulgarian Air Force pilot Christo Toprakchiev suggested the use of aircraft to drop bombs on Turkish positions, captain Simeon Petrov developed the idea and created several prototypes by adapting different types of grenades and increasing their payload. This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber, the first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T. B.8, both of 1913. The Bristol T. B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company, under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914. The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century, early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and these were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships, the Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a biplane with three 67 kW Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, the improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915. Bombing raids and interdiction operations were carried out by French. Sustained attacks with a view to interrupting the enemys railway communications, in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C. III, the Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the stages of the war. With engine power as a limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors. By the start of the war included, dive bomber — specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy. Light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber — subjective definitions based on size, torpedo bomber — specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes. Ground attack aircraft — aircraft used against targets on a such as troop or tank concentrations
15.
United Airlines
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United Continental Holdings, Inc. commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. It is the worlds third-largest airline when measured by revenue, operates a domestic and international route network. In the late 1920s, just prior to the use of the United Airlines name, The Boeing Company, currently one of the worlds largest aircraft manufacturers, United was previously known as United Air Lines. United is a member of Star Alliance, the worlds largest global airline alliance. Regional service is operated by independent carriers under the brand name United Express and its main competitors are American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines. United operates out of nine airline hubs located in Chicago, Denver, Guam, Houston, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chicago-OHare is Uniteds largest hub, both in terms of passengers carried annually and in terms of departures 181,488 in 2016) and this passed George Bush Intercontinental in Houston, which carried 15.5 million with 178,019 departures. The company employs over 86,000 people while maintaining its headquarters in Chicagos Willis Tower, through the airlines parent company, United Continental Holdings, it is publicly traded under NYSE, UAL with a market capitalization of over $18 billion as of September 2014. United operates maintenance bases in Cleveland and Orlando in addition to the maintenance locations located at Uniteds hubs, United Airlines traces its roots to the Varney Air Lines air mail service of Walter Varney, who also founded Varney Speed Lines from which Continental Airlines had originated. In 1927, aviation pioneer William Boeing founded his airline Boeing Air Transport to operate the San Francisco to Chicago air mail route, in 1933, United began operating the Boeing 247 airliner. It was able to fly a transcontinental flight in 20 hours, after passage of the Air Mail Act in 1934, UATC separated into United Aircraft, the Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. In 1954 United Airlines became the first airline to purchase modern flight simulators which had visual, sound, purchased for US$3 million from Curtiss-Wright, these were the first of todays modern flight simulators for training of commercial passenger aircraft pilots. United merged with Capital Airlines in 1961 and regained its position as the United States largest airline, in 1968, the company reorganized, creating UAL Corporation, with United Airlines as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1970, the UAL Corporation acquired Western International Hotels, the 1970s also saw economic turmoil, resulting in stagflation and labor unrest. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act, resulting in industry shakeups, further added to the difficulties in a loss-making period. In 1982, United became the first carrier to operate the Boeing 767, in May 1985, the airline underwent a 29-day pilot strike over managements proposed B-scale pilot pay rates. Making it one of two US carriers permitted exclusive access to Heathrow under Bermuda II until open skies took effect in 2008, the aftermath of the Gulf War and increased competition from low-cost carriers led to losses in 1991 and 1992. In 1995, United became the first airline to introduce the Boeing 777 in commercial service, in 1997, United co-founded the Star Alliance airline partnership
16.
Consolidation (business)
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In business, consolidation or amalgamation is the merger and acquisition of many smaller companies into much larger ones. In the context of accounting, consolidation refers to the aggregation of financial statements of a group company as consolidated financial statements. The taxation term of consolidation refers to the treatment of a group of companies, there may be amalgamations, either by transfer of two or more undertakings to a new company, or to the transfer of one or more companies to an existing company. Consolidation is the practice, in business, of combining two or more organizations into a single new one. Upon consolidation, the original organizations cease to exist and are supplanted by a new entity, statutory Consolidation, a business combination that creates a new company in which none of the previous companies survive. Stock Acquisition, a combination in which the purchasing company acquires the majority, more than 50%, of the Common stock of the acquired company. Variable interest entity Parent-subsidiary relationship, the result of a stock acquisition where the parent is the acquiring company, controlling Interest, When the parent company owns a majority of the common stock. Non-Controlling Interest or Minority Interest, the rest of the stock that the other shareholders own. Wholly owned subsidiary, when the parent owns all the common stock of the subsidiary. In an amalgamation, the companies which merge into a new or existing company are referred to as companies or amalgamating companies. The resultant company is referred to as the transferee company, a parent company can acquire another company by purchasing its net assets or by purchasing a majority share of its common stock. Costs of issuing securities, these reduce the issuing price of the stock. Treatment to the company, The acquired company records in its books the elimination of its net assets. If the acquired company is liquidated then the needs a additional entry to distribute the remaining assets to its shareholders. Treatment to the company, The acquired company records in its books the receipt of the payment from the acquiring company. FASB141 Disclosure Requirements, FASB141 requires disclosures in the notes of the financial statements when business combinations occur, such disclosures are, The name and description of the acquired entity and the percentage of the voting equity interest acquired. The primary reasons for acquisition and descriptions of factors contributed to recognition of goodwill. The period for which results of operations of acquired entity are included in the statement of the combining entity
17.
Vertical integration
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In microeconomics and management, vertical integration is an arrangement in which the supply chain of a company is owned by that company. Usually each member of the supply chain produces a different product or service, and it is contrasted with horizontal integration, wherein a company produces several items which are related to one another. Vertical integration has also described management styles that bring large portions of the chain not only under a common ownership. Vertical integration is one method of avoiding the hold-up problem, a monopoly produced through vertical integration is called a vertical monopoly. Nineteenth-century steel tycoon Andrew Carnegies example in the use of vertical integration led others to use the system to promote financial growth, Vertical integration can be an important strategy, but it is notoriously difficult to implement successfully and—when it turns out to be the wrong strategy—costly to fix. Vertical integration is the degree to which a firm owns its upstream suppliers, there are three varieties, backward vertical integration, forward vertical integration, and balanced vertical integration. A company exhibits backward vertical integration when it controls subsidiaries that produce some of the used in the production of its products. For example, a company may own a tire company, a glass company. Control of these three subsidiaries is intended to create a supply of inputs and ensure a consistent quality in their final product. A company tends toward forward vertical integration when it controls distribution centers and retailers where its products are sold, disintermediation is a form of vertical integration when purchasing departments take over the former role of wholesalers to source products. During a hunting trip, an American explorer and scientist, Clarence Birdseye, for example, fish caught a few days previously that were kept in ice remained in perfect condition. In 1924, Clarence Birdseye patented the “Birdseye Plate Froster” and set up the General Seafood Corporation, in 1929, Birdseye’s company and the patent were bought by Postum Company and the Goldman-Sachs trading Corporation. It later came to be known as General Foods and they kept the same Birdseye name, but it was split into two words for use as a trademark. Birdseye was paid $20 million for the patents and $2 million for the assets, Birdseye was one of the pioneers in the frozen food industry. Birdseye Company used vertical integration to manage their business, because of the fact that during these times, there was not a well developed infrastructure to produce and sell, Birdseye developed its own system by using vertical integration. As many members of the supply chain such as farmers and small retailers, couldnt afford high costs to buy equipment. The already-developed infrastructure did not allow Birdseye to quickly react to market changes, in order to increase profits and gain more market share, Alibaba, a Chinese-based company, full use of vertical integration makes it more than an e-commerce stage. Alibaba has built its leadership in the market by gradually acquiring complementary companies in a variety of industries including delivery, one of the earliest, largest and most famous examples of vertical integration was the Carnegie Steel company
18.
Aircraft pilot
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A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
19.
First officer (aeronautics)
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In commercial aviation, the first officer is the second pilot of an aircraft. The first officer is second-in-command of the aircraft to the captain, in the event of incapacitation of the captain, the first officer will assume command of the aircraft. Even when the first officer is the pilot, however, the captain remains ultimately responsible for the aircraft, its passengers. In typical day-to-day operations, the job tasks remain fairly equal. Many airlines promote by seniority only within their own company, as a consequence, an airline first officer may be older and/or have more flight experience than a captain, by virtue of having experience from other airlines or the military. Traditionally, the first officer sits on the side of a fixed-wing aircraft. Other airlines may designate the senior of two first officers operating a long-haul sector together with a captain in an enlarged crew as the senior first officer. The senior first officer will then sit in the seat when the captain takes his rest. In the rank of senior first officer the pilot will also sit in the right hand seat, the pilot is therefore on hold as a senior first officer until a position as captain becomes available, when they will receive their command line check. Aircrew Captain Second officer Third officer Citations Bibliography Harris, Tom, how Airline Crews Work, HowStuffWorks. com website, June 14,2001. Patrick Smiths Ask The Pilot, When a Pilot Dies in Flight, AskThePilot. com website,2013, cockpit Confidential, Everything You Need to Know About Air Travel, Questions, Answers, and Reflections, Sourcebooks,2013, ISBN1402280912, ISBN 978-1402280917. Flying the World in Clipper Ships at flightjournal. com,2007
20.
Pilot in command
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The pilot in command of an aircraft is the person aboard the aircraft who is ultimately responsible for its operation and safety during flight. This would be the captain in a typical two- or three-pilot aircrew, the PIC must be legally certificated to operate the aircraft for the specific flight and flight conditions, but need not be actually manipulating the controls at any given moment. The PIC is the person legally in charge of the aircraft and its safety and operation. The strict legal definition of PIC may vary slightly from country to country, the International Civil Aviation Organization, a United Nations agency, definition is, The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during flight time. This would normally include taxiing, which involves the operation to and from the runway. The U. S. CFR Title 14, Part 1, under U. S. FAA FAR91.3, Responsibility and authority of the pilot in command, the FAA declares, U. S. FAA FAR121. ICAO and other countries equivalent rules are similar, in Annex 2, Rules of the Air, under par. 2.4 Authority of pilot-in-command of an aircraft, ICAO adds, both FAR91.3 and ICAO Annex 2, par. 2.3.1, specifically empower the PIC to override any other regulation in an emergency and this provision mirrors the authority given to the captains of ships at sea, with similar justifications. It essentially gives the PIC the final authority in any situation involving the safety of a flight, under U. S. FAA FAR14 CFR61.51, logging flight time as a PIC is different and distinct from acting as the legal PIC for a flight. Aircrew Pilot flying Craig, Paul A
21.
CAE Inc.
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CAE Inc. is a Canadian manufacturer of simulation technologies, modelling technologies and training services to airlines, aircraft manufacturers, defense customers, and healthcare specialists. CAE was founded in 1947, and has manufacturing operations and training facilities in 35 countries, in 2016, the companys annual revenue was CAD $2.512 billion. CAE sells flight simulators and training devices to airlines, aircraft manufacturers and it licenses its simulation software to various market segments and has a professional services division. The simulators include basic training devices CAE 400XR and CAE 500XR and these simulators are available for commercial use. In 2016, the company sold 53 Full-Flight Simulators, in 2001, CAE Inc. acquired BAE Systemss Flight Simulation and Training division, formerly known as Reflectone Inc, a publicly listed company founded in 1939, and based in Tampa, Florida. Reflectone sold flight simulators to the military and provided training on its premises. CAE conducts airline pilot training and business jet pilot training in its 50 aviation training centres worldwide, in the United States, the firm is a supplier of initial and recurrency training for airlines such as JetBlue and non-airline based companies, including charter and cargo operators. In December 2001 the firm acquired Simuflite training centers in Dallas, Texas and Morristown, New Jersey, the facility at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is the largest business aviation training facility in the world at 426,000 sq ft, with 34 simulators and approximately 450 employees. In February 2016, CAE Inc. acquired one of its competitors, Lockheed Martin Commercial Flight Training, CAE also operates the CAE Oxford Aviation Academy, the largest ab initio flight training network in the world, with a fleet of over 220 aircraft and seven campuses worldwide. CAE purchased Medical Education Technologies Inc. a Sarasota-based company renowned notably for its innovative patient simulator and this acquisition brought a direct sales force in the U. S. close customer relationships and a worldwide distributor network. Today, CAEs healthcare simulation solutions business unit is a leader in medical simulation training technology to improve patient safety in clinical settings. The actual CEO, Marc Parent, was named in this role in October 2009 and he has more than 25 years of experience in the aerospace industry. Born in Montreal, Mr. Parent is a graduate of Mechanical Engineering from Montreal’s École Polytechnique, in October 2008, CAE was named one of Canadas Top 100 Employers by Mediacorp Canada Inc. and was featured in Macleans newsmagazine. Official site CAE Global Academy Official site
22.
Thales Training & Simulation
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It is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Thales Group. The origins of the date back to the incorporation of Redifon in the United Kingdom in 1946. In 1948, the moved to the then new town of Crawley in West Sussex. In 1981, the parent company British Electric Traction changed the name to Rediffusion Simulation Limited to take advantage of the then familiar Rediffusion brand name. In 1988, the company was bought by Hughes Aircraft and renamed Hughes Rediffusion Simulation, in 1994, the company was taken over by Thomson-CSF, who merged it with Link Miles and renamed the company Thomson Training & Simulation. The merged companies were based at the Manor Royal site at Crawley, in 1998, the simulation business of Wormald Technology of Australia was bought and renamed Thales Training & Simulation Pty Ltd. In the United States, Burtek, bought in 1979 by Thomson-CSF, was renamed Thomson Training & Simulation Inc, at the end of 2000, the company was renamed Thales Training & Simulation when the parent company re-branded using the Thales name. Thales sold its civilian fixed-wing simulation business to L-3 Link Simulation & Training UK in August 2012, the purchase included part of the TTS Crawley plant, but not Thales military rotary-wing simulation business. Thales Training & Simulation has four manufacturing plants, United Kingdom producing military aircraft simulators and provides training. In addition, the company has joint ventures and/or customer support hubs in the United States, Saudi Arabia, China, etc. Thales have built and now operate numerous types of simulators, including, Fixed based — No motion platform, normally housed in a dome. Full flight simulators can also be fixed based, these are generally basic training devices that have no visual and are control trainers only, full flight simulators — A fully immersed simulation that has a motion platform, can be either hydraulic or electric. Military simulators — These can simulate parts of aircraft, water based vehicles or ground systems, the range of services offered in support of military simulators now extends to both PFI and PPP contracts. Thales Training & Simulation provides the Synthetic training service for Tornado GR4 Royal Air Force Pilots, a similar service is provided to train Army Air Corps Lynx Mk 7 & Mk 9 Pilots. As the PFI model has been adopted outside the UK, Thales is also part of a consortium to supply NH90 helicopter synthetic training to the German airforce under a PFI framework, Thales Training & Simulation has a joint venture with Eurocopter running a synthetic helicopter training facility, Helisim. Thales also manufactures driver simulators for trucks, busses and military vehicles including tanks, the range of simulators extends to nuclear power plant simulators and small arms simulators for training army, police, etc. page on the Thales website
23.
Gatwick Airport
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Gatwick Airport is a major international airport in south-east England,29.5 miles south of Central London and 2.7 nautical miles north of Crawley. It is the second-busiest airport by passenger traffic in the United Kingdom. Gatwick is the eighth-busiest airport in Europe, Gatwick opened as an aerodrome in the late 1920s, and has been in use for commercial flights since 1933. The airport has two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal, which areas of 98,000 m2 and 160,000 m2 respectively. It operates as a airport, using a main runway with a length of 3,316 m. A secondary runway is available but, due to its proximity to the main runway, in 2016,43.1 million passengers passed through the airport, a 7. 1% increase compared with 2015. The land on which Gatwick Airport stands was first developed as an aerodrome in the late 1920s, the Air Ministry approved commercial flights from the site in 1933, and the first terminal, The Beehive, was built in 1935. Scheduled air services from the new terminal began the following year, major development work at the airport took place during the 1950s. The airport buildings were designed by Yorke Rosenberg Mardall between 1955 and 1988, further rapid growth of charter flights at Gatwick was encouraged by the Ministry of Aviation, which instructed airlines to move regular charter flights from Heathrow. Following the takeover of BUA by Caledonian Airways at the beginning of the following decade, while continuing to dominate scheduled operations at Gatwick for most of the 1980s, BCal was also one of the airports major charter airlines until the end of the 1970s. Following the demise of Air Europe and Dan-Air in the early 1990s and these moves resulted in BA becoming Gatwicks dominant airline by the turn of the millennium. BAs subsequent decision to de-hub Gatwick provided the space for EasyJet to establish its biggest base at the airport, BAA Limited and its predecessors, BAA plc and the British Airports Authority, owned and operated Gatwick from 1 April 1966 to 2 December 2009. From 1978 to 2008, many flights to and from the United States used Gatwick because of restrictions on the use of Heathrow implemented in the Bermuda II agreement between the UK and the US. US Airways, Gatwicks last remaining US carrier, ended service from Gatwick on 30 March 2013 and this leaves Gatwick without a scheduled US airline for the first time in nearly 40 years. On 17 September 2008, BAA announced it would sell Gatwick after the Competition Commission published a report about BAAs market dominance in London, the sale was completed on 3 December. The sales were part of GIPs strategy to syndicate the equity portion of the acquisition by issuing bonds to refinance bank debt. Although this entails bringing additional investors into the airport, GIP aims to retain management control, the Californian state pension fund CalPERS acquired a 12. 7% stake in Gatwick Airport for about $155 million in June 2010. This transaction completed GIPs syndication process for the airport, reducing its stake to 42%, the airport is owned and operated by Gatwick Airport Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of Ivy Holdco Limited
24.
Revenue
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In accounting, revenue is the income that a business has from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. Revenue is also referred to as sales or turnover, some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. Revenue may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a monetary unit, received during a period of time, as in Last year. Profits or net income generally imply total revenue minus total expenses in a given period, in accounting, revenue is often referred to as the top line due to its position on the income statement at the very top. This is to be contrasted with the line which denotes net income. For non-profit organizations, annual revenue may be referred to as gross receipts, in general usage, revenue is income received by an organization in the form of cash or cash equivalents. Sales revenue or revenues is income received from selling goods or services over a period of time, tax revenue is income that a government receives from taxpayers. In more formal usage, revenue is a calculation or estimation of periodic income based on a standard accounting practice or the rules established by a government or government agency. Two common accounting methods, cash basis accounting and accrual basis accounting, corporations that offer shares for sale to the public are usually required by law to report revenue based on generally accepted accounting principles or International Financial Reporting Standards. In a double-entry bookkeeping system, revenue accounts are general ledger accounts that are summarized periodically under the heading Revenue or Revenues on an income statement, Revenue account names describe the type of revenue, such as Repair service revenue, Rent revenue earned or Sales. Money income from activities that are ordinary for a corporation, company, partnership. For some businesses, such as manufacturing and/or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods, service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees, Revenues from a businesss primary activities are reported as sales, sales revenue or net sales. This includes product returns and discounts for early payment of invoices, most businesses also have revenue that is incidental to the businesss primary activities, such as interest earned on deposits in a demand account. This is included in revenue but not included in net sales, Sales revenue does not include sales tax collected by the business. Other revenue is revenue from peripheral operations, for example, a company that manufactures and sells automobiles would record the revenue from the sale of an automobile as regular revenue. The combination of all the revenue generating systems of a business is called its revenue model, Revenue is a crucial part of financial statement analysis. The company’s performance is measured to the extent to which its asset inflows compare with its asset outflows, net income is the result of this equation, but revenue typically enjoys equal attention during a standard earnings call
25.
Textron Aviation
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The new business unit includes the Textron-owned Cessna. Textron Aviation will sell Beechcraft, Cessna, and Hawker branded aircraft under common management, the CEO of Cessna, Scott Ernest, was named as the first CEO of Textron Aviation Incorporated. Textron completed its purchase of Beech Holdings in March 2014 for approximately US$1.4 billion in cash. The parent company, Textron, financed the equity purchase and the repayment of Beechcrafts debt in cash, plus its issue of US$600 million in senior notes and a new US$500 million five-year term loan. Once the purchase was completed on March 14,2014, Textron combined Beechcraft with its existing Cessna subsidiary to form Textron Aviation, the old companies become brands of the new company due to their historical significance and name recognition. In January 2017 the company announced lay-offs as a result of falling business jet and turboprop sales, Textron CEO Scott Donnelly indicated that customers are seeking pricing levels that the company is not willing to support. Textron Aviation will also produce the Beechcraft T-6 Texan II trainer, the company has over 250,000 existing aircraft in the fleet for which it will provide aircraft parts and engineering support
26.
Boeing 737 MAX
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The Boeing 737 MAX is an American narrow-body jetliner series being developed by Boeing Commercial Airplanes as the successor to the Boeing 737 Next Generation series. As of December 31,2016, Boeing has 3,605 firm orders for the 737 MAX series, the 737 MAX8 first flew on January 29,2016, nearly 49 years after the maiden flight of the 737 on April 9,1967. The 737 MAX8 gained FAA certification on March 9,2017, first delivery is scheduled in May 2017 to Southwest Airlines, which expects to debut it later in October, after Malindo Air during the second quarter. In 2006, Boeing started considering the replacement of the 737 with a design that could follow the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. In November 2014, it was reported that Boeing intended to replace the 737 by 2030 with a new design, possibly with a composite airframe, in 2010, Boeings competitor, Airbus, launched the Airbus A320neo with new engines to improve fuel burn and operating efficiency. The decision was met with positive reaction by many airlines and they began ordering large numbers of the aircraft, pressure from airlines for more fuel efficient aircraft forced Boeing to shelve plans for developing a replacement aircraft, the Boeing Y1, and instead focus on upgrading the 737. On August 30,2011, the board of directors approved the 737 MAX project. Boeing predicts that the 737 MAX will provide a 16% lower fuel burn than the current Airbus A320, Boeing expects the 737 MAX to meet or exceed the range of the Airbus A320neo. Studies for additional drag reduction were being performed as of 2011, including revised tail cone, natural laminar flow nacelle, in December 2013, Boeing stated that a recent internal audit forecasts a 14% lower fuel burn than current 737NG series aircraft. After having increased 737 production to 42 per month in 2014, Spirit Aerosystems manufactures the 737 MAXs thrust reversers. A shortage of a component for the thrust reverser has developed. While early test components met Boeings specifications, GKN is unable to ramp up production, the first 737 MAX fuselage completed assembly at Spirit Aerosystems in Wichita, Kansas, on August 13,2015. It will be a test aircraft and eventually be delivered to launch customer Southwest Airlines, on December 8,2015, the first 737 MAX was rolled out at Boeings Renton, Washington, factory, this 737 MAX8 is named Spirit of Renton. The first flight took place on January 29,2016 and it gained FAA certification on March 9,2017. It is expected to service in second quarter 2017 with Malindo Air. A new spar assembly line with robotic drilling machines should increase throughput by 33%, initially, the customers for the 737 MAX were not disclosed, except for American Airlines. On November 17,2011, Boeing released the names of two other customers – Lion Air and SMBC Aviation Capital, at that time, Boeing reported 700 commitments from 9 customers for the 737 MAX. On December 13,2011, Southwest Airlines ordered 150737 MAX aircraft with 150 options, by December 2011, Boeing had 948 commitments and firm orders from 13 customers for the 737 MAX
27.
Boeing 777X
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The Boeing 777X is a new series of the Boeing 777 family under development. The 777X will have two variants, the 777-8 and the 777-9, the 777X will feature new engines, new composite wings with folding wingtips, and technologies from the Boeing 787. It is intended to compete with the Airbus A350, deliveries are expected to begin in 2020. In September 2011, Boeing released more details on proposed new 777 versions, tentatively designated 777-8X and 777-9X, preliminary estimates placed entry into service for the first 777X variants at around 2019. In August 2012, a report in the Seattle Times stated that Boeing had slowed 777X development, in May 2013, Boeings board of directors gave formal permission for its Commercial Airplanes division to start offering the 777X to customers. On September 18,2013, Lufthansas supervisory board gave approval to order 34 Boeing 777-9X aircraft to replace its 747-400s, at the time, Boeing was reportedly planning to launch the 777X series later in 2013. The 777-9X would feature extended horizontal stabilizers compared to the -300ER, the 777-9Xs planned length exceeds the 250 ft 2 in length of the Boeing 747-8, currently the worlds longest airliner. Wingspan was expected to increase from the current 212 ft 7 in to 234 ft, in addition, gross weight was tentatively slated to decrease slightly from the current 775,000 lb to approximately 759,000 lb for the -9X model. Boeing was also studying an ultra long-range replacement for the 777-200LR, conceptually dubbed the 777-8LX and its range will be 9,480 nmi compared to 9,395 nmi for the −200LR. The 777-8LXs fuselage length would match that of the proposed −8X at 228.17 ft, in February 2012, General Electric disclosed studies on a slightly smaller engine, dubbed the General Electric GE9X, to power the 777X. The engine was to use the fan diameter from the GE90-115B and have a decreased thrust rating per engine of 99,500 lbf for the -9X and -8XL. In March 2013, the GE9X was selected as the engine to power the 777X. GE subsequently updated the GE9X specifications to reflect growing concerns that the 777X would be underpowered. Design changes included an increase of thrust to 102,000 lbf, the decision to offer the aircraft with only one engine type is somewhat controversial. Some airlines bemoan the loss of competition among makers, Steven Udvar-Hazy. Airbus has pointed out that equipping a commercial aircraft to more than one type of engine adds millions of dollars to the purchase price. A Pratt & Whitney executive told the Wall Street Journal, Engines are no longer commodities. the optimization of the engine, Boeing officially launched the 777X at the 2013 Dubai Airshow in November 2013, announcing a total of 259 orders and commitments worth more than US$95 billion. According to Boeing, this was the largest product launch by dollar value in the history of commercial aviation
28.
General aviation
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General aviation is the term for all civil aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire. General aviation flights range from gliders and powered parachutes to corporate business jet flights, the majority of the worlds air traffic falls into this category, and most of the worlds airports serve general aviation exclusively. General aviation covers a range of activities, both commercial and non-commercial, including flying clubs, flight training, agricultural aviation, light aircraft manufacturing. Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK,96 per cent are engaged in GA operations, there are 28,000 Private Pilot Licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities, GA operates from more than 1,800 airports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips. GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority, although regulatory powers are being transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency. The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing, general aviation is particularly popular in North America, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft. In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 560 airports in the U. S, aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States GDP, accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing. Most countries have authorities that oversee all civil aviation, including general aviation, Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours
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Business jet
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A business jet, private jet, or bizjet, or simply B. J. is a jet aircraft designed for transporting small groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as the evacuation of casualties or express parcel deliveries, the Lockheed JetStar, seating ten passengers and two crew, first flew on 4 September 1957. The smaller,17,760 pounds MTOW North American Sabreliner first flew on 16 September 1958, powered by two Pratt & Whitney JT12 turbojet engines then Garrett TFE731, more than 800 were produced from 1959 to 1982. The 25,000 pounds MTOW British Aerospace 125 first flew on 13 August 1962 and its engine were replaced by Garrett TFE731, then Pratt & Whitney Canada PW300 turbofans. Almost 1,700 aircraft were produced between 1962 and 2013 after being marketed as the Hawker 800, the 23,500 pounds MTOW IAI Westwind, developed by Aero Commander, first flew on 27 January 1963, powered by two General Electric CJ610 turbojets, then Garrett TFE731. 442 were built from 1965 to 1987 and it was developed in the IAI Astra, the 29,000 pounds MOTW Dassault Falcon 20 first flew on 4 May 1963, powered by two General Electric CF700, then Garrett ATF3 turbofans and Garrett TFE731. From 1963 to 1988,508 were built and it is the basis of the Dassault Falcon family, the first light jet first flew on 7 October 1963, the Learjet 23. Powered by two 2,850 pounds-force General Electric CJ610, its 12,500 pounds MTOW complies with FAR Part 23 regulations,104 were built between 1962 and 1966 and it is the first member of the Learjet Family. On 2 October 1966 the first large business jet first flew, from 1967 to the late 70s,258 were built and it led to the ongoing Gulfstream Aerospace long range family. The 11,850 pounds MTOW Cessna Citation I first flew on 15 September 1969, produced between 1969 and 1985 at 689 samples, it is the first of the Cessna Citation family. The trijet Dassault Falcon 50 made its first flight the 7 November 1976, the 40,000 pounds MTOW airplane is powered by three 3,700 pounds-force TFE731. With the cross-section of the Falcon 20, it is the basis of the larger Falcon 900, on 8 November 1978, the prototype Canadair Challenger took off. The 43, 000–48,000 pounds MTOW craft, usually powered by two 9,200 pounds-force General Electric CF34, the basis of the long range Global Express family, the 1000th Challenger has entered service in 2015. On May 30,1979 took off the clean-sheet 22,000 pounds MTOW Cessna Citation III powered by two 3,650 pounds-force TFE731, basis of the larger Citation X, the Mitsubishi MU-300 Diamond made its first flight on 29 August 1978. The 16,100 pounds MTOW jet was powered by two 2,900 pounds-force JT15D,950 has been produced, it was renamed Beechjet 400 then Hawker 400. The 1980s only saw the introduction of derivatives and no new design. The clean-sheet Learjet 45 took off on 7 October 1995, the 21,500 pounds is powered by two 3,500 pounds-force TFE731. Powered by two 2,300 pounds-force Williams FJ44, the 12,500 pounds Beechcraft Premier I light jet made its first flight on December 22,1998, nearly 300 has been made before the production stopped in 2013
30.
Regional airliner
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A regional airliner or a feederliner is a small airliner that is designed to fly up to 100 passengers on short-haul flights, usually feeding larger carriers airline hubs from small markets. This class of airliners are flown by the regional airlines that are either contracted by or subsidiaries of the larger airlines. Regional airliners are used for trips between smaller towns or from a larger city to a smaller city. Feederliner, commuter, and local service are all terms for the same class of flight operations. In the early days of aviation, most aircraft had a short range so that all airlines were regional in nature. Many of these regional airlines were eventually bought by the larger flag carriers. To keep these short routes economical, the airlines were generally unwilling to spend large amounts of money on new aircraft, also, as new models slowly emerged, older aircraft were put into this service when they were replaced by progressively longer-range designs. In the immediate post-war era these were typically Douglas DC-3s, although even the De Havilland Dragon Rapide biplane airliner remained in service for some time. This hand-me-down process of supplying aircraft continued with designs like the Convair 440, Douglas DC-6, by the mid-1950s, demand for even more economical designs led to the production of the first custom feederliners. These were almost always turboprops, which had fuel economy on par with piston engine designs, often the time between engine overhaul periods was five times that of the best piston engines. Early examples of these include the Fokker F27 Friendship, Avro 748. These designs were so successful that it was to be years before newer designs bettered them enough to make it worthwhile in terms of capital investment to develop. There were a few exceptions, generally tailored to more specific roles. For instance, the Handley Page Jetstream was intended for passengers at much higher speeds. The Fairchild/Swearingen Metro filled a similar niche, by the 1970s the first generation regional airliners were starting to wear out, but there had been little effort in producing new designs for this market. In the early 1980s, the Dash 8s success sparked off development of a number of designs, including the ATR 42/72, Saab 340, Embraer Brasilia. Consequently, there were a large number of aircraft offered by manufacturers in this sector of the market, pushing older 1950s designs from Fokker. Due to the level of competition, production of a number of these types ceased
31.
Competition between Airbus and Boeing
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The competition between Airbus and Boeing has been characterised as a duopoly in the large jet airliner market since the 1990s. In the 10 years from 2004 to 2014, Airbus has received 8,933 orders while delivering 4,824, in the midst of their intense competition, each company regularly accuses the other of receiving unfair state aid from their respective governments. Airbus and Boeing have wide product ranges including single-aisle and wide-body aircraft covering a variety of combinations of capacity, while the 737NG outsold the A320ceo family since its introduction in 1998, it is still lagging overall with 7033 orders against 7940 in January 2016. Airbus received 4471 orders since the A320neo launch in December 2010, in the same timeframe, the neo had 3355 orders. Flight Global fleet forecasts 7,960 twin aisle deliveries for a $1,284 Bn value for the 2016-2035 period. The B787 should lead with 31% of the share, followed by the A350 with 27%. During the 1990s both companies researched the feasibility of a passenger aircraft larger than the Boeing 747, which was then the largest airliner in operation, the Airbus A380 and the Boeing 747-8 are therefore placed in direct competition on long-haul routes. Rival performance claims by Airbus and Boeing appear to be contradictory, their methodologies unclear, the 747-8Fs empty weight is expected to be 80 tonnes lighter and 24% lower fuel burnt per ton with 21% lower trip costs and 23% lower ton-mile costs than the A380F. Emirates Tim Clark also claims that the A380 is more fuel economic at Mach 0.86 than at 0.83, a possible, as yet uncommitted, re-engined A380neo is expected to achieve 2.82 or 2.65 L/seat/100 km depending on the options taken. Airbus emphasises the longer range of the A380 while using up to 17% shorter runways, Airbus delivered the 100th A380 on 14 March 2013. From 2012, Airbus will offer, as an option, a variant with improved maximum take-off weight allowing for better payload/range performance, the precise increase in maximum take-off weight is still unknown. British Airways and Emirates will be the first customers to take this offer, as of December 2015, Airbus has 319 orders for the passenger version of the A380 and is not currently offering the A380-800 freighter. Production of the A380F has been suspended until the A380 production lines have settled with no firm availability date, a number of original A380F orders were cancelled following delays to the A380 program in October 2006, notably FedEx and the United Parcel Service. Some A380 launch customers converted their A380F orders to the passenger version or switched to the 747-8F or 777F aircraft. At Farnborough in July 2016, Airbus announced that in a “prudent, proactive step, ” starting in 2018 it expects to deliver 12 A380 aircraft per year, down from 27 deliveries in 2015. The firm also warned production might slip back into red ink on each aircraft produced at that time, the firm expects that healthy demand for its other aircraft would allow it to avoid job losses from the cuts. As of June 2014, Boeing has 51 orders for the 747-8I passenger version and 69 for the 747-8F freighter, upon review of Boeings protest, the Government Accountability Office ruled in favour of Boeing and ordered the USAF to recompete the contract. Later, the call for aircraft was rescheduled, then cancelled
32.
Aerospace manufacturer
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Aerospace is a high technology industry. In Russia, large companies like Oboronprom and the United Aircraft Corporation are among the major global players in this industry. In the United States, the Department of Defense and NASA are the two biggest consumers of technology and products. By 1999 U. S. share of the market fell to 52 percent. Important locations of the aerospace industry worldwide include Seattle, Wichita, Kansas, Dayton, Ohio. Several consolidations took place in the aerospace and defense industries over the last few decades, between 1988 and 2010, more than 5,452 mergers & acquisitions with a total known-value of US$579 billion were announced worldwide. The largest transactions include the merger of Boeing with McDonnell Douglas valued at US$13.3 billion in 1996, marconi Electronic Systems, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc, was acquired by British Aerospace for US$12.3 billion in 1999 merger, to forme BAE Systems. Raytheon acquired Hughes Aircraft Company for $9.5 billion in 1997, Aerospace Aviation accidents and incidents List of aircraft manufacturers List of spacecraft manufacturers Aerospace Industries Association Associação das Indústrias Aeroespaciais do Brasil
33.
Maintenance, repair and operations
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Maintenance, repair, and operations involves fixing any sort of mechanical, plumbing, or electrical device should it become out of order or broken. In the former case it may be an operation within a larger organization or smaller operation. The former of these represents a closed loop supply chain and usually has the scope of maintenance, repair, the latter of the categorisations is an open loop supply chain and is typified by refurbishment and remanufacture. The main characteristic of the loop system is that the demand for a product is matched with the supply of a used product. Neglecting asset write-offs and exceptional activities the total population of the product between the customer and the service provider remains constant, for material – all action taken to retain material in a serviceable condition or to restore it to serviceability. It includes inspection, testing, servicing, classification as to serviceability, repair, rebuilding, for material – all supply and repair action taken to keep a force in condition to carry out its mission. For material – the routine recurring work required to keep a facility in such condition that it may be used, at its original or designed capacity. Manufacturers and industrial-supply companies often refer to MRO as opposed to original equipment manufacturer, OEM includes any activity related to the direct manufacture of goods, where MRO refers to any maintenance, repair or overhaul activity to keep a manufacturing plant or facility running. Maintenance is strictly connected to the stage of ideation, in which the concept of maintainability must be included, overhaul extends to the concept of improving performance over and above original design specification. Corrective maintenance where equipment is repaired or replaced after wear, malfunction or break down, preventive maintenance is maintenance performed with the intent of avoiding failures, safety violations, unnecessary production costs and losses, and to conserve original materials of fabrication. The effectiveness of a maintenance schedule depends on the RCM analysis which it was based on
34.
Full flight simulator
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Full flight simulator is a term used by national aviation authorities for a high technical level of flight simulator. Such authorities include the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States and this work has been accepted by ICAO and is published under ICAO document 9625 Issue 3. The new Type 7 Full Flight Simulator will be the old Level D with enhancements in a number of areas including motion, visual, a Level D/Type 7 simulator simulates all aircraft systems that are accessible from the flight deck and are critical to training. This standard of simulator is used both for initial and recurrent training for air transport aircraft. A Level D/Type 7 FFS also provides feedback to the crew through a motion platform upon which the simulator cabin is mounted. The display system that shows imagery of the world to the pilots, is generally designed so that the imagery appears at a distant focus. This is called a display, a word derived from co-linear. The reason is so that each of two pilots, sitting side by side, can see essentially the same OTW imagery without angular errors or distortions, if a simple projection screen were used instead of a collimated display, each pilot would see the OTW at different angles. So at l =1.5 m and R =5 m angle φ ≈17 ∘, Flight simulator Acceleration onset cueing Latency Stewart platform Collimation
35.
Boeing
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The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
36.
Airbus
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Airbus SAS is a division of the multinational Airbus Group SE that manufactures civil aircraft. It is based in Blagnac, France, a suburb of Toulouse, with production and manufacturing facilities mainly in France, Germany, Spain, China, United Kingdom, Airbus began as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers, Airbus Industrie. After a protracted sales process BAE sold its shareholding to EADS on 13 October 2006, Airbus has sixteen key sites in four countries, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom. Final assembly production is based at Toulouse, France, Hamburg, Germany, Seville, Spain, Tianjin, China, Airbus has subsidiaries in the United States, Japan and India. The company produces and markets the first commercially viable digital fly-by-wire airliner, the Airbus A320, and the worlds largest passenger airliner, Airbus Industrie began as a consortium of European aviation firms formed to compete with American companies such as Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Lockheed. While many European aircraft were innovative, even the most successful had small production runs, in the mid-1960s, tentative negotiations commenced regarding a European collaborative approach. The same year Hawker Siddeley teamed with Breguet and Nord to study airbus designs, the Hawker Siddeley/Breguet/Nord groups HBN100 became the basis for the continuation of the project. By 1966 the partners were Sud Aviation, later Aérospatiale, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Airbus, later Deutsche Airbus, a request for funding was made to the three governments in October 1966. On 25 July 1967 the three agreed to proceed with the proposal. In the two years following this agreement, both the British and French governments expressed doubts about the project, the MoU had stated that 75 orders must be achieved by 31 July 1968. With concerns at proposal of the A300B proposal in December 1968, and fearing it would not recoup its investment due to lack of sales, West Germany took this opportunity to increase its share of the project to 50%. Given the participation by Hawker Siddeley up to point, France. Thus the British company was allowed to continue as a privileged subcontractor, Hawker Siddeley invested GB£35 million in tooling and, requiring more capital, received a GB£35 million loan from the West German government. Airbus Industrie was formally established as a Groupement dIntérêt Économique on 18 December 1970 and it had been formed by a government initiative between France, West Germany and the UK that originated in 1967. Its initial shareholders were the French company Aérospatiale and the West German company Deutsche Airbus, Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus each took a 36. 5% share of production work, Hawker Siddeley 20% and the Dutch company Fokker-VFW 7%. Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly items, in October 1971 the Spanish company CASA acquired a 4. 2% share of Airbus Industrie, with Aérospatiale and Deutsche Airbus reducing their stakes to 47. 9%. In January 1979 British Aerospace, which had absorbed Hawker Siddeley in 1977, the majority shareholders reduced their shares to 37. 9%, while CASA retained its 4. 2%. The Airbus A300 was to be the first aircraft to be developed, manufactured and marketed by Airbus, by early 1967 the A300 label began to be applied to a proposed 320 seat, twin engined airliner
37.
Embraer
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Embraer S. A. is a Brazilian aerospace conglomerate that produces commercial, military, executive and agricultural aircraft and provides aeronautical services. It is headquartered in São José dos Campos, São Paulo State, seeking to develop a domestic aircraft industry, the Brazilian government made several investments in this area during the 1940s and 50s. However, it was not until 1969 that Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica was created as a government-owned corporation and its first president, Ozires Silva, was a government appointee, and the company initially produced a turboprop passenger aircraft, the Embraer EMB110 Bandeirante. The Brazilian Government contributed to Embraers early growth by providing production contracts, the company sold solely to the domestic market until 1975. Aimed at the market, this plane was the first of Embraers highly successful small airliners. In 1974, the company started to produce Piper Aircraft light planes under license, Piper first put together knock-down kits in their US factory for Embraer to assemble and market in Brazil and Latin America. By 1978, most of the parts and components were being sourced locally, between 1974 and 2000, nearly 2,500 license-built Pipers were produced by Embraer. Born from a Brazilian government plan and having been state-run from the beginning and this was a period of privatization for many state-controlled companies in Brazil. Embraer was sold on December 7,1994, which helped it avoid a looming bankruptcy, the company continued to win government contracts. The Brazilian government retains interest through possession of golden shares, which allow it veto power, in 2000, Embraer made simultaneous initial public offerings on the NYSE and BM&F Bovespa stock exchanges. In the mid-1990s, the company pursued a line more focused on small commercial planes over the military aircraft that had previously made up the majority of its manufacturing. It soon expanded to the production of larger airliners, with 70–110 seats. Today, the company manufactures for both defense and commerce, at the 2000 Farnborough Airshow, Embraer launched the Legacy 600, a business jet variant of the ERJ. In 2002, a business unit was organised as Embraer Executive Jets as the Legacy was introduced. In 2005, the Phenom 100 was then conceptualised as an air taxi like the Eclipse 500, competing with Cessna and it was introduced in 2008 and is the basis of the larger Phenom 300. The midsize Legacy 450 and Legacy 500 were jointly developed as clean sheet designs, in 2016, Embraer delivered its 1, 000th executive jet and have a market share of 17% by volume, acknowledging it lacks an ultra-long-range large cabin jet. On April 19,2007, Embraer announced it was considering the production of a military transport. Work began in May 2009 with funding from the Brazilian Air Force, correios, the Brazilian postal service, has shown interest in buying this aircraft
38.
Bombardier Aerospace
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Bombardier Aerospace is a division of Bombardier Inc. It is headquartered in Dorval, Quebec, Canada, after acquiring Canadair in 1986 and restoring it to profitability, in 1989 Bombardier acquired the near-bankrupt Short Brothers aircraft manufacturing company in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The aerospace company now accounts for half of Bombardier Inc. s revenue. It also manufactured the Bombardier 415 amphibious water-bomber, and the Global Express, the CSeries, which Bombardier offers in several size versions, is competing with the Airbus A318 and Airbus A319, the Boeing 737 Next Generation 737-600 and 737-700 models, and the Embraer 195. The launch customer for the CSeries, Lufthansa, signed a letter of intent for up to 60 aircraft and 30 options in 2008, the manufacturing complex in Montreal was redeveloped by Ghafari Associates to incorporate lean manufacturing of its CSeries aircraft. In January 2012, the company began manufacturing simple structures such as controls for the CRJ series from a transitional facility near Casablanca, Morocco. On 30 September 2013 it broke ground on its permanent facility, the consortium would include Korea Aerospace Industries and Korean Air Lines. In November 2012, the signed the largest deal in its history, with Swiss business jet operator VistaJet. The deal included an option for Bombardier to manufacture and sell an additional 86 Global jets, in April 2013, Canadas Porter Airlines placed a conditional order for 12 CSeries aircraft, with options for another 18. However, this was conditional on the Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport allowing jets to use the facilities, studies underway included an environmental assessment, master planning exercise and preliminary runway design. In 2015, the Government of Canada announced that it would not approve a change to allow jets at the airport, in January 2014, Bombardier Inc. cut 1,700 employees from Bombardier Aerospace to save costs due to a 19 percent drop in orders in 2013. In July the same year, Bombardier reorganized its structure in response to its underperformance. President Guy Hachey retired and Bombardier Aerospace was split into three divisions, business aircraft, commercial aircraft and aerostructures, and engineering services, as part of the corporate overhaul,1,800 jobs were cut. On 29 October 2015 Bombardier announced a US$4. 9-billion third-quarter loss, Bombardier also said it would cancel its Learjet 85 program, taking another US$1. 2-billion writedown and cancelling the 64 outstanding orders. Particularly because of the CSeries, the debt had reached approximately $9 Billion. Bombardier shares fell 17.4 per cent on that day, on 17 February 2016, Bombardier announced its 2015 profits were $138 million before taking a $5.4 billion write-down. That same week, the company announced it would cut 7,000 jobs. At the time, the company had only 243 firm orders and letters of intent and commitment for another 360, most of these were for the CS300 model
39.
ATR Aircraft
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ATR is a French-Italian aircraft manufacturer headquartered on the grounds of Toulouse Blagnac International Airport in Blagnac, France. It was formed in 1981 by Aérospatiale of France and Aeritalia of Italy and its primary products are the ATR42 and ATR72 aircraft. Alenia Aeronauticas manufacturing facilities in Pomigliano dArco, near Naples, Italy, produce the aircraft fuselage, aircraft wings are assembled at Sogerma in Bordeaux in western France by Airbus France. Final assembly, flight-testing, certification and deliveries are the responsibility of ATR in Toulouse,1988, delivered the 100th ATR to Trans World Express in August. 1990, delivered the 200th ATR to Thai Airways, Thailand on September 13,1992, delivered the 300th ATR to Karair, Finland in September. 1997, delivered the 500th ATR to American Eagle, USA on September 5, (ATR 500th aircraft 2000, delivered the 600th ATR to Air Dolomiti, Italy on April 28. ATR 600th aircraft 2006, delivered the 700th aircraft to Air Deccan,2010, delivered the 900th aircraft to TRIP Linhas Aéreas, Brasil on September 10. 2012, delivered the 1, 000th aircraft to Air Nostrum, ATR42 ATR72 ATR82 – During the mid-1980s, the company investigated a 78-seat derivative of the ATR72. This would have been powered by two Allison AE2100 turboprops and would have a speed as high as 330 knots. The ATR-82 project was suspended when AI was formed in early 1996, ATR stretch – In 2007, as a response to the Q400X proposal, ATR floated the idea of a 90–99 seater stretch. As of 2009, it was considered as part of the future -900 series ATR family, in 2011, the 90-seater proposal was brought to its shareholders as a proposal. As of 2012, a new clean sheet design has been considered in the 90-seat segment, for a 2017 launch
40.
Twinjet
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A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. As of today, there are three most common configurations of twinjet aircraft, the first has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing, usually for standard narrow-body and wide-body airliners. The second has one engine mounted on each side of the fuselage, close to its empennage. The first twinjet ever to fly was the April 1941-debuted German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280, the twinjet configuration was originally suitable for the short-range narrow-body such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. The MD-11s long range advantage was brief as it was nullified by the Airbus A330s four-engine derivative, the Airbus A340. The Boeing 737 twinjet stands out as the most produced jet airliner, the Boeing 777 is the worlds largest twinjet, and the 777-200LR variant is the worlds longest range airliner. Other Boeing twinjets include the 767,757 and 787, competitor Airbus produces the A320 family, the A330, and the A350. Some modern commercial airplanes still use four engines like the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8, four engines are still used on the largest cargo aircraft capable of transporting outsize cargo, including strategic airlifters. There are plans to revive production of 6 engine giants like the Antonov An-225 Mriya, twin jets tend to be more fuel-efficient than trijet and quad-jet aircraft. As fuel efficiency in airliners is a priority, many airlines are increasingly retiring trijet and quad-jet designs in favor of twinjets since the 2000s. The trijet designs were phased out first, in due to the more complicated design. One of the reasons for the jets is cost of the engines itself which make up a significant proportion of the planes final cost. Each engine also require service, paperwork, and certificates, so fewer engines means less to repair or replace and this is also the reason why private aviation generally consists of aircraft with only 1-2 engines. The stability and fewer errors of modern engines leads naturally to as few engines as possible, when flying far from diversionary airports, the aircraft must be able to reach an alternate on the remaining engine within a specified time in case of one engine failure. When aircraft are certified according to ETOPS standards, thrust is not an issue, mostly, ETOPS certification involves maintenance and design requirements ensuring that a failure of one engine cannot make the other one fail also. The engines and related systems need to be independent and independently maintained, ETOPS/LROPS is often incorrectly thought to apply only to long overwater flights, but it applies to any flight more than a specified distances from an available diversion airport. Overwater flights near diversion airports need not be ETOPS/LROPS-compliant, in other words, a fully laden twinjet must be able to climb on one engine. Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate Transatlantic flight, on a nonstop flight from America to Asia the long-range aircraft usually follows the great circle route
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