1.
St Mary Peak
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St Mary Peak is a mountain located in the Australian state of South Australia on the northwestern side of Wilpena Pound and is the highest peak in the Flinders Ranges with a height of 1,189 metres. It is located within the Flinders Ranges National Park and the locality of Flinders Ranges. St Mary Peak is the eighth highest peak in South Australia and it is commonly misspelled St Marys Peak. The Adnyamathanha people have expressed concern with tourists trekking to St Mary Peak as they regard it as a sacred place, list of mountains in Australia Image of St Mary Peak and Wilpena Pound on Google Maps
2.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
5.
South Australia
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South Australia is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country, with a total land area of 983,482 square kilometres, it is the fourth-largest of Australias states and territories. Other population centres in the state are relatively small, the state comprises less than 8 percent of the Australian population and ranks fifth in population among the six states and two territories. The majority of its people reside in Adelaide, most of the remainder are settled in fertile areas along the south-eastern coast and River Murray. The states colonial origins are unique in Australia as a settled, planned British province. Official settlement began on 28 December 1836, when the colony was proclaimed at the Old Gum Tree by Governor John Hindmarsh, as with the rest of the continent, the region had been long occupied by Aboriginal peoples, who were organised into numerous tribes and languages. The first British settlement to be established was Kingscote, Kangaroo Island, on 26 July 1836, the guiding principle behind settlement was that of systematic colonisation, a theory espoused by Edward Gibbon Wakefield that was later employed by the New Zealand Company. The goal was to establish the province as a centre of civilisation for free immigrants, promising civil liberties, although its history is marked by economic hardship, South Australia has remained politically innovative and culturally vibrant. Today, it is known for its wine and numerous cultural festivals. The states economy is dominated by the agricultural, manufacturing and mining industries, the state has an increasingly significant finance sector as well. Evidence of human activity in South Australia dates back as far as 20,000 years, with flint mining activity, in addition wooden spears and tools were made in an area now covered in peat bog in the South East. Kangaroo Island was inhabited long before the island was cut off by rising sea levels, thijssen named his discovery Pieter Nuyts Land, after the highest ranking individual on board. The complete coastline of South Australia was first mapped by Matthew Flinders, the land which now forms the state of South Australia was claimed for Britain in 1788 as part of the colony of New South Wales. Although the new colony included almost two-thirds of the continent, early settlements were all on the eastern coast and it took more than forty years before any serious proposal to establish settlements in the south-western portion of New South Wales were put forward. In 1834, the British Parliament passed the South Australia Act 1834, the act stated that 802,511 square kilometres would be allotted to the colony and it would be convict-free. In contrast to the rest of Australia, terra nullius did not apply to the new province, although the patent guaranteed land rights under force of law for the indigenous inhabitants it was ignored by the South Australian Company authorities and squatters. Settlement of seven vessels and 636 people was made at Kingscote on Kangaroo Island. The first immigrants arrived at Holdfast Bay in November 1836, the Colonisation Commissioners intended to establish a police service as soon as misconduct within the increasing population warranted it
6.
Adelaide
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Adelaide is the capital city of the state of South Australia, and the fifth-most populous city of Australia. In June 2016, Adelaide had a resident population of 1,326,354 million. South Australia, with a total of 1, the demonym Adelaidean is used in reference to the city and its residents. Adelaide is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges which surround the city. Adelaide stretches 20 km from the coast to the foothills, and 94 to 104 km from Gawler at its northern extent to Sellicks Beach in the south. Named in honour of Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, queen consort to King William IV, Colonel William Light, one of Adelaides founding fathers, designed the city and chose its location close to the River Torrens, in the area originally inhabited by the Kaurna people. Lights design set out Adelaide in a layout, interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares. Early Adelaide was shaped by prosperity and wealth—until the Second World War, it was Australias third-largest city and it has been noted for early examples of religious freedom, a commitment to political progressivism and civil liberties. It has been known as the City of Churches since the mid-19th century, as South Australias seat of government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the boulevard of North Terrace, King William Street. Today, Adelaide is noted for its festivals and sporting events, its food and wine, its long beachfronts. It ranks highly in terms of liveability, being listed in the Top 10 of The Economist Intelligence Units Worlds Most Liveable Cities index in 2010,2011,2012 and 2015. It was also ranked the most liveable city in Australia by the Property Council of Australia in 2011,2012 and 2013, prior to its proclamation as a British settlement in 1836, the area around Adelaide was inhabited by the indigenous Kaurna Aboriginal nation. Kaurna culture and language was almost completely destroyed within a few decades of the European settlement of South Australia in 1836, however, extensive documentation by early missionaries and other researchers has enabled a modern revival of both language and culture. South Australia was officially proclaimed as a new British colony on 28 December 1836, the event is commemorated in South Australia as Proclamation Day. The site of the capital was surveyed and laid out by Colonel William Light. Adelaide was established as a colony of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution. Wakefields idea was for the Government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen
7.
Port Pirie
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Port Pirie is the sixth most populous city in South Australia after Adelaide, Mount Gambier, Whyalla, Murray Bridge and Port Lincoln. It is a seaport on the east coast of the Spencer Gulf,223 km north of Adelaide, at June 2015 Port Pirie had an estimated urban population of 14,247. The settlement was founded in 1845 and is the site of the worlds largest lead smelter and it also produces refined silver, zinc, copper and gold. Prior to European settlement, the location that became Port Pirie was occupied by the tribe of Nukunu. The location was called Tarparrie, which is suspected to mean Muddy Creek, the first European to see the location was Matthew Flinders in 1802 as he explored the Spencer Gulf by boat. The first land discovery by settlers of the location was by the explorer Edward Eyre who explored regions around Port Augusta, John Horrocks also discovered a pass through the Flinders Ranges to the coast, now named Horrocks Pass. The town was originally called Samuels Creek after the discovery of Muddy Creek by Samuel Germein, in 1846, Port Pirie Creek was named by Governor Robe after the John Pirie, the first vessel to navigate the creek when transporting sheep from Bowmans Run near Crystal Brook. In 1848, Matthew Smith and Emanuel Solomon bought 85 acres, little development occurred on site and by the late 1860s there were only three woolsheds on the riverfront. The government town was surveyed in December 1871 by Charles Hope Harris, the thoroughfares and streets were named after the family of George Goyder, Surveyor General of South Australia, with the streets running parallel and at right angles to the river. In 1873 the land of Solomon and Smith was re-surveyed and named Solomontown, on 28 September 1876, Port Pirie was declared a municipality, with a population of 947. In 1889 a lead smelter was built by the British Blocks company to treat Broken Hill ore, Broken Hill Proprietary initially leased the smelter from British Blocks and then began constructing their own smelter from 1892. In 1915 the smelter was taken over by a joint venture of Broken Hill-based companies. Led by the Collins House Group, BHAS became the biggest lead smelter in the world by 1934, the smelter gradually passed to Pasminco, then Zinifex, and is now operated by Nyrstar. By 1921 the towns population had grown to 9801 living in 2308 occupied dwellings, by this date there were also 62 boarding houses to cater for the labour demands at the smelter and on the increasingly busy waterfront. Port Pirie was declared South Australias first provincial city in 1953 and it is characterised by a gracious main street and some interesting and unusual historic buildings. Approximately 51. 8% of the population were female,86. 9% are Australian born, the most popular industries for employment were Basic Non-Ferrous Metal Manufacturing, School Education, Hospitality, Health and Animal Husbandry, while the unemployment rate is approx. The median weekly income is A$608 or more per week. 27. 1% of the population identify themselves as Catholic, while 23. 7% identify with no religion at all, Port Pirie is at an elevation of 4 metres above sea level
8.
Lake Callabonna
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Lake Callabonna is a dry salt lake with little to no vegetation located in the Far North region of South Australia. The 160-square-kilometre lake is situated approximately 120 kilometres southwest of Cameron Corner and it is also known as Lake Mulligan. The lake is an important site for late Pleistocene fossils, the first pastoralists in the area were the Ragless brothers in 1881, who moved there from the northern Flinders Ranges, opening a sheep-run. In January 1892 Fred Ragless came across a number of giant skeletons embedded in the dry surface of the lake, an expedition partly funded by Sir Thomas Elder and E. C. Stirling, director of the South Australian Museum, was organised, after several visits, Stirling and A. H. C. Zietz collected a number of diprotodon and dromornithidae skeletons. The area was designated a Fossil Reserve in 1901, and access is restricted, the northern end of Lake Callabonna is within the boundary of the Strzelecki Regional Reserve. Lake Callabonna is the location of a site where the skeletons of Diprotodon. The site is considered to have “a very high palaeontological significance. ”A fossil reserve was dedicated in 1901 under state law which currently in force as of 2002 as the Crown Lands Act 1929 with administrative responsibility lying with the South Australian Museum. ”It was listed on the South Australian Heritage Register on 13 February 1997. List of lakes of South Australia List of fossil parks
9.
Wilpena Pound
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Wilpena Pound is a natural amphitheatre of mountains located 429 kilometres north of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia in the heart of the Flinders Ranges National Park. The Pound is the most northern point with access via a road in this part of the Flinders Ranges. The closest town to the north is Blinman and to the south, attempts at farming the Pound failed during the early 20th century. Following this the tourism potential was recognised in 1945, the area is part of the Adelaide Geosyncline. A corresponding anticline is located in the adjacent Moralana Gorge, with the Elder Range on the western limb. Although from the outside the Pound appears as a range of mountains. A gorge called Wilpena Gap has been cut in the eastern range, a small part of the high northern slopes of the Pound drains into Edeowie Creek, which drains in time of flood over steep cliffs and waterfalls in Edeowie Gorge to the north. The highest peak in the Pound, also the highest of the Flinders Ranges, is St Mary Peak, to the south of the Gap on the eastern side, the highest peak is Point Bonney. On the north-western side of the Pound, the highest point is Pompeys Pillar and this latter saddle is called Bridle Gap, supposedly because its the only place other than the gorge where a skilled horseman might ride into the Pound. The interior of the Pound does not rise to a height at the northern edge, the traditional owners, the Adnyamathanha, however, have no such word in their language. Their name for the Pound is Ikara which means meeting place and its not clear who named St Mary Peak, a somewhat discredited turn-of-the-century account has the surveyor B. H. Babbage naming it in 1856, but others says that the pastoralist George Marchant suggested the name while in the area in 1851, Point Bonney was named after the Crown Commissioner of Lands Charles Bonney, while Rawnsleys Bluff is named after the surveyor H. C. However, it had been marked on a survey in 1851 as Mount Ohlssen-Bagge. In recent years the name has regained preeminence. Bimbornina Hill has recently gained some usage as a name for Dicks Nob, the original 1851 name for Dorothys Peak was Mount Boord, after the pioneer of Oraparinna station, but this name has not regained any usage. Although not part of the Pound, the adjacent Elder Range was named by Frederick Sinnett after the very successful Adelaide businessman, the Adnyamathanha aboriginals were the original inhabitants of Wilpena Pound. The Adnyamathanha translate Pound to mean meeting or initiation place in their own language, the head of the male and female serpents formed St. Mary Peak and Beatrice Hill, respectively. Matthew Flinders botanist Robert Brown had climbed one of the highest peaks of the southern Flinders in March 1802, immediately after the first Europeans explored the ranges at first hand, discovering the Pound and its prospects for pastoralism, there was debate as to who was actually first
10.
Sickle
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Falx was a synonym but was later used to mean any of a number of tools that had a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge such as a scythe. Since the beginning of the Iron Age hundreds of variants of the sickle have evolved, initially of iron. The serrated blade that originated in prehistoric sickles still dominates in the reaping of grain and is found in modern grain-harvesting machines. The development of the sickle in Mesopotamia can be traced back to times that pre-date the Neolithic Era, large quantities of sickle blades have been excavated in sites surrounding Israel that have been dated to the Epipaleolithic era. Formal digs in Wadi Ziqlab, Jordan have unearthed various forms of early sickle blades, the artifacts recovered ranged from 10 to 20 cm in length and possessed a jagged edge. This intricate ‘tooth-like’ design showed a degree of design and manufacturing credence than most of the other artifacts that were discovered. Sickle blades found during this time were made of flint, straight, flints from these sickles have been discovered near Mt. Carmel, which suggest the harvesting of grains from the area about 10,000 years ago. The sickle had a impact on the Agricultural Revolution by assisting in the transition to farming. It is now accepted that the use of sickles led directly to the domestication of Near Eastern Wild grasses, research on domestication rates of wild cereals under primitive cultivation found that the use of the sickle in harvesting was critical to the people of early Mesopotamia. The relatively narrow growing season in the area and the role of grain in the late Neolithic Era promoted a larger investment in the design. Standardization to an extent was done on the measurements of the sickle so that replacement or repair could be more immediate and it was important that the grain be harvested at the appropriate time at one elevation so that the next elevation could be collected in the proper time. The sickle provided an efficient option in collecting the grain. The sickle remained common in the Bronze Age, both in the Ancient Near East and in Europe, numerous sickles have been found deposited in hoards in the context of the European Urnfield culture, suggesting a symbolic or religious significance attached to the artifact. In archaeological terminology, Bronze Age sickles are classified by the method of attaching the handle, E. g. the knob-sickle is so called because of a protruding knob at the base of the blade which apparently served to stabilize the attachment of the blade to the handle. The sickle has been discovered in southwest North America with a unique structure and these sickles are said to possibly have originated from the Far East. There is evidence that Kodiak islanders had for cutting grass “sickles made of an animal shoulder blade”. The artifacts found in present-day Arizona and New Mexico resemble curved tools that were made from the horns of mountain sheep, a similar site discovered sickles made from other material such as the Caddo Sickle, which was made from a deer mandible. Scripture from early natives document the use of sickles in the cutting of grass
11.
Amphitheatre
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An amphitheatre or amphitheater /ˈæmfᵻˌθiːətər/ is an open-air venue used for entertainment, performances, and sports. The term derives from the ancient Greek ἀμφιθέατρον, from ἀμφί, ancient Roman amphitheatres were oval or circular in plan, with seating tiers that surrounded the central performance area, like a modern open-air stadium. In contrast both ancient Greek and ancient Roman theatres were built in a semicircle, with tiered seating rising on one side of the performance area. In modern usage, amphitheatre is used to describe theatre-style stages with spectator seating on only one side, theatres in the round. Natural formations of similar shape are known as natural amphitheatres. Ancient Roman amphitheatres were major public venues, circular or oval in plan and they were used for events such as gladiator combats, chariot races, venationes and executions. About 230 Roman amphitheatres have been found across the area of the Roman Empire, the earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the 1st century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the Augustan period onwards. Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman empire, the largest could accommodate 40, the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary. After the end of games in the 5th century and of staged animal hunts in the 6th. Their materials were mined or recycled, some were razed, and others were converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places, in some of these, in modern usage, an amphitheatre is a circular, semicircular or curved, acoustically vibrant performance space, particularly one located outdoors. Small-scale amphitheatres can serve to host outdoor local community performances, notable modern amphitheatres include the Shoreline Amphitheatre and the Hollywood Bowl. The term amphitheatre is used for some indoor venues such as the Gibson Amphitheatre. The term amphitheatre can also be used to naturally occurring formations which would be ideal for this purpose. Arena Stadium Thingplatz List of Roman amphitheatres List of contemporary amphitheatres List of indoor arenas List of ancient Greek theatres Roman theatre Bomgardner, the Story of the Roman Amphitheatre
12.
Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park
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The Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park is situated approximately 400 km north of Adelaide in the northern central part of South Australias largest mountain range, the Flinders Ranges. The park covers an area of 912 km², northeast of the town of Hawker. The Heysen Trail and Mawson Trails pass through the park, the parks most characteristic landmark is Wilpena Pound, a large, sickle-shaped, natural amphitheatre covering nearly 80 km², containing the ranges highest peak, St Mary Peak. On 12 February 2016 the park was renamed to include the Adnyamathanha word, Ikara, meeting place, the park centre at Wilpena Pound is accessible by sealed road from Hawker. Other areas in the park can be reached by un-sealed roads, there are many lookouts, scenic vistas, small canyons and unusual rock formations located in the park. These include Wilpena Pound, Wilkawillina Gorge, Hucks Lookout, Brachina Gorge, Bunyeroo Gorge, the park has some stone ruins from early European settlement and Aboriginal rock art sites. A rock formation called the Great Wall of China is located just outside the park, camping is permitted at many locations in the park. The Flinders Ranges are largely composed of folded and faulted sediments of the Adelaide Geosyncline and this very thick sequence of sediments were deposited in a large basin during the Neoproterozoic on the passive margin of the ancient continent of Rodinia. During the Cambrian, approximately 540 million years ago, the area underwent the Delamerian orogeny where the sequence was folded and faulted into a large mountain range. Since this time the area has undergone erosion resulting in the low ranges today. Most of the ground and ridgetops in the Flinders are sequences of quartzites that outcrop along strike. The high walls of Wilpena Pound are formed by the beds of the eponymous Pound Quartzite in a synclinal structure. The same formation forms many of the high parts of the Flinders, including the high plateau of the Gammon Ranges. Cuesta forms are very common in the Flinders. The flora of the Flinders Ranges is composed largely of species adapted to an environment such as cypress-pine, mallee. Moister areas near Wilpena Pound support grevilleas, Guinea flowers, lilies, reeds and sedges grow near permanent water sources such as springs and waterholes. Since the eradication of dingos and the establishment of permanent waterholes for stock, the yellow-footed rock-wallaby, which neared extinction after the arrival of Europeans due to hunting and predation by foxes, has now stabilized. Other endemic marsupials include dunnarts, planigales, echidnas are the sole monotreme species in the park
13.
Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park
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They encompass some of the most rugged and spectacular country in South Australia. Other notable and interestingly named summits on the largely flat range and plateau include Elephant Hill, Mount Changeweather, Four Winds Hill, the local Aboriginal people are the Adnyamathanha. The current generation live largely on the station of Mount Serle. The national park is managed under a system which involves Adnyamathanha people in the running of the national park. Curiously, regarding the mining controversies attendant with the national park, the first European to see the ranges was probably Edward Eyre on his 1840 expedition along the western side of the Flinders. This high range was the southern and western heights of the Gammons, the next explorer to reach the area was the Surveyor General, Edward Charles Frome, on his second expedition up the eastern side of the Flinders three years later. A private surveyor, J. M. Painter, was employed in a survey of the area in 1857 and his party climbed Gammon Hill and Mount McKinlay, but didnt penetrate to the peaks of the central range or plateau. One of several survey cairns built on a line they surveyed between Mount Rowe and Arcoona Bluff on the edge of the ranges has been restored. Grindell had a relationship with his son-in-law George Snell, who ran the neighbouring Yankaninna station. When Snell disappeared in August 1918, and a party found remains at a campfire in the ranges. Despite the evidence being flimsy, Grindell was convicted at Port Augusta in December and sentenced to death and he was released from prison in 1928, dying two years later at the age of 77. A restored building at the site of his old hut is now rented out as a holiday cottage, by 1948 the Plateau had been traversed in all directions, although the highest parts of the ranges are still out of limits for all but experienced bushwalkers. Relics from these camps remain on the summits of the two hills, and there is still an overgrown vehicle track along the top of the Blue Range in places. A historic former mining site, the Bolla Bollana Brick Kiln and Copper Smelter Ruins, the mine had only successfully operated for three years in the 1870s. The area encompassed by the ranges was always pastoral land, although much of it is so inaccessible and rugged to be unattractive to anything but goats and bushwalkers. The northwestern part of the ranges was first taken into government care from the hands of the Yankaninna station in 1968, balcanoona station was purchased in 1980, and the lands officially added to the national park two years later. The dual-usage national park has also been subject to mining claims and some controversy, in 2000, another company made moves to acquire the claim, with view to exploiting the deposit. The national park remains remote and relatively inaccessible, the Copley-Arkaroola dirt road passes through Italowie Gap at the southern edge of the national park, from where it is a one-day walk north to Mount McKinlay
14.
Pichi Richi Railway
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The Pichi Richi Railway Preservation Society is a non-profit railway preservation society and operating museum formed in 1973. The society, managed and staffed by members, operates heritage steam. It is now the only section of the Central Australia Railway. The PRRPS is based on the site of the Quorn locomotive depot and operates through the Pichi Richi Pass to Woolshed Flat and Port Augusta, and also operates out of Port Augusta to Quorn. Pichi Richi is the name of the pass through which the railway travels, the name Pichi Richi is believed to come from the region being a traditional centre in the production of pituri, a mixture of leaves and ash chewed as a stimulant by Australian Aborigines. The PRRPS has continually expanded the type and number of services over time as more rollingstock and track is restored and rehabilitated, the Afghan Express is a return trip to Quorn from Port Augusta. A shorter journey, the Pichi Richi Explorer, is a service to Woolshed Flat departing from Quorn. Travel on this train is either in South Australian Railway carriages circa 1900 to 1915 hauled by a steam locomotive, the use of older SAR rollingstock on this train replicates what it was like to travel by country rail in South Australia in the very early 1900s to the 1960s. Much of this stock was in service until the end of narrow gauge passenger operations by the South Australian Railways. Other special services include occasional double header steam trains, and dinner trains originating in Port Augusta, a new service introduced in 2010 saw guests dining on the train in a first class dining carriage, with a 3-course meal prepared in the carriages kitchen by a local hotels chef. Trains and carriages are available for private hire, suiting a range of different occasions from weddings to tour groups. The PRRPS has completed a number of projects since its inception. These include return to service of locomotives and heritage rolling stock, rebuilding large sections of railway line and permanent way. Former Commonwealth Railways steam locomotive NM25 was built in 1925 and was used on the narrow gauge line between Port Augusta and Alice Springs. It is one of two surviving examples of this class of steam locomotive. NM25 had remained static from 1965 until 1989, when PRRPS acquired it with the intention of restoring it to operational condition, the locomotive was recommissioned on 26 April 2003. History behind the project During the Commonwealth Railways era, the line between Stirling North and Port Augusta was dual gauge. Narrow gauge served the line to Quorn and the standard gauge and this meant that the remaining narrow gauge line from Stirling North to Hawker via Quorn was now isolated
15.
Mount Remarkable National Park
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It is also the name of the highest peak in the park, with a height of 960 metres. The national park consists of three separate areas, the first is the parcel of land located immediately west of the town of Melrose and consists of the following three areas - the Warren Bonython Link, Mambray Creek and Mount Remarkable. As of 2006, this parcel of land occupied an area of 165.83 square kilometres, the third is a parcel of land known as the Napperby Block with an area of 16. The national park is classified as an IUCN Category VI protected area, in 1972, the three wildlife reserves were re-proclaimed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 as the Mount Remarkable National Park. As of 2014, the park had an area of 18,271 hectares. Protected areas of South Australia Alligator Gorge Terrestrial Protected Areas by Reserve Type in South Australia, australian Government - Department of the Environment. Mount Remarkable National Park Management Plan, Mount Remarkable National Park Management Plan Amendment 2013. Department for Environment Water and Natural Resources, Protected Areas Information System - reserve list. Department of Environment Water and Natural Resources, Mount Remarkable National Park official webpage Friends of Mount Remarkable National Park official website Mount Remarkable National Park webpage on protected planet
16.
Protected area
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Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the laws of each country or the regulations of the international organisations involved. There are over 161,000 protected areas in the world with more added daily, by contrast, only 1. 17% of the worlds oceans is included in the worlds ~6,800 Marine Protected Areas. Protected areas are essential for biodiversity conservation, often providing habitat, Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Generally, protected areas are understood to be those in human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a range of governance types. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged a critical factor in their success, subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Of all global terrestrial carbon stock,15. 2% is contained within protected areas, Protected areas in South America hold 27% of the worlds carbon stock, which is the highest percentage of any country in both absolute terms and as a proportion of the total stock. Rainforests,18. 8% of the worlds forest is covered by protected areas, of the 670 ecoregions with forest cover, 54% have 10% or more of their forest cover protected under IUCN Categories I – VI. Mountain protected area coverage has increased globally by 21% since 1990, the categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their management aims. Protecting places and resources is by no means a modern concept, over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years, moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal, for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific and in parts of Africa. However, the protected areas movement doesnt begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. While the idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery, in Africa, the concern was with game parks, in Europe, landscape protection was more common. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas is recognised not only ecologically, international programmes for the protection of representative ecosystems remain relatively progressive, with less advances in marine and freshwater biomes. There is increasing pressure to take account of human needs when setting up protected areas. Such negotiations are never easy but usually stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people. In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without the infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources, one of the main concerns regarding protected areas on land and sea is their effectiveness at preventing the ongoing loss of biodiversity
17.
Melrose, South Australia
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Melrose is the oldest town in the Flinders Ranges. It is in the shadow of Mount Remarkable,265 km north of Adelaide, at the 2011 census, Melrose had a population of 406. The first European explorer in the area was Edward John Eyre in 1840, copper was discovered and mining started in 1846, but it was not economic, and ceased in 1851. The mine was opened three more times, the latest closure was in 1917. In 1893 at a time of unemployment, Wilton Hack founded a communal settlement in the area. At its peak, some 130 settlers were working 1,000 acres of land, by the end of 1895 after a succession of poor seasons around half the settlers had left, and in 1896 the village was closed by the Government. Today, Melrose is the base for visitors to the Mount Remarkable National Park, when it was opened in 1848, the police station in Melrose was the base of the largest police district in the world. A constable, two troopers and an Aboriginal tracker were responsible for an area extending to the Timor Sea, in June, Melrose is home to the Fat Tyre Festival, an off-road bike celebration exploring local bike trails and crowding parades of freak bikes. Melrose is home to a caravan park held by 100,000 tourists every year, the Wilmington railway line from Gladstone opened near Melrose in 1915 and closed in 1969. The station was almost two kilometres north of the town, Melrose is also on the Horrocks Highway, formerly known as Main North Road
18.
Quorn, South Australia
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Quorn is a township and railhead in the Flinders Ranges in the north of South Australia,39 km northeast of Port Augusta. At the 2006 census, Quorn had a population of 1068, Quorn is the home of the Flinders Ranges Council local government area. It is in the state Electoral district of Stuart and the federal Division of Grey, the town was surveyed by Godfrey Walsh in 1878 and named after Quorndon in Leicestershire, United Kingdom, as part of the preparations for building the railway line from Port Augusta northwards. The railway line from Port Augusta to Quorn opened in 1879 and was extended north to Government Gums in 1882, Marree in 1884, Oodnadatta in 1890. This railway line became known as the Great Northern Railway. In 1917, Quorn became the crossroads of any north–south or east–west travel in Australia and this made Quorn an important town, given that any person travelling east–west or north–south in Australia would need to pass through Quorn. As a result, many buildings were built as the town expanded. Quorns role as a crossroads was lost when a gauge railway connection was opened between Port Pirie Junction and Port Augusta in 1937, meaning east–west trains bypassed Quorn. However, during World War II, Quorn was a service point for trains heading north to Alice Springs and carried over 1,000,000 troops heading to Darwin. Trains services through Quorn peaked at over 50 per day during, services during this time also included coal mined at Leigh Creek being moved to the newly opened Playford A Power Station in Port Augusta. This bypass took away the last railway traffic through the Pichi Richi Pass, the only services left operating through Quorn were freight between Peterborough and Hawker. As a result, Quorns importance diminished and eventually in 1980s the railway was closed as the last freight was moved to road transport. Thus the Pichi Richi Railway Preservation Society was formed, there is at least one book by preservationists showing the line in its heyday. A main attraction in Quorn is the Pichi Richi Railway, there are also a self-guided walking tours in the town, included several based around the towns historic old buildings, the railway yards and other historic locations. The Flinders Ranges Visitor Information Centre / Pichi Richi Railway in the Quorn railway station provide visitor information, bookings for the railway, accommodation, tours and souvenirs. The Heysen Trail and the Mawson Trail, pair of long distance trails dedicated respectively to walking and cycling, pass through town and there are many bushwalks and 4wd tracks. Quorn is home to country music artist Jedd Hughes, and was the birthplace of politician Brian Harradine, former Australian of the year and AC, CBE, Lowitja ODonoghue also spent a huge portion of her childhood at the Aboriginal mission in Quorn, Colebrook Childrens Home. Quorn is a stopover for travellers coming via Adelaide to explore the Flinders Ranges
19.
Heysen Trail
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The Heysen Trail is a long distance walking trail in South Australia. It runs from Parachilna Gorge, in the Flinders Ranges via the Adelaide Hills to Cape Jervis on the Fleurieu Peninsula and is approximately 1,200 kilometres in length, most people choose to walk sections of the track for one or a few days at a time. There are many places to stay along the trail and hardy walkers who walk the track beginning to end typically do so in about 60 days. A regular walking program is conducted by a walking sub-committee, different grades of walks cater for beginners and for more experienced walkers. The trail passes cliffs, farmland, natural bushland, forests, vineyards and it extends from the ocean through the fertile Mount Lofty Ranges across Goyders Line to the arid Flinders Ranges, with many different bioregions. The trail was first suggested by Warren Bonython in 1969 but design was stalled by several years due to government politics and issues with private land owners. The first 50 kilometres of the track was laid through the Mount Lofty Ranges in 1978 after responsibility for the track was handed to the Department of Recreation, terry Lavender was the main designer for the track and oversaw the majority of its construction until it was completed in 1992. The trail is named after Sir Hans Heysen
20.
Mawson Trail
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The Mawson Trail is a long-distance cycling trail in South Australia starting just east of Adelaide in the Adelaide Hills and extending almost 900 kilometres to Blinman in the Flinders Ranges. It is suitable for mountain bikes, the Mawson Trail traverses remote areas of the Mount Lofty and Flinders Ranges, mostly away from bitumen roads, and often off-road on tracks and unmade road or forest reserves. It also passes through a number of country towns and it starts at the upstream end of the Torrens Linear Park on Gorge Road, leading in to the Adelaide Hills. BikeSA hosts a guided tour of the entire length every second year. The trail is named after explorer Douglas Mawson, the route is generally described south-to-north, although it can be ridden in either direction. Signage along the route is provided for both directions, the towns passed through are, Adelaide Lobethal, a large town with the Lobethal Bierhaus brewery. Birdwood, home of the National Motor Museum, tanunda, a large town with the Barossa Valley Brewing brewery. Nuriootpa, main centre of the Barossa valley Kapunda, with cafes, supermarkets. Riverton Auburn, with pubs, cafes, and a brewery, clare, a large town with a large supermarket, bike shop, cafes, and many wineries nearby. Burra, a historical town with several pubs, supermarkets. Hallett, with a service station/general store and a pub, spalding, with a general store and pub with barbed wire museum. Laura, with a supermarket and cafes, melrose, with a bike shop cafe, two pubs, and several cafes. Wilmington, with a pub, general store and cafe, quorn, a large historical town with four pubs and several cafes. Cradock, a hamlet with a pub. Hawker, a town with a roadhouse/general store and a cafe. Rawnsley Park Station, a park with pub and general store. Wilpena, a large caravan and campsite with pub, general store. Blinman, a small tourist village with pub and mine tours
21.
Rodinia
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Rodinia is a Neoproterozoic supercontinent that was assembled 1. 13–1.071 billion years ago and broke up 750–600 million years ago. Valentine & Moores 1970 were probably the first to recognise a Precambrian supercontinent and it was renamed Rodinia by McMenamin & McMenamin 1990 who also were the first to produce a reconstruction and propose a temporal framework for the supercontinent. Rodinia formed at c.1.071 Ga by accretion and collision of fragments produced by breakup of a supercontinent, Columbia. Rodinia broke up in the Neoproterozoic with its continental fragments reassembled to form Pannotia 620–555 million years ago, in contrast with Pannotia, little is known yet about the exact configuration and geodynamic history of Rodinia. The idea that a supercontinent existed in the early Neoproterozoic arose in the 1970s, examples are the Grenville orogeny in North America and the Dalslandian orogeny in Europe. Since then, many reconstructions have been proposed for the configuration of the cratons in this supercontinent. Most of these reconstructions are based on the correlation of the orogens on different cratons, though the configuration of the core cratons in Rodinia is now reasonably well known, recent reconstructions still differ in many details. Geologists try to decrease the uncertainties by collecting geological and paleomagnetical data, aUSWUS-Configuration, Australia is at the West of Laurentia. AUSMEX-Configuration, Australia is at the location of nowadays Mexico relative to Laurentia, the Missing-link model by Li et al.2008 which has South China between Australia and the west coast of Laurentia. A revised Missing-link model is proposed in which Tarim Block serves as an extended or alternative missing-link between Australia and Laurentia, Siberia attached to the western US, as in Sears & Price 2000. Little is known about the paleogeography before the formation of Rodinia, paleomagnetic and geologic data are only definite enough to form reconstructions from the breakup of Rodinia onwards. Rodinia is considered to have formed between 1.13 billion and 1.071 billion years ago and broke up again before 750 million years ago, Rodinia was surrounded by the superocean geologists are calling Mirovia. Piper, Rodinia is one of two models for the configuration and history of the continental crust in the part of Precambrian times. The other is Paleopangea, Pipers own concept, piper proposes an alternative hypothesis for this era and the previous ones. Rifting progressed in the same cratons 800—750 Ma and spread into Laurentia, india and the Congo-Säo Francisco Craton were either detached from Rodinia during this period or simply never were part of the supercontinent. 650–550 Ma several events coincided, the opening of the Iapetus Ocean, the closure of the Braziliano, Adamastor, and Mozambique oceans, the result was the formation of Gondwana. The Rodinia hypothesis assumes that rifting did not start everywhere simultaneously, extensive lava flows and volcanic eruptions of Neoproterozoic age are found on most continents, evidence for large scale rifting about 750 million years ago. This rift developed into the Adamastor Ocean during the Ediacaran, around 550 million years ago, on the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian, the first group of cratons eventually fused again with Amazonia, West Africa and the Rio de la Plata cratons
22.
Cambrian
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The Cambrian Period was the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era, of the Phanerozoic Eon. The Cambrian lasted 55.6 million years from the end of the preceding Ediacaran Period 541 million years ago to the beginning of the Ordovician Period 485.4 mya and its subdivisions, and its base, are somewhat in flux. The period was established by Adam Sedgwick, who named it after Cambria, the Latinised form of Cymru, the Welsh name for Wales, as a result, our understanding of the Cambrian biology surpasses that of some later periods. The rapid diversification of lifeforms in the Cambrian, known as the Cambrian explosion, most of the continents were probably dry and rocky due to a lack of vegetation. Shallow seas flanked the margins of several continents created during the breakup of the supercontinent Pannotia, the seas were relatively warm, and polar ice was absent for much of the period. The United States Federal Geographic Data Committee uses a barred capital C ⟨Є⟩ character similar to the capital letter Ukrainian Ye ⟨Є⟩ to represent the Cambrian Period, the proper Unicode character is U+A792 Ꞓ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH BAR. Despite the long recognition of its distinction from younger Ordovician Period rocks and older Supereon Precambrian rocks, the base of the Cambrian lies atop a complex assemblage of trace fossils known as the Treptichnus pedum assemblage. Pedum in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, and possibly, in the western USA, the stratigraphic range of T. pedum overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain. The Cambrian Period followed the Ediacaran Period and was followed by the Ordovician Period, the Cambrian is divided into four epochs and ten ages. Currently only two series and five stages are named and have a GSSP, because the international stratigraphic subdivision is not yet complete, many local subdivisions are still widely used. In some of these subdivisions the Cambrian is divided into three epochs with locally differing names – the Early Cambrian, Middle Cambrian and Furongian, rocks of these epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle, or Upper Cambrian. Trilobite zones allow biostratigraphic correlation in the Cambrian, each of the local epochs is divided into several stages. The International Commission on Stratigraphy list the Cambrian period as beginning at 541 million years ago, the lower boundary of the Cambrian was originally held to represent the first appearance of complex life, represented by trilobites. The recognition of small shelly fossils before the first trilobites, and Ediacara biota substantially earlier and this formal designation allowed radiometric dates to be obtained from samples across the globe that corresponded to the base of the Cambrian. Early dates of 570 million years ago quickly gained favour, though the used to obtain this number are now considered to be unsuitable. A more precise date using modern radiometric dating yield a date of 541 ±0.3 million years ago, most continental land was clustered in the Southern Hemisphere at this time, but was drifting north. Large, high-velocity rotational movement of Gondwana appears to have occurred in the Early Cambrian, the sea levels fluctuated somewhat, suggesting there were ice ages, associated with pulses of expansion and contraction of a south polar ice cap. In Baltoscandia a Lower Cambrian transgression transformed large swathes of the Sub-Cambrian peneplain into a epicontinental sea, the Earth was generally cold during the early Cambrian, probably due to the ancient continent of Gondwana covering the South Pole and cutting off polar ocean currents
23.
Orogeny
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An Orogeny is an event that leads to a large structural deformation of the Earths lithosphere due to the interaction between tectonic plates. Orogens or orogenic belts develop when a plate is crumpled and is pushed upwards to form mountain ranges. Orogeny is the mechanism by which mountains are built on continents. The word orogeny comes from Ancient Greek, though it was used before him, the term was employed by the American geologist G. K. Gilbert in 1890 to describe the process of mountain building as distinguished from epeirogeny. Formation of an orogen is accomplished in part by the processes of subduction or convergence of two or more continents. Orogeny usually produces long arcuate structures, known as orogenic belts, generally, orogenic belts consist of long parallel strips of rock exhibiting similar characteristics along the length of the belt. Orogenic belts are associated with zones, which consume crust, produce volcanoes. Geologists attribute the arcuate structure to the rigidity of the descending plate and these island arcs may be added to a continent during an orogenic event. The processes of orogeny can take tens of millions of years, frequently, rock formations that undergo orogeny are severely deformed and undergo metamorphism. Orogenic processes may push deeply buried rocks to the surface, sea-bottom and near-shore material may cover some or all of the orogenic area. If the orogeny is due to two continents colliding, very high mountains can result, an orogenic event may be studied, as a tectonic structural event, as a geographical event, and as a chronological event. The foreland basin forms ahead of the orogen due mainly to loading and resulting flexure of the lithosphere by the mountain belt. The basin migrates with the front and early deposited foreland basin sediments become progressively involved in folding and thrusting. Sediments deposited in the basin are mainly derived from the erosion of the actively uplifting rocks of the mountain range. The fill of many such shows an change in time from deepwater marine through shallow water to continental sediments. Although orogeny involves plate tectonics, the tectonic forces result in a variety of associated phenomena, including magmatism, metamorphism, crustal melting, what exactly happens in a specific orogen depends upon the strength and rheology of the continental lithosphere, and how these properties change during orogenesis. In addition to orogeny, the orogen is subject to other processes, for example, the Caledonian Orogeny refers to the Silurian and Devonian events that resulted from the collision of Laurentia with Eastern Avalonia and other former fragments of Gondwana. The Caledonian Orogen resulted from events and various others that are part of its peculiar orogenic cycle
24.
Quartzite
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Quartzite is a hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock which was originally pure quartz sandstone. Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. Pure quartzite is usually white to grey, though quartzites often occur in shades of pink. Other colors, such as yellow, green, blue and orange, are due to other minerals, when sandstone is cemented to quartzite, the individual quartz grains recrystallize along with the former cementing material to form an interlocking mosaic of quartz crystals. Most or all of the texture and sedimentary structures of the sandstone are erased by the metamorphism. The grainy, sandpaper-like surface becomes glassy in appearance, minor amounts of former cementing materials, iron oxide, silica, carbonate and clay, often migrate during recrystallization and metamorphosis. This causes streaks and lenses to form within the quartzite, orthoquartzite is a very pure quartz sandstone composed of usually well-rounded quartz grains cemented by silica. Orthoquartzite is often 99% SiO2 with only minor amounts of iron oxide and trace resistant minerals such as zircon, rutile. Although few fossils are present, the original texture and sedimentary structures are preserved. The term is traditionally used for quartz-cemented quartz arenites. Quartzite is very resistant to weathering and often forms ridges. The nearly pure silica content of the rock provides little for soil, therefore, because of its hardness and angular shape, crushed quartzite is often used as railway ballast. Quartzite is a stone and may be used to cover walls, as roofing tiles, as flooring. Its use for countertops in kitchens is expanding rapidly and it is harder and more resistant to stains than granite. Crushed quartzite is used in road construction. High purity quartzite is used to produce ferrosilicon, industrial silica sand, during the Paleolithic quartzite was used, in addition to flint, quartz, and other lithic raw materials, for making stone tools. Quartzite is also found in the Morenci Copper Mine in Arizona, the town of Quartzsite in western Arizona derives its name from the quartzites in the nearby mountains in both Arizona and Southeastern California. A glassy vitreous quartzite has been described from the Belt Supergroup in the Coeur d’Alene district of northern Idaho, in the United Kingdom, a craggy ridge of quartzite called the Stiperstones runs parallel with the Pontesford-Linley fault,6 km north-west of the Long Mynd in south Shropshire
25.
Strike (geology)
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Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature. The strike line of a bed, fault, or other feature, is a line representing the intersection of that feature with a horizontal plane. On a geologic map, this is represented with a straight line segment oriented parallel to the strike line. One technique is to take the strike so the dip is 90° to the right of the strike. The map symbol is a line attached and at right angles to the strike symbol pointing in the direction which the planar surface is dipping down. The angle of dip is generally included on a map without the degree sign. Beds that are dipping vertically are shown with the dip symbol on both sides of the strike, and beds that are flat are shown like the vertical beds, both vertical and flat beds do not have a number written with them. Another way of representing strike and dip is by dip and dip direction, the dip direction is the azimuth of the direction the dip as projected to the horizontal, which is 90° off the strike angle. For example, a bed dipping 30° to the South, would have an East-West strike, but would be written as 30/180 using the dip and dip direction method. Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass, compass-clinometers which measure dip and dip direction in a single operation are often called stratum or Klar compasses after a German professor. Smartphone apps are also now available, that use of the internal accelerometer to provide orientation measurements. Combined with the GPS functionality of devices, this allows readings to be recorded. Any planar feature can be described by strike and dip and this includes sedimentary bedding, faults and fractures, cuestas, igneous dikes and sills, metamorphic foliation and any other planar feature in the Earth. Linear features are measured very similar methods, where plunge is the dip angle. Apparent dip is the name of any dip measured in a plane that is not perpendicular to the strike line. True dip can be calculated from apparent dip using trigonometry if you know the strike, Geologic cross sections use apparent dip when they are drawn at some angle not perpendicular to strike. New York, J. Wiley and Sons, tarbuck, Edward J. Lutgens, Frederick K. 0-13-092025-8 Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geology. Upper Saddle River, N. J. Pearson Prentice Hall, digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization
26.
Cuesta
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A cuesta is a hill or ridge with a gentle slope on one side, and a steep slope on the other. In geology the term is specifically applied to a ridge where a harder sedimentary rock overlies a softer layer. This results in a long and gentle backslope called a dip slope that conforms with the dip of resistant strata, where erosion has exposed the frontslope of this, a steep slope or escarpment occurs. The resulting terrain may be called scarpland, in general usage, a cuesta is a hill or ridge with a gentle slope on one side, and a steep slope on the other. The word is from Spanish, flank or slope of a hill, hill, mount, the outcrop of the caprock forms a steeper or even cliff-like frontslope, cutting through the dipping strata that comprise the cuesta. The surfaces of the hard, erosion-resistant rock strata form the caprock of the backslope of the cuesta, the frontslope of the cuesta consists of an escarpment that cuts across the bedding of the strata comprising it. Because of the dipping nature of the strata that forms a cuesta. Cuestas, homoclinal ridges, and hogbacks comprise a sequence of landforms that form a gradational continuum and these landforms differ only on the steepness of their backslopes and the relative differences in the inclination of their backslopes and frontslopes. These differences depend upon whether the dip of the strata from which they have been eroded are either vertical, moderately dipping. In addition, it also can be difficult to sharply distinguish immediately adjacent members of series of landforms because of their gradational nature. Two well-known cuestas in western New York and southern Ontario are the Onondaga escarpment, the dip of the Onondaga is about 40 feet per mile to the south. The escarpment edge faces north, and in its most populated section, the Gulf Coastal Plain in Texas is punctuated by a series of cuestas that parallel the coast, as are most coastal plains. In continental Europe, the Swabian Alb offers particularly good views of cuestas in Jurassic rock, in France, the term for a cuesta is the same as for a coastline, côte. Notable French cuestas are the regions of Côte dOr and Côtes du Rhône. The Machinchang Formation outcrops in the Langkawi islands off the coast of northwestern Malaysia, the formation is one of the oldest exposed rock units in Southeast Asia and has an extensive eroded anticline cuesta topography — dating back to Cambrian
27.
Ediacaran
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The Ediacaran Period, spans 94 million years from the end of the Cryogenian Period 635 million years ago, to the beginning of the Cambrian Period 541 Mya. It marks the end of the Proterozoic Eon, and the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon and it is named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia. The Ediacaran Period overlaps, but is shorter than the Vendian Period, the Vendian concept was formed stratigraphically top-down, and the lower boundary of the Cambrian became the upper boundary of the Vendian. Paleontological substantiation of this boundary was worked out separately for the siliciclastic basin, the lower boundary of the Vendian was suggested to be defined at the base of the Varanger tillites. The Ediacaran Period represents the time from the end of global Marinoan glaciation to the first appearance worldwide of somewhat complicated trace fossils. Although the Ediacaran Period does contain soft-bodied fossils, it is unusual in comparison to later periods because its beginning is not defined by a change in the fossil record. Rather, the beginning is defined at the base of a chemically distinctive carbonate layer that is referred to as a cap carbonate and this bed is characterized by an unusual depletion of 13C that indicates a sudden climatic change at the end of the Marinoan ice age. The lower boundary GSSP of the Ediacaran is at the base of the cap carbonate, immediately above the Elatina diamictite in the Enorama Creek section, Brachina Gorge, Flinders Ranges, South Australia. In the history of stratigraphy it was the first case of usage of bioturbations for the System boundary definition, nevertheless, the definitions of the lower and upper boundaries of the Ediacaran on the basis of chemostratigraphy and ichnofossils are disputable. Also, the Shuram excursion is prolonged and is estimated to last for ~9.0 Myrs. pedum in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, the stratigraphic range of T. pedum overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain. The dating of the type section of the Ediacaran Period in South Australia has proven uncertain. Therefore, the age range assigned those rocks from 635 to 542 million years, is based on more precice dating in other locations is possible, the base age of approximately 635 million years is based on U-Pb isochron dating from Namibia and China. The fossil record from the Ediacaran Period is sparse, as more easily fossilized hard-shelled animals had yet to evolve, the Ediacaran biota include the oldest definite multicellular organisms, the most common types of which resemble segmented worms, fronds, disks, or immobile bags. Ediacara biota bear little resemblance to modern lifeforms, and their relationship even with the immediately following lifeforms of the Cambrian explosion is rather difficult to interpret. More than 100 genera have been described, and well known forms include Arkarua, Charnia, Dickinsonia, Ediacaria, Marywadea, Onega, Pteridinium, there is evidence that Earths first mass extinction happened during this period when early animals changed the environment. The relative proximity of the Moon at this time meant that tides were stronger, the day was 21. 9±0.4 hours, and there were 13. 1±0.1 synodic months/year and 400±7 solar days/year. A few English language documentaries have featured the Ediacaran era and biota, the Geological History of Canada, as part of The Nature of Things series, CBC-SRC,2011, Eastern Canada. The first episode of a BBC documentary titled Life on Earth, with David Attenborough as narrator, another documentary narrated by David Attenborough titled First Life featuring Charnia, Dickinsonia, Spriggina, Funisia, and Kimberella animated in CGI
28.
Semi-arid climate
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A semi-arid climate or steppe climate is the climate of a region that receives precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not extremely. There are different kinds of climates, depending on such variables as temperature. Semi-arid climates tend to short or scrubby vegetation, with semi-arid areas usually dominated by either grasses or shrubs. To determine if a location has a climate, the precipitation threshold must first be determined. If the areas precipitation is less than the threshold but more than half the threshold. Hot semi-arid climates tend to be located in the tropics and subtropics and these climates tend to have hot, sometimes extremely hot, summers and warm to cool winters, with some to minimal precipitation. Hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found around the fringes of subtropical deserts, hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Africa, Australia and South Asia. In Australia, a portion of the Outback surrounding the central desert regions lies within the hot semi-arid climate regime. Hot semi-arid climates can also be found in North America, primarily in Mexico, areas of Texas near Mexico, cold semi-arid climates tend to be located in temperate zones or elevated portions in subtropical zones. They are typically found in continental interiors some distance from bodies of water. Cold semi-arid climates usually feature warm and dry summers, though their summers are not quite as hot as those of hot semi-arid climates. Unlike hot semi-arid climates, areas with cold semi-arid climates tend to have cold winters and these areas usually see some snowfall during the winter, though snowfall is much lower than at locations at similar latitudes with more humid climates. These large diurnal temperature variations are seen in hot semi-arid climates. Cold semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Asia and North America, however, they can also be found in Northern Africa, South Africa, Europe, sections of South America and sections of interior southern Australia and New Zealand. As a result of this, some areas can have climates that are classified as hot or cold depending on the isotherm used. One such location is San Diego, California, which has cool summers for the due to prevailing winds off the ocean. Arid Forest Research Institute Continental climate Dust Bowl Goyders Line Pallisers Triangle Köppen climate classification Wave height Ustic
29.
Rain
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Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then precipitated—that is, become heavy enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems, as well as water for power plants. The major cause of production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as cumulonimbus which can organize into narrow rainbands. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass, the movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes. The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities, global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm, climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Rainfall is measured using rain gauges, rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar. Rain is also known or suspected on other planets, where it may be composed of methane, neon, sulfuric acid, or even iron rather than water. Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a mass of dry air. The amount of moisture in air is commonly reported as relative humidity. How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated, warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it, the dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated. There are four mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point, adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands, the air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain. Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a surface, usually by being blown from one surface to another. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath, evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation
30.
Monsoon
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Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated. The south-west monsoon winds are called Nairutya Maarut in India, the English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim and/or Hindi mausam, perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun. Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to climate change. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago, then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean and it is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma,1.83 Ma,0.68 Ma,0.45 Ma and 0.04 Ma were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current. The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature field in the Indian Ocean, thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. The impact of monsoon on the weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into green grasslands where all sorts of plants. The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands, see photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways, in contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities, and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at an even temperature
31.
Frost
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Frost is the coating or deposit of ice that may form in humid air in cold conditions, usually overnight. In temperate climates it most commonly appears as white crystals or frozen dew drops near the ground. Frost is composed of delicate branched patterns of ice crystals formed as the result of fractal process development, Frost is known to damage crops or reduce future crop yields, therefore farmers in those regions where frost is a problem often invest substantial means to prevent its formation. In most temperate countries such temperatures usually are the result of loss by radiation at night. The size of frost crystals varies depending on the time they have been building up, Frost crystals may be clear or translucent, but, like snow, a mass of frost crystals will scatter light in all directions, so that a coating of frost appears white. If a solid surface is chilled below the dew point of the humid air. If the water deposits as a liquid that freezes, it forms a coating that may look glassy, opaque, or crystalline. Depending on context, that also may be called atmospheric icing. The ice it produces differs in ways from crystalline frost. For desublimation to proceed the surface must be below the frost point of the air, the air must be humid, but not sufficiently humid to permit the condensation of liquid water, or icing will result instead of desublimation. The size of the crystals depends largely on the temperature, the amount of water vapor available, as a rule, except in conditions where supercooled droplets are present in the air, frost will form only if the deposition surface is colder than the surrounding air. For instance frost may be observed around cracks in cold wooden sidewalks when humid air escapes from the ground beneath. Other objects on which frost commonly forms are those with low specific heat or high thermal emissivity, such as blackened metals, the apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights. Where static air settles above an area of ground in the absence of wind, hoar frost refers to white ice crystals, deposited on the ground or loosely attached to exposed objects such as wires or leaves. They form on cold, clear nights when conditions are such that heat radiates out to the sky faster than it can be replaced from nearby sources such as wind or warm objects. Under suitable circumstances, objects cool to below the frost point of the surrounding air, such freezing may be promoted by effects such as flood frost or frost pocket. These occur when ground-level radiation losses cool air till it flows downhill and accumulates in pockets of cold air in valleys. Hoar frost may freeze in such low-lying cold air even when the air temperature a few feet above ground is well above freezing
32.
Snow
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Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air. Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets, snowflakes take on a variety of shapes, basic among these are platelets, needles, columns and rime. As snow accumulates into a snowpack, it may blow into drifts, over time, accumulated snow metamorphoses, by sintering, sublimation and freeze-thaw. Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation, a glacier may form, otherwise, snow typically melts seasonally, causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater. Major snow-prone areas include the regions, the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture. In the Southern Hemisphere, snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas, Snow affects ecosystems, as well, by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold. Snow develops in clouds that themselves are part of a weather system. The physics of snow crystal development in clouds results from a set of variables that include moisture content. The resulting shapes of the falling and fallen crystals can be classified into a number of shapes and combinations. Occasionally, some plate-like, dendritic and stellar-shaped snowflakes can form under clear sky with a cold temperature inversion present. Two additional and locally productive sources of snow are lake-effect storms and elevation effects, miid-latitude cyclones are low pressure areas which are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild snow storms to heavy blizzards. During a hemispheres fall, winter, and spring, the atmosphere over continents can be cold enough through the depth of the troposphere to cause snowfall, in the Northern Hemisphere, the northern side of the low pressure area produces the most snow. For the southern mid-latitudes, the side of a cyclone that produces the most snow is the southern side, a cold front, the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, can produce frontal snowsqualls—an intense frontal convective line, when temperature is near freezing at the surface. The strong convection that develops has enough moisture to produce whiteout conditions at places which line passes over as the wind causes intense blowing snow. This type of snowsquall generally lasts less than 30 minutes at any point along its path, in cases where there is a large amount of vertical growth and mixing the squall may develop embedded cumulonimbus clouds resulting in lightning and thunder which is dubbed thundersnow. A warm front can produce snow for a period, as warm, moist air overrides below-freezing air, often, snow transitions to rain in the warm sector behind the front. The same effect occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores
33.
Blinman
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Blinman is a town deep in the Flinders Ranges, in the mid north of South Australia. It is very small but has the claim of being the highest surveyed town in South Australia and it serves as a base for large acre pastoralists and tourism. The town is just north of the Flinders Ranges National Park, is 60 kilometres north of Wilpena Pound and 485 km north of Adelaide and this land belonged to the Adnyamathanha tribe, of Indigenous Australians prior to Europeans. They were stone age hunter-gatherers and inhabited much of the area, one of their unique customs was burn offs to promote plant growth in the future seasons. The first European settlement around the current Blinman, was firstly of Angorichina Station and this land was taken up for sheep farming in the 1850s. A shepherd employed by the station, Robert Blinman, discovered an outcrop on a hot December day in 1859. Blinman gambled some of his money on the presence of more underground copper, on 1 January 1861, Blinman and three friends, Alfred Frost, Joe Mole and Henry Alfred, received the lease for the land that became Blinman. Mining was successful in the first year and the became known as Wheal Blinman. The original four leaseholders sold their mine in February 1862, for about 150 times the purchase price, the new owners were the Yudnamutana Copper Mining Company of South Australia, who also owned a rich deposit north of Blinman. The mine was successful during the 1860s and the site became permanent, with buildings being constructed and more miners moving to the area. The hardest problems at the time were the transport of Ore, over the next 20 years, railways were developed and wells were sunk at regular intervals making life easier for all. Family life was hard in the early days, both water and firewood had to be brought from long distances from the mine. This job was left to the women and their children while the men were working. Many pregnancies failed in the years and there were several deaths reported from inflammation of the lungs. With the original tent settlement being very close to the mine, a hotel and post office were first opened in Blinman in 1863. In 1864, a government surveyor laid out 162 allotments about three km from the mine, the population was about 1,500 by 1868 and the first school opened that year. Decent shops in the street developed in 1869. The striking of regular water in the mine the same year secured a water supply for the town
34.
Flora
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Flora is the plant life occurring in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring or indigenous—native plant life. The corresponding term for animal life is fauna, Flora, fauna and other forms of life such as fungi are collectively referred to as biota. Sometimes bacteria and fungi are also referred to as flora, as in the gut flora or skin flora. The word flora comes from the Latin name of Flora, the goddess of plants, flowers, the distinction between vegetation and flora was first made by Jules Thurmann. Prior to this, the two terms were used indiscriminately, plants are grouped into floras based on region, period, special environment, or climate. Regions can be geographically distinct habitats like mountain vs. flatland, floras can mean plant life of a historic era as in fossil flora. Lastly, floras may be subdivided by special environments, Native flora, the native and indigenous flora of an area. The plants that are grown by humans. Traditionally this classification was applied to plants regarded as undesirable, many native plants previously considered weeds have been shown to be beneficial or even necessary to various ecosystems. The flora of an area or time period can be documented in a publication also known as a flora. Floras may require specialist botanical knowledge to use with any effectiveness, traditionally they are books, but some are now published on CD-ROM or websites. It is said that the Flora Sinensis by the Polish Jesuit Michał Boym was the first book that used the name Flora in this meaning, however, despite its title it covered not only plants, but also some animals of the region. A published flora often contains diagnostic keys, often these are dichotomous keys, which require the user to repeatedly examine a plant, and decide which one of two alternatives given best applies to the plant
35.
Eucalyptus cladocalyx
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Eucalyptus cladocalyx, commonly known as Sugar Gum, is a species of eucalypt tree found in the Australian state of South Australia. It is found naturally in three distinct populations - in the Flinders Ranges, Eyre Peninsula and on Kangaroo Island and it has no known close relatives. The tree notable for its mottled colourful yellow to orange bark, the old bark is smooth and grey, shedding in irregular patches to expose the fresh yellowy-brown bark. The capsules are barrel to urn shaped, Sugar Gums from the Flinders Ranges reach up to 35 metres in height and have the classic gum habit - with a straight trunk and steep branches occurring about halfway up. Each main branch ends with its own little canopy and these are commonly cultivated as farm windbreaks and for timber. However, Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island trees are much shorter, a field guide to Australian trees, Reed New Holland,2002 Cronin, L. Key Guide to Australian Trees, Envirobook,2000 Rawlings, M. Regional allozyme divergence in Sugar Gum, Eucalyptus cladocalyx,2005, Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research
36.
Callitris
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Callitris is a genus of coniferous trees in the Cupressaceae. There are 16 recognised species in the genus, of which 13 are native to Australia, traditionally, the most widely used common name is cypress-pine, a name shared by some species of the closely related genus Actinostrobus. They are small to medium-sized trees or large shrubs, reaching 5–25 m tall, the leaves are evergreen and scale-like, except for on young seedlings, where they are needle-like, in C. macleayana, needle-like leaves are found mixed with scale leaves throughout the trees life. The scales are arranged in six rows along the twigs, in alternating whorls of three, the male cones are small, 3–6 mm long, and are located at the tips of the twigs. The female cones start out similarly inconspicuous, maturing in 18–20 months to 1–3 cm long and wide, globular to ovoid, with six overlapping, thick, woody scales, arranged in two whorls of three. The cones remain closed on the trees for years, opening only after being scorched by a bushfire. The genus is divided two sections, with the atypical C. macleayana in sect. Octoclinis, and all the species in sect. Some botanists treat C. macleayana in a genus, as Octoclinis macleayana. C. macleayana is also distinct in occurring in rainforest on the east coast of Australia, the closest relatives of Callitris are Actinostrobus from southwest Western Australia, which differs in its cones having several basal whorls of small sterile scales. A2010 study of Actinostrobus and Callitris places the three species of Actinostrobus within an expanded Callitris based on analysis of 42 morphological and anatomical characters, in 2010, early Oligocene fossilised foliage and cones of Callitris were unearthed near the Lea River in Tasmania. The fossils were given the name Callitris leaensis and represent the oldest known representative of the genus, nom. nud. type not cited, identity uncertain. Callitris columellaris f. glauca F. M. Bailey, described from Qld, type not located, nom. nud, described from New Holland, type not located, identity uncertain. Nom. nud, described from New Holland, type not located, nom. nud, described from New Holland, type not located, identity uncertain. Nom. nud, type not cited, identity uncertain, nom. nud, syn Cupressus macrocarpa A. Cunn. The wood of cypress-pines is light, soft and aromatic and it can be easily split and resists decay, cypress-pine is also termite resistant. It is used to make furniture, indoor and outdoor paneling, cypress-pines are occasionally planted as ornamental trees, but their use is restricted by the high risks imposed by their very high flammability in bushfires. Gymnosperm Database - Callitris Arboretum de Villardebelle - Photos of cones
37.
Mallee (habit)
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Mallee is the growth habit of certain eucalypt species that grow with multiple stems springing from an underground lignotuber, usually to a height of no more than 10 metres. It also occurs in the related genera Corymbia and Angophora. The word mallee may also be used as a noun in reference to species or individual plants with a mallee habit, mallees are the dominant vegetation throughout semi-arid areas of Australia with reliable winter rainfall. Within this area, they form extensive woodlands and shrublands covering over 250,000 square kilometres, thus mallee woodlands and shrublands are considered one of Australias Major Vegetation Groups. Widespread mallee species include, E. dumosa E. socialis E. gracilis E. oleosa E. incrassata E. diversifolia The malleefowl is a characteristic of this habitat. An example of a mallee in an area is the rare yellow-top mallee ash
38.
Casuarina pauper
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Casuarina pauper is a tree from the Casuarinaceae family, native to a band across the drier, inland areas of southern Australia. C. pauper is known as a poorer, stunted form of the closely related Casuarina cristata, common names include Black Oak and Belah. C. pauper is a tree,5 to 15 metres tall. Specimens growing in the open often develop a dense crown, the foliage is not composed of true leaves but rather of jointed branchlets that function like leaves. The true leaves are tiny, tooth-like structures protruding from around the top of each joint, leaves are strongly waxy, densely and very shortly hairy, with teeth spreading to recurved. Bark is hard, dark brown to blackish, with a scaly appearance. Sapwood is wide and creamy coloured, heartwood is reddish brown, seedlings consist of both deciduous and persistent branches similar in morphology. Whorls of 4 leaf teeth are closely oppressed to the branch at the joint, gradually increasing in number, adult plants consist of both deciduous and permanent branches, which are noticeably different in morphology. The deciduous branches are robust, dark olive-green to grey, consisting of mostly pendent branchlets 10–20 cm long, erect leaf teeth occur in whorls of 9-16, consist of internodes of approximately 0. 7-1.5 cm long, spreading to recurved. As the species is dioecious, male and female inflorescences are on separate trees, male flowers are located on small slender terminal spikes at the end of deciduous branches. Female flowers are grouped in alternating whorls of 9-16, eventually forming a cone, bracteoles are short and tawny, pubescent and opening widely at dehiscence. Fruits are dull yellow-brown, elliptical, flattened, up to 5. 5-7. 0mm long, the word ‘casuarina’ is derived from the word kasuari, in reference to the similarity of the tree’s drooping branches to the feathers of the bird. The word ‘pauper’ is Latin, relating to the smaller, poorer habit of this species compared to C. cristata. Previous nomenclature - Casuarina stricta ssp. pauper, Casuarina cristata, Casuarina pauper ssp. pauper, Casuarina lepidophloia, Casuarina cambagei, common names - Black Oak, Inland Sheoak, Belah. C. pauper is generally growing in groves ranging from ≤1 to 10ha. This species can withstand compact clay soils and high alkalinity, the species occurs in the altitudinal range of 400-500m, surviving in areas where the hottest month is 32-36 °C and 3-7 °C in the coldest month, being moderately tolerant of frosts. Generally located in areas averaging 200-350mm of rainfall per year, C. pauper produces abundant viable seed, with regeneration success likely to be inhibited during periods of insufficient soil moisture required for seedling survival. Seeds consist of a papery transparent wing with conspicuous midrib, and may be dispersed by wind, surface run-off, the species also regenerates from basal shoots
39.
Grevillea
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It was named in honour of Charles Francis Greville. The species range from prostrate shrubs less than 50 cm tall to trees 35 m tall, common names include grevillea, spider flower, silky oak and toothbrush plant. Closely related to the genus Hakea, the genus gives its name to the subfamily Grevilleoideae, the brightly coloured, petal-less flowers consist of a calyx tube that splits into 4 lobes with long styles. They are good bird-attracting plants, honeyeaters in particular are common visitors and they are also used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the dryandra moth and the Pieris rapae. Many species of grevilleas are popular garden plants, especially in Australia but also in other temperate, many grevilleas have a propensity to interbreed freely, and extensive hybridisation and selection of horticulturally desirable attributes has led to the commercial release of many named cultivars. Among the best known is Robyn Gordon, a shrub up to 1.5 m high. The cultivar Canberra Gem has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit and they can be grown from soft tip cuttings from December–March or seed. Many harder-to-grow species can be grafted onto hardy rootstock such as Grevillea robusta, there is an active Grevillea Study Group in the Australian Native Plants Society for people interested in grevilleas, both for uses in horticulture and for conservation in the wild. Grevillea flowers were a favourite among Aborigines for their sweet nectar. This could be shaken onto the hand to enjoy, or into a coolamon with a water to make a sweet drink. They might be referred to as the original bush lollies, drinking nectar direct from the flower is best avoided as some commonly cultivated grevillea species produce flowers containing toxic cyanide. A grevillea wood veneer was used on a Pembroke table, a table with two drawers and folding sides, made in the 1790s for Commissioner of the Royal Navy. The timber from which the veneer was made, referred to as wood, was sent from Port Jackson by Surgeon-General John White. This table is in the collection of the National Museum of Australia in Canberra, there are over 350 species which are endemic to Australia, including the following, Five species are endemic to areas outside Australia. Three of these - G. exul, G. gillivrayi, and G. meisneri are endemic to New Caledonia while G. elbertii and G. papuana are endemic to Sulawesi and New Guinea respectively. Two other species, G. baileyana and G. glauca, the Grevillea Page of ASGAP The Illawarra Grevillea Park Page ABRS Flora of Australia online, Grevillea
40.
Hibbertia
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Hibbertia, or Guinea flower, is a genus of trees, shrubs, trailing shrubs and climbers of the family Dilleniaceae. Around 150 species occur in Australia of which two are found in New Guinea. Additionally,24 species occur in New Caledonia, one of which is found in Fiji. The genus is currently being revised by Helmut Toelken of the South Australian Herbarium, the genus takes its name from George Hibbert, an eminent English merchant and amateur botanist. Given the similarity in colour and shape, the number of stamens is a useful method of identification as this can vary widely from 4 to about 200 depending on species
