1.
Solid
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Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume, unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to other, either in a regular geometric lattice or irregularly. The branch of physics deals with solids is called solid-state physics. Materials science is concerned with the physical and chemical properties of solids. Solid-state chemistry is concerned with the synthesis of novel materials, as well as the science of identification. The atoms, molecules or ions which make up solids may be arranged in a repeating pattern. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals, in some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a single crystal. Almost all common metals, and many ceramics, are polycrystalline, in other materials, there is no long-range order in the position of the atoms. These solids are known as amorphous solids, examples include polystyrene, whether a solid is crystalline or amorphous depends on the material involved, and the conditions in which it was formed. Solids which are formed by slow cooling will tend to be crystalline, likewise, the specific crystal structure adopted by a crystalline solid depends on the material involved and on how it was formed. While many common objects, such as an ice cube or a coin, are chemically identical throughout, for example, a typical rock is an aggregate of several different minerals and mineraloids, with no specific chemical composition. Wood is an organic material consisting primarily of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of organic lignin. In materials science, composites of more than one constituent material can be designed to have desired properties, the forces between the atoms in a solid can take a variety of forms. For example, a crystal of sodium chloride is made up of sodium and chlorine. In diamond or silicon, the atoms share electrons and form covalent bonds, in metals, electrons are shared in metallic bonding. Some solids, particularly most organic compounds, are together with van der Waals forces resulting from the polarization of the electronic charge cloud on each molecule. The dissimilarities between the types of solid result from the differences between their bonding, metals typically are strong, dense, and good conductors of both electricity and heat
2.
Aquaculture
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Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats. According to the FAO, aquaculture Farming implies some form of intervention in the process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated, further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon. Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture, particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and plant farming. The indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia, may have raised eels as early as 6000 BC, Aquaculture was operating in China circa 2500 BC. When the waters subsided after river floods, some fish, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes, early aquaculturists fed their brood using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the emergence of goldfish during the Tang dynasty, japanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. Romans bred fish in ponds and farmed oysters in coastal lagoons before 100 CE, in central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural practices. Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages since away from the seacoasts, improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fresh fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, making aquaculture less popular. The 15th-century fishponds of the Trebon Basin in the Czech Republic are maintained as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a remarkable example is a fish pond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. Legend says that it was constructed by the mythical Menehune dwarf people, in first half of 18th century, German Stephan Ludwig Jacobi experimented with external fertilization of brown trouts and salmon. He wrote an article Von der künstlichen Erzeugung der Forellen und Lachse, by the latter decades of the 18th century, oyster farming had begun in estuaries along the Atlantic Coast of North America. The word aquaculture appeared in an 1855 newspaper article in reference to the harvesting of ice, in 1859, Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began experiments with brook trout. By 1864, Seth Green had established a commercial fish-hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, by 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord, Massachusetts, artificial fish hatcheries were under way in both Canada and the United States. When the Dildo Island fish hatchery opened in Newfoundland in 1889, the word aquaculture was used in descriptions of the hatcheries experiments with cod and lobster in 1890. By the 1920s, the American Fish Culture Company of Carolina, Rhode Island, during the 1940s, they had perfected the method of manipulating the day and night cycle of fish so that they could be artificially spawned year around. Californians harvested wild kelp and attempted to supply around 1900
3.
Cryogenics
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In physics, cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures. It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins, but scientists assume a gas to be cryogenic if it can be liquefied at or below −150 °C. The U. S. National Institute of Standards and Technology has chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below −180 °C or −292.00 °F or 93.15 K. A person who studies elements that have been subjected to cold temperatures is called a cryogenicist. Cryogenicists use the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scales present in nature, Cryogenics The branches of physics and engineering that involve the study of very low temperatures, how to produce them, and how materials behave at those temperatures. Cryobiology The branch of biology involving the study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms, cryoconservation of animal genetic resources The conservation of genetic material with the intention of conserving a breed. Cryosurgery The branch of surgery applying very low temperatures to destroy malignant tissue, cryoelectronics The field of research regarding superconductivity at low temperatures. Cryotronics The practical application of cryoelectronics, Cryonics Cryopreserving humans and animals with the intention of future revival. Cryogenics is sometimes used to mean Cryonics in popular culture. The word cryogenics stems from Greek kρύο – cold + genic – having to do with production, Cryogenic fluids with their boiling point in kelvins Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchasable around the world, Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached. These liquids may be stored in Dewar flasks, which are double-walled containers with a vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer into the liquid. Typical laboratory Dewar flasks are spherical, made of glass and protected in a metal outer container, Dewar flasks for extremely cold liquids such as liquid helium have another double-walled container filled with liquid nitrogen. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first liquefied hydrogen, thermos bottles are smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a protective casing. Cryogenic barcode labels are used to mark dewar flasks containing these liquids, Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer liquefied natural gas from LNG carriers to LNG storage tanks, as are cryogenic valves. The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear, based on this theory of cryogenic hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry was founded in 1966 by Ed Busch. This evolved in the late 1990s into the treatment of other parts, cryogens, such as liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the popular statin drugs, special cryogenic chemical reactors are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment
4.
National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
5.
Vapor-compression refrigeration
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Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this function may also be called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air source heat pump, the vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system, all such systems have four components, a compressor, a condenser, a thermal expansion valve, and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure. This is where the refrigerant rejects heat from the system. The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator, a fan circulates the warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture. That warm air evaporates the liquid part of the refrigerant mixture. At the same time, the air is cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the desired temperature. The evaporator is where the refrigerant absorbs and removes heat which is subsequently rejected in the condenser. To complete the cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor. Freon is a name for a family of haloalkane refrigerants manufactured by DuPont. Haloalkanes are also an order of more expensive than petroleum derived flammable alkanes of similar or better cooling performance. Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the atmosphere when they escape. In the stratosphere, CFCs break up due to UV radiation and these chlorine free radicals act as catalysts in the breakdown of ozone through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of molecules to break down. This causes severe damage to the layer that shields the Earths surface from the Suns strong UV radiation
6.
Chemical reactor
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In chemical engineering, chemical reactors are vessels designed to contain chemical reactions. Also referred to as a vessel, the reactants contained are substances that change form after a chemical reaction. One example is a pressure reactor, the design of a chemical reactor deals with multiple aspects of chemical engineering. Chemical engineers design reactors to maximize net present value for the given reaction, normal operating expenses include energy input, energy removal, raw material costs, labor, etc. Energy changes can come in the form of heating or cooling, pumping to increase pressure, Chemical reaction engineering is the branch of chemical engineering which deals with chemical reactors and their design, especially by application of chemical kinetics to industrial systems. Most commonly, reactors are run at steady-state, but can also be operated in a transient state, when a reactor is first brought into operation it would be considered to be in a transient state, where key process variables change with time. Furthermore, catalytic reactors require separate treatment, whether they are batch, CST, or PF reactors, typical packed bed reactors consist of a chamber, such as a tube or channel that contains catalyst particles or pellets, and a liquid that flows through the catalyst. A chemical reactor may also be a bed, see Fluidized bed reactor. Chemical reactions occurring in a reactor may be exothermic, meaning giving off heat, or endothermic, a chemical reactor vessel may have a cooling or heating jacket or cooling or heating coils wrapped around the outside of its vessel wall to cool down or heat up the contents. The simplest type of reactor is a batch reactor, materials are charged in a batch reactor, and the reaction proceeds with time. A batch reactor does not reach a state, and control of temperature, pressure. Thus, a batch reactor has ports for sensors and material input and output, batch reactors are used in small-scale production and reactions with biological materials, such as in brewing, pulping and production of enzymes. In a CSTR, one or more fluid reagents are introduced into a tank equipped with an impeller while the reactor effluent is removed. The impeller stirs the reagents to ensure proper mixing, simply dividing the volume of the tank by the average volumetric flow rate through the tank gives the space time, or the average amount of time a discrete quantity of reagent spends inside the tank. Using chemical kinetics, the reactions expected percent completion can be calculated, some important aspects of the CSTR, At steady-state, the mass flow rate in must equal the mass flow rate out, otherwise the tank will overflow or go empty. While the reactor is in a transient state the model equation must be derived from the differential mass, the reaction proceeds at the reaction rate associated with the final concentration, since the concentration is assumed to be homogenous throughout the reactor. Often, it is beneficial to operate several CSTRs in series. This allows, for example, the first CSTR to operate at a higher reagent concentration, in these cases, the sizes of the reactors may be varied in order to minimize the total capital investment required to implement the process
7.
Coal gasification
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Coal gasification is the process of producing syngas–a mixture consisting primarily of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor –from coal and water, air and/or oxygen. The hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes such as making ammonia, powering a hydrogen economy. Methane from coal gasification can be converted into LNG for use as a fuel in the transport sector, in the past, coal was converted to make coal gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in BTU Conversion technologies such as gasification, methanation and liquefaction, the Synthetic Fuels Corporation was a U. S. government-funded corporation established in 1980 to create a market for alternatives to imported fossil fuels. The corporation was discontinued in 1985, similar experiments were carried out in 1681 by Johann Becker of Munich and in 1684 by John Clayton of Wigan, England. The latter called it Spirit of the Coal, William Murdoch discovered new ways of making, purifying and storing gas. In France, Philippe le Bon patented a gas fire in 1799, in 1816, Rembrandt Peale and four others established the Gas Light Company of Baltimore, the first manufactured gas company in America. In 1821, natural gas was being used commercially in Fredonia, the first German gas works was built in Hannover in 1825 and by 1870 there were 340 gas works in Germany making town gas from coal, wood, peat and other materials. The foreman told me that stokers were selected from among the strongest and that explained the sadness and apathy in the faces and every movement of the hapless men. The first public piped gas supply was to 13 gas lamps, the credit for this goes to the inventor and entrepreneur Fredrick Winsor and the plumber Thomas Sugg, who made and laid the pipes. Digging up streets to lay pipes required legislation and this delayed the development of street lighting, meanwhile, William Murdoch and his pupil Samuel Clegg were installing gas lighting in factories and work places, encountering no such impediments. In the 1850s every small to medium-sized town and city had a gas plant to provide for street lighting, subscribing customers could also have piped lines to their houses. By this era, gas lighting became accepted, gaslight trickled down to the middle class and later came gas cookers and stoves. The 1860s were the age of coal gas development. Scientists like Kekulé and Perkin cracked the secrets of organic chemistry to reveal how gas is made, from this came better gas plants and Perkins purple dyes, such as Mauveine. In the 1850s, processes for making Producer gas and Water gas from coke were developed, unenriched water gas may be described as Blue water gas. Mond gas, developed in the 1850s by Ludwig Mond, was producer gas made from coal instead of coke and it contained ammonia and coal tar and was processed to recover these valuable compounds. Blue water gas burns with a flame which makes it unsuitable for lighting purposes
8.
Frozen food
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Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved their grains, freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes, mechanical and cryogenic, the freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure, cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature −196 °C. Preserving food in domestic kitchens during the 20th and 21st centuries is achieved using household freezers, accepted advice to householders was to freeze food on the day of purchase. An initiative by a group in 2012 promotes advising the freezing of food as soon as possible up to the products use by date. The Food Standards Agency was reported as supporting the change, providing the food had been stored correctly up to that time. Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below −9.5 °C, long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose, a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product. Natural food freezing had been in use by tribes in cold climates for centuries, by 1885 a small number of chicken and geese were being shipped from Russia to London in insulated cases using this technique. This trade in food was enabled by the introduction of Linde cold air freezing plants in three Russian depots and the London warehouse. The Shadwell warehouse stored the goods until they were shipped to markets in London, Birmingham, Liverpool. The techniques were expanded into the meat packing industry. From 1929, Clarence Birdseye introduced flash freezing to the American public, Birdseye first became interested in food freezing during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use natural freezing to preserve foods. More advanced attempts include food frozen for Eleanor Roosevelt on her trip to Russia, other experiments, involving orange juice, ice cream and vegetables were conducted by the military near the end of World War II. The freezing technique itself, just like the food market, is developing to become faster, more efficient. Mechanical freezers were the first to be used in the industry and are used in the vast majority of freezing / refrigerating lines. They function by circulating a refrigerant, normally ammonia, around the system and this heat is then transferred to a condenser and dissipated into air or water
9.
Fluidized bed concentrator
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A fluidized bed concentrator is an industrial process for the treatment of exhaust air. The system uses a bed of activated carbon beads to adsorb volatile organic compounds from the exhaust gas and this increases the surface area of the carbon-gas interaction, making it more effective at capturing VOCs. The air first passes into the Adsorption tower, where it moves through six perforated trays of clean carbon beads, the 0. 7mm Bead activated carbon fluidizes in the trays and captures the VOCs as they intermix. The saturated carbon beads are passed from the Adsorber tower to the Desorber tower, where the beads are heated to 350 °F, typically the Adsorber tower is many times larger than the Desorber tower, leading to an air volume reduction and an increase in VOC concentration. The ratio of Adsorber size to Desorber size is called the Concentration Ratio, in some cases, small amounts of Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxide, and other gases are produced. The primary advantage of the FBC over traditional rotor concentrators lies in its ability to achieve any concentration ratio up to the explosive limit. Reducing the volume of air to be oxidized from 100,000 CFM to 1,500 CFM, allows for a lower energy usage and consequently, fewer CO2
10.
Mineral oil
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A mineral oil or paraffin oil is any of various colorless, odorless, light mixtures of higher alkanes from a mineral source, particularly a distillate of petroleum. The name mineral oil by itself is imprecise, having used for many specific oils over the past few centuries. Other names, similarly imprecise, include oil, liquid paraffin, paraffinum liquidum. Baby oil is a mineral oil. Most often, mineral oil is a liquid by-product of refining crude oil to make gasoline and this type of mineral oil is a transparent, colorless oil composed mainly of alkanes and cycloalkanes, related to petroleum jelly. It has a density of around 0.8 g/cm3, mineral oil is a substance of relatively low value, and it is produced in very large quantities. Mineral oil is available in light and heavy grades, and can often be found in drug stores. Some of the imprecision in the definition of the names reflects usage by buyers and sellers who did not know, and usually did not need to care about, the precise chemical makeup. Prior to the late 19th century, the science to determine such makeup was unavailable in any case. A similar lexical situation occurred with the white metal. Mineral oil, sold widely and cheaply in the USA, is not sold as such in Britain, instead British pharmacologists use the terms Paraffinum perliquidum for light mineral oil and Paraffinum liquidum or Paraffinum subliquidum for somewhat thicker varieties. The term Paraffinum Liquidum is often seen on the ingredient lists of baby oil, British aromatherapists commonly use the term white mineral oil. The FSA did not identify any specific safety concerns due to inks. People can be exposed to oil mist in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the limit for mineral oil mist exposure in the workplace as 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and 10 mg/m3 short-term exposure. At levels of 2500 mg/m3, mineral oil mist is immediately dangerous to life, mineral oil of special purity is often used as an overlay covering microdrops of culture medium in petri dishes, during the culture of oocytes and embryos in IVF and related procedures. Over the counter veterinarian use mineral oil is intended as a laxative for pets
11.
Packed bed
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In chemical processing, a packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or other vessel that is filled with a packing material. The packing can be filled with small objects like Raschig rings or else it can be a specifically designed structured packing. Packed beds may also contain catalyst particles or adsorbents such as pellets, granular activated carbon. The purpose of a bed is typically to improve contact between two phases in a chemical or similar process. Packed beds can be used in a reactor, a distillation process, or a scrubber. In this case, hot gases are allowed to escape through a vessel that is packed with a refractory material until the packing is hot, air or other cool gas is then fed back to the plant through the hot bed, thereby pre-heating the air or gas feed. In industry, a column is a type of packed bed used to perform separation processes, such as absorption, stripping. A packed column is a vessel that has a packed section. Columns used in certain types of chromatography consisting of a filled with packing material can also be called packed columns. The column can be filled with random dumped packing or with structured packing sections, in the column, liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Packing material can be used instead of trays to improve separation in distillation columns, packing offers the advantage of a lower pressure drop across the column, which is beneficial while operating under vacuum. Differently shaped packing materials have different surface areas and void space between the packing, both of these factors affect packing performance. Another factor in performance, in addition to the shape and surface area, is the liquid. The number of stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. The packing will appear to not be working properly, the height equivalent to a theoretical plate will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the entering the packed bed. These columns can contain liquid distributors and redistributors which help to distribute the liquid evenly over a section of packing, increasing the efficiency of the mass transfer. The design of the liquid used to introduce the feed
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