1.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
2.
Gas-discharge lamp
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Gas-discharge lamps are a family of artificial light sources that generate light by sending an electrical discharge through an ionized gas, a plasma. Typically, such use a noble gas or a mixture of these gases. Some include additional substances, like mercury, sodium, and metal halides, in operation some of the atoms in the gas are positively ionized, losing one of their electrons. These free electrons move toward the positive electrode, the ions are accelerated by the electric field toward whichever electrode is negatively charged at the time. Typically, after traveling a short distance, the ions collide with neutral gas atoms. In this way, electrons are relayed through the gas from the electrode to the positive. The color of the light produced depends on the spectra of the atoms making up the gas, as well as the pressure of the gas, current density. Gas discharge lamps can produce a range of colors. Some lamps produce ultraviolet radiation which is converted to light by a fluorescent coating on the inside of the lamps glass surface. The fluorescent lamp is perhaps the best known gas-discharge lamp, therefore, they usually require auxiliary electronic equipment such as ballasts to control current flow through the gas, preventing current runaway. Some gas-discharge lamps also have a perceivable start-up time to achieve their full light output, still, due to their greater efficiency, gas-discharge lamps are replacing incandescent lights in many lighting applications. Investigators, including Francis Hauksbee, tried to determine the cause of the phenomenon, Hauksbee first demonstrated a gas-discharge lamp in 1705. He showed that an evacuated or partially evacuated glass globe, in which he placed a small amount of mercury, since then, discharge light sources have been researched because they create light from electricity considerably more efficiently than incandescent light bulbs. It was found that inert gases like the noble gases neon, argon, krypton or xenon and this technology was commercialized by French engineer Georges Claude in 1910 and became neon lighting, used in neon signs. The introduction of the metal vapor lamp, including various metals within the tube, was a later advance. The heat of the gas discharge vaporized some of the metal, the usual metals are sodium and mercury owing to their visible spectrum emission. One hundred years of research led to lamps without electrodes which are instead energized by microwave or radio frequency sources. In addition, light sources of lower output have been created
3.
Night game
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A night game, also called a nighter, is a sporting event that takes place, completely or partially, after the local sunset. Depending on the sport, this can be either with floodlights or with the usual low-light conditions. The term night game is used only in reference to sports traditionally held outdoors. Although indoor sporting events take place after local sunset, these events are artificially lighted regardless of the time of day they take place. A baseball game was played under artificial illumination in 1880, the year after Thomas Edison invented the light bulb and it was an experimental game between two department store teams, and it would take another fifty years before Organized Baseball would sanction night baseball. There were a couple of exhibition night baseball games in the early 1900s between Organized Baseball teams, One of them was in 1909, and the other was in 1927, but the games did not count in league standings. Even though the games were between professional teams, they were unofficial experiments and did not count as the nocturnal first, in 1929, the president of the Des Moines, Iowa baseball club announced to the National Association convention he was going to play night baseball in 1930. However, the first official minor league night game took place in Independence. An article in the April 1931 edition of Baseball Magazine stated that Independence was the first team in America to play a night baseball game. After the game in Independence, night baseball spread like wildfire across the minor leagues. In addition to that, in 1935, The Sporting News pointed out that Des Moines, Iowa was not the first to install permanent lights, by the end of the 1934 season there were sixty-five minor league teams with permanent lights installed on their fields. The light towers installed in Independence in 1930 were removed and scrapped in June 1990, mickey Mantle, an Independence Yankee in 1949, played under the historic lights. Lighting technology had improved since the 1927 night game exhibition. After fifty years of experiments, a new era in baseball was about to start. The Independence Producers of Independence, Kansas were a Class C minor league team that played in a stadium known now as Shulthis Stadium. They purchased lights from the Giant Manufacturing Company and installed permanent lights on their field, when Independence played the night game on April 28,1930, it made Independence the birthplace of professional night baseball. By the end of the 1930 season there were minor league teams with lights installed on their fields. Independence played the first night game in the history of Organized Baseball on April 28,1930, the term Organized Baseball refers to Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball games
4.
Stage lighting instrument
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Stage lighting instruments are used in stage lighting to illuminate theatrical productions, concerts, and other performances taking place in live performance venues. They are also used to light television studios and sound stages, many stagecraft terms vary between the United States and the United Kingdom. In the United States, lighting fixtures are often called instruments or units, in the UK, they are called lanterns or luminaires. This article mainly uses terms common to the United States, see the picture at top right for the physical location of most components. It comprises all of the exterior of the fixture except for the lens or opening, the housing may be designed with specific elements that help reduce heat and increase the efficiency of a lamp. Older instruments were made from rolled and machined steel or aluminum, with the advent of the Source Four, many lighting instruments are being made from die cast metal. Die casting allows for one single, light-weight body that is economical to produce. Some instruments are made from plastic, such as the Selecon Pacific, the opening of samad is the gap in the housing from where the beam of light is intended to come. Many fixtures use a lens to help control the beam of light, though some, such as border or cyclorama lights, the lens and the reflector, along with other beam-altering devices are both considered part of the optics system. The reflector affects the quality and directionality of the light output, a reflector is located behind or around the light source in such a way as to direct more light towards the lens or opening. Each unit has a reflector, used in conjunction with the lens to create the desired effect. An ellipsoidal reflector has a set at one focus point of an ellipsoid-shaped reflector that bounces the light. This focuses the beam of light into a tight beam, ellipsoidal reflectors often are used for tight, focusable spots, although they can be used for floodlights, such as in scoops. A parabolic reflector has a set at the focus point of a parabola-shaped reflector that bounces the light in parallel beams away from the reflector. There is no point at which the light converges, so the light is unfocusable, parabolic reflectors are used for lights intended to provide an unfocused wash, such as PAR cans. Reflectors can also be used to reduce or eliminate unwanted thermal emission. Incandescent lamps produce light through heating of the filament, while arc lamps produce light through the heating, in either case, this heat is also emitted from the lamp as infrared light. The thermal energy is projected onto the stage with the visible light
5.
Concert
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A concert is a live music performance in front of an audience. A recital is a concert by a soloist or small group which follows a program, a recitalist is a musician who gives frequent recitals. The invention of the piano recital has been attributed to Franz Liszt. The performance may be by a musician, sometimes then called a recital, or by a musical ensemble, such as an orchestra, choir. Indoor concerts held in the largest venues are sometimes called arena concerts or amphitheatre concerts, informal names for a concert include show and gig. Regardless of the venue, musicians perform on a stage. Concerts often require live event support with professional audio equipment, before recorded music, concerts provided the main opportunity to hear musicians play. The nature of a concert varies by musical genre, individual performers, concerts by a small jazz combo or small bluegrass band may have the same order of program, mood, and volume—but vary in music and dress. In a similar way, a musician, band, or genre of music might attract concert attendees with similar dress, hairstyle. For example, concert goers in the 1960s often had hair, sandals. Regular attendees to a concert venue might also have a style that comprises that venues scene. Other Types of concerts, To plan or arrange by mutual agreement, some performers or groups put on very elaborate and expensive shows. To create a memorable and exciting atmosphere and increase the spectacle, some singers, especially popular music, augment concert sound with pre-recorded accompaniment, back-up dancers, and even broadcast vocal tracks of the singers own voice. Activities during these concerts can include dancing, sing-alongs, and moshing, concerts involving a greater number of artists, especially those that last for multiple days, are known as festivals. Unlike other concerts, which remain in a single genre of music or work of a particular artist, festivals often cover a broad scope of music. Due to their size, festivals are almost exclusively held outdoors, new platforms for festivals are becoming increasingly popular such as Jam Cruise, which is a festival held on a cruise ship, as well as Mayan Holidaze, which is a destination festival held in Tulum. Often concert tours are named, to differentiate different tours by the same artist, different segments of longer concert tours are known as legs. In the largest concert tours it is becoming common for different legs to employ separate touring production crews and equipment
6.
Stadium
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Pausanias noted that for about half a century the only event at the ancient Greek Olympic festival was the race that comprised one length of the stade at Olympia, where the word stadium originated. In modern times, a stadium is officially a stadium when at least 50% of the capacity is an actual building. If the majority of the capacity is formed by grasshills, the venue is not officially considered a stadium. Most of the stadiums with a capacity of at least 10,000 are used for football, or soccer. A large amount of sports venues are also used for concerts. Stadium is the Latin form of the Greek word stadion, a measure of length equalling the length of 600 human feet, as feet are of variable length the exact length of a stadion depends on the exact length adopted for 1 foot at a given place and time. Although in modern terms 1 stadion =600 ft, in a historical context it may actually signify a length up to 15% larger or smaller. The equivalent Roman measure, the stadium, had a similar length — about 185 m -, the English use of stadium comes from the tiered infrastructure surrounding a Roman track of such length. Most dictionaries provide for both stadiums and stadia as valid English plurals, although etymological purists sometimes apply stadia only to measures of length in excess of 1 stadium. The oldest known stadium is the one in Olympia, in the western Peloponnese, Greece, initially the Games consisted of a single event, a sprint along the length of the stadium. The stadion, a measure of length, may be related to the Stadium, Greek and Roman stadiums have been found in numerous ancient cities, perhaps the most famous being the Stadium of Domitian, in Rome. The excavated and refurbished ancient Panathenaic stadium hosted a version of the Olympic Games in 1870,1875,1896 and 1906. The excavation and refurbishment of the stadium was part of the legacy of the Greek national benefactor Evangelos Zappas, the first stadiums to be built in the modern era were basic facilities, designed for the single purpose of fitting as many spectators in as possible. One such early stadium was the Lansdowne Road Stadium, the brainchild of Henry Dunlop, banned from locating sporting events at Trinity College, Dunlop built the stadium in 1872. Some 300 cartloads of soil from a trench beneath the railway were used to raise the ground, other early stadiums from this period in the UK include the Stamford Bridge stadium and Anfield stadium. In the U. S. However, many of these caught fire. All of the 19th-century wooden parks were replaced, some only a few years. Goodison Park was the first purpose-built football stadium in the world, walton-based building firm Kelly brothers were instructed to erect two uncovered stands that could each accommodate 4,000 spectators
7.
Metal-halide lamp
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It is a type of high-intensity discharge gas discharge lamp. Developed in the 1960s, they are similar to mercury vapor lamps, but contain additional metal halide compounds in the arc tube. The most common metal halide compound used is sodium iodide, once the arc tube reaches its running temperature, the sodium dissociates from the iodine, adding orange and reds to the lamps spectrum from the sodium D line as the metal ionizes. Lamp life is 6,000 to 15,000 hours, as one of the most efficient sources of high CRI white light, metal halides as of 2005 were the fastest growing segment of the lighting industry. They operate at a pressure between 4 and 20 atmospheres, and require special fixtures to operate safely, as well as an electrical ballast, metal atoms produce most of the light output. They require a period of several minutes to reach full light output. Because of their spectrum and good efficiency they are used for indoor growing applications and are quite popular with reef aquarists. Like other gas-discharge lamps such as the very-similar mercury-vapor lamps, metal-halide lamps produce light by ionizing a mixture of gasses in an electric arc. In a metal-halide lamp, the arc tube contains a mixture of argon or xenon, mercury. The particular mixture of metal halides influences the color temperature. When started, the gas in the lamp is ionized first. The arc-tube operates at anywhere from 5–50 atm or more and 1000–3000 °C, about 24% of the energy used by metal-halide lamps produces light, making them substantially more efficient than incandescent bulbs, which typically have efficiencies in the range 2–4%. Metal-halide lamps consist of an arc tube with electrodes, a bulb. Inside the fused quartz arc tube, two tungsten electrodes doped with thorium are sealed into each end and an AC voltage is applied to them through molybdenum foil seals fused in silica and it is the arc between the two electrodes where the light is actually created. Besides mercury vapor, the lamp contains iodides or bromides of different metals, iodine and bromine are of the halogen group of the periodic table, and so are termed halides when ionized. Scandium and sodium are also used in some types, with thallium, indium, more recent types use dysprosium for high color temperature and tin for lower color temperature. Holmium and thulium are used in high power movie lighting models. Gallium or lead are used in special high UV-A models for printing purposes, the mixture of the metals used defines the color of the lamp
8.
Sodium-vapor lamp
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A sodium-vapor lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium in an excited state to produce light at a characteristic wavelength near 589 nm. There are two varieties of such lamps, low pressure and high pressure, low-pressure sodium lamps are highly efficient electrical light sources, but their yellow light restricts applications to outdoor lighting such as street lamps. High-pressure sodium lamps produce a spectrum of light than the low-pressure lamps. Low-pressure sodium lamps only give monochromatic yellow light and so inhibit color vision at night, low-pressure sodium lamps have a borosilicate glass gas discharge tube containing solid sodium, a small amount of neon, and argon gas in a Penning mixture to start the gas discharge. The discharge tube may be linear or U-shaped, when the lamp is first started, it emits a dim red/pink light to warm the sodium metal, within a few minutes as the sodium metal vaporizes, the emission becomes the common bright yellow. These lamps produce a monochromatic light averaging a 589.3 nm wavelength. The colors of objects illuminated by only this narrow bandwidth are difficult to distinguish, LPS lamps have an outer glass vacuum envelope around the inner discharge tube for thermal insulation, which improves their efficiency. Earlier LPS lamps had a detachable dewar jacket, lamps with a permanent vacuum envelope were developed to improve thermal insulation. Further improvement was attained by coating the envelope with an infrared reflecting layer of indium tin oxide. LPS lamps are among the most efficient electrical light sources when measured in photopic lighting conditions, producing above 100 and this high efficiency is partly due to the light emitted being at a wavelength near the peak sensitivity of the human eye. They are used mainly for outdoor lighting where faithful color rendition is not important, recent studies show that under typical nighttime mesopic driving conditions, whiter light can provide better results at a lower level of illumination. LPS lamps are similar to fluorescent lamps in that they are a low-intensity light source with a linear lamp shape and they do not exhibit a bright arc as do High-intensity discharge lamps, they emit a softer luminous glow, resulting in less glare. Unlike HID lamps, during a voltage dip low-pressure sodium lamps return to full brightness rapidly, LPS lamps are available with power ratings from 10 W up to 180 W, longer bulb lengths can, however, suffer design and engineering problems. Modern LPS lamps have a life of about 18,000 hours and do not decline in lumen output with age. This property contrasts with mercury vapor HID lamps, which become dimmer towards the end of life to the point of being ineffective, for locations where light pollution is a consideration, such as near astronomical observatories or sea turtle nesting beaches, low-pressure sodium is preferred. Such lamps emit light on just two dominant spectral lines, and therefore have the least spectral interference with astronomical observation, one consequence of widespread public lighting is that on cloudy nights, cities with enough lighting are illuminated by light reflected off the clouds. Where sodium vapor lights are the source of illumination, the night sky is tinged with orange. Sodium vapor process is a technique that relies on narrowband characteristics of LPS lamp
9.
Light-emitting diode
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
10.
Polo
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Polo is a team sport played on horseback. The objective is to score goals against an opposing team, players score by driving a small white plastic or wooden ball into the opposing teams goal using a long-handled mallet. The traditional sport of polo is played on a grass field up to 300 by 160 yards, each polo team consists of four riders and their mounts. Field polo is played with a plastic ball which has replaced the wooden version of the ball in much of the sport. In arena polo, only three players are required per team and the game involves more maneuvering and shorter plays at lower speeds due to space limitations of arenas. Arena polo is played with a small air-filled ball, similar to a small football, the modern game lasts roughly two hours and is divided into periods called chukkas. Polo is played professionally in 16 countries and it was formerly an Olympic sport. Its invention is dated variously from the 6th century BC to the 1st century AD, Persian Emperor Shapur II learnt to play polo when he was seven years old in 316 AD. The game was learnt by the neighbouring Byzantine Empire at an early date, a tzykanisterion was built by emperor Theodosius II inside the Great Palace of Constantinople. Emperor Basil I excelled at it, Emperor Alexander died from exhaustion while playing, naqsh-i Jahan Square in Isfahan is a polo field which was built by king Abbas I in the 17th century. Qutubuddin Aibak, the Turkic slave from Central Asia who later became the Sultan of Delhi in Northern India, ruled as a Sultan for only four years, from 1206 to 1210, but died accidentally in 1210. While he was playing a game of polo on horseback, his horse fell and he was buried near the Anarkali bazaar in Lahore. Aibaks son Aram died in 1211 CE, so Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, another ex-slave of Turkic ancestry who was married to Aibaks daughter, after the Muslim conquests to the Ayyubid and Mameluke dynasties of Egypt and the Levant, their elites favoured it above all other sports. Notable sultans such as Saladin and Baybars were known to play it, Polo sticks were features on the Mameluke precursor to modern day playing cards. Valuable for training cavalry, the game was played from Constantinople to Japan by the Middle Ages. It is known in the East as the Game of Kings, the name polo is said to have been derived from the Balti word pulu, meaning ball. The modern game of polo is derived from Manipur, India and it was the anglicised form of the last, referring to the wooden ball that was used, which was adopted by the sport in its slow spread to the west. The first polo club was established in the town of Silchar in Assam, India, the origins of the game in Manipur are traced to early precursors of Sagol Kangjei. This was one of three forms of hockey in Manipur, the ones being field hockey and wrestling-hockey
