1.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
2.
Bird migration
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Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south along a flyway, between breeding and wintering grounds. Migration carries high costs in predation and mortality, including from hunting by humans and it occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere, where birds are funnelled on to specific routes by natural barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea. More recently, Johannes Leche began recording dates of arrivals of spring migrants in Finland in 1749, threats to migratory birds have grown with habitat destruction especially of stopover and wintering sites, as well as structures such as power lines and wind farms. The Arctic tern holds the long-distance migration record for birds, travelling between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year, shorter migrations are common, including altitudinal migrations on mountains such as the Andes and Himalayas. The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length, migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the sun and stars, the earths magnetic field, and probably also mental maps. Records of bird migration were made as much as 3,000 years ago by the Ancient Greek writers Hesiod, Homer, Herodotus and Aristotle. The Bible also notes migrations, as in the Book of Job, the author of Jeremiah wrote, Even the stork in the heavens knows its seasons, and the turtle dove, the swift and the crane keep the time of their arrival. Aristotle noted that cranes traveled from the steppes of Scythia to marshes at the headwaters of the Nile, pliny the Elder, in his Historia Naturalis, repeats Aristotles observations. Aristotle however suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated and this belief persisted as late as 1878, when Elliott Coues listed the titles of no less than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows. It was not until the end of the century that migration as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes was accepted. Bewick then describes an experiment which succeeded in keeping alive in Britain for several years. He concludes, These experiments have since been confirmed by. Migration is the seasonal movement, often north and south. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat, sometimes, journeys are not termed true migration because they are irregular or in only one direction. Migration is marked by its annual seasonality, non-migratory birds are said to be resident or sedentary. Approximately 1800 of the worlds 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants, many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer, of course, in the southern hemisphere the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in the far south to support long-distance migration. The primary motivation for migration appears to be food, for example, also, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young
3.
Continent
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A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, in geology, areas of continental crust include regions covered with water. Islands are frequently grouped with a continent to divide all the worlds land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania. By convention, continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, many of the seven most commonly recognized continents identified by convention are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. Earths major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, the most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. From this perspective the edge of the shelf is the true edge of the continent. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia, as a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered part of Europe and Madagascar part of Africa, extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group the Australasian continental plate with other islands in the Pacific into one continent called Oceania. This divides the land surface of Earth into continents or quasi-continents. The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions, of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as more or less discrete masses of land, Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no separation of these landmasses by water. Both these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk off the landmasses they unite, North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a continent known as America or the Americas. This viewpoint was common in the United States until World War II and this remains the more common vision in Latin American countries, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy and Greece, where they are taught as a single continent. The criterion of a landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents, Europe and Asia
4.
Ocean
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An ocean is a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, the word sea is often used interchangeably with ocean in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water partly or fully enclosed by land. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored, the total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters. As the world ocean is the component of Earths hydrosphere, it is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the origin of Earths oceans remains unknown, oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds, the only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many planets and natural satellites, notably. The Solar Systems giant planets are thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection, Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases, though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the World are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, the continuous mountain range is 65,000 km long, and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km long
5.
Wildlife management
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Wildlife management attempts to balance the needs of wildlife with the needs of people using the best available science. Wildlife management can include game keeping, wildlife conservation and pest control, Wildlife management draws on disciplines such as mathematics, chemistry, biology, ecology, climatology and geography to gain the best results. Most wildlife biologists are concerned with the preservation and improvement of habitats although rewilding is increasingly being used, techniques can include reforestation, pest control, nitrification and denitrification, irrigation, coppicing and hedge laying. Pest control is the control of real or perceived pests and can be used for the benefit of wildlife, farmers, in the United States, wildlife management practices are often implemented by a governmental agency to uphold a law, such as the Endangered Species Act. Legislation has also passed to protect wildlife such as the Wildlife. The UK government also give farmers subsidies through the Countryside Stewardship Scheme to improve the value of their farms. The history of wildlife management begins with the laws, which regulated the right to kill certain kinds of fish. In Britain game laws developed out of the forest laws, which in the time of the Norman kings were very oppressive, under William the Conqueror, it was as great a crime to kill one of the kings deer as to kill one of his subjects. The Game Act of 1831 protected game birds by establishing close seasons when they could not be legally taken, the act made it lawful to take game only with the provision of a game licence and provided for the appointment of gamekeepers around the country. The purposes of the law was to balance the needs for preservation and harvest, early game laws were also enacted in the US, - in 1839 Rhode Island closed the hunting season for white-tailed deer from May to November. Other regulations during this time focused primarily on restricting hunting, at this time, lawmakers did not consider population sizes or the need for preservation or restoration of wildlife habitats. The late 19th century saw the passage of the first pieces of wildlife conservation legislation, the Sea Birds Preservation Act of 1869 was passed in Britain as the first nature protection law in the world after extensive lobbying from the Association for the Protection of Seabirds. The group gained popularity and eventually amalgamated with the Fur and Feather League in Croydon to form the RSPB, the Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the ornithologist Professor Alfred Newton. The National Trust formed in 1895 with the manifesto to. promote the permanent preservation, for the benefit of the nation, of lands. to preserve their natural aspect. On 1 May 1899, the Trust purchased two acres of Wicken Fen with a donation from the amateur naturalist Charles Rothschild, establishing the first nature reserve in Britain. Rothschild was a pioneer of conservation in Britain, and went on to establish many other nature reserves, such as one at Woodwalton Fen, near Huntingdon. During his lifetime he built and managed his estate at Ashton Wold in Northamptonshire to maximise its suitability for wildlife, concerned about the loss of wildlife habitats, in 1912 he set up the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves, the forerunner of The Wildlife Trusts partnership. During the societys early years, membership tended to be made up of specialist naturalists and its growth was comparatively slow and these early Trusts tended to focus on purchasing land to establish nature reserves in the geographical areas they served
6.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
7.
Atlantic Flyway
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The Atlantic Flyway is a bird migration route that generally follows the Atlantic Coast of North America and the Appalachian Mountains. Which account for the number of bird species found in those areas. Once in Florida, the flyway diverges into a path over eastern Mexico and this route is used by birds typically because no mountains or even ridges of hills block this path over its entire extent. Good sources of water, food, and cover exist over its entire length, the other primary migration routes for North American birds includes the Mississippi, Central and Pacific Flyways
8.
Central Flyway
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The Central Flyway is a bird migration route that generally follows the Great Plains in the United States and Canada. Some birds even use this flyway to migrate from the Arctic Ocean to Patagonia, routes used by birds are typically established because no mountains or large hills block the flyway over its entire extent. Good sources of water, food, and cover exist over its entire length, the other primary migration routes for North American birds includes the Atlantic, Mississippi and Pacific Flyways. The Central Flyway merges with the Mississippi Flyway between Missouri and the Gulf of Mexico, the Central Flyway Council is composed of representatives from agencies responsible for migratory bird management in 10 states, two Canadian provinces and the Northwest Territories. Member states and provinces in the council are, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, Alberta, Central Flyway Council North American Migration Flyways
9.
Mississippi Flyway
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The Mississippi Flyway is a bird migration route that generally follows the Mississippi River in the United States and the Mackenzie River in Canada. The main endpoints of the flyway include central Canada and the surrounding the Gulf of Mexico. Some birds use this flyway to migrate from the Arctic Ocean to Patagonia, typically birds use this route because no mountains or ridges of hills block the path over its entire extent. Good sources of water, food, and cover exist over its entire length, about 40% of all North American migrating waterfowl and shorebirds use this route. The other primary routes for North American birds include the Atlantic, Central. The Central Flyway merges with the Mississippi Flyway between Missouri and the Gulf of Mexico, in the northern portions of the Upper Mississippi River, the birds congregate in the Driftless Area, making use of the dams on the Mississippi
10.
Pacific Flyway
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The Pacific Flyway is a major north-south flyway for migratory birds in America, extending from Alaska to Patagonia. Every year, migratory birds travel some or all of this both in spring and in fall, following food sources, heading to breeding grounds, or travelling to overwintering sites. Any given bird species travels roughly the route every year. Ornithologists and bird lovers can often predict to the day when a species will show up in their area. Along the Pacific Flyway, there are many key rest stops where birds of many species gather, sometimes in the millions, to feed, some species may remain in these rest stops for the entire season, but most stay a few days before moving on. Notable locations include, Boundary Bay, British Columbia, has listed as an Important Bird Area by the Canadian government in recognition of its value to migratory birds. Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refuges Complex consists of different wildlife refuges on the border of Oregon. The Summer Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, located on Hwy 31, across from the Summer Lake Lodge, sacramento National Wildlife Refuge Complex consists of several wildlife refuges in the northern Central Valley of California. San Luis National Wildlife Refuge Complex consists of wildlife refuges in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Suisun Marsh, next to the exit of the inverted Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, has protected portions, San Francisco Bay, protected estuaries and mountain open space preserves. Coyote Valley, a section of the Santa Clara Valley with one of the highest recorded bird species richness. Great Salt Lake, Utah, a Great Basin hub of flyway, monterey Bay, protected estuaries and mountain open space preserves. Ballona Wetlands between the Los Angeles neighborhoods of Playa del Rey and Marina del Rey and adjacent city-owned lagoons, salton Sea, an inland Colorado Desert saline endorheic lake in Southern California, hosts many birds and has surrounding wildlife refuges. Seeking Refuge, Birds and Landscapes of the Pacific Flyway 245 pages Important Bird Areas of Canada
11.
Allegheny Front
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The Allegheny Front is the major southeast- or east-facing escarpment in the Allegheny Mountains in southern Pennsylvania, western Maryland, and eastern West Virginia, USA. The Allegheny Front forms the boundary between the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians to its east and the Appalachian Plateau to its west, the Allegheny Front is one of the windiest spots east of the Mississippi, leading to the recent establishment of wind farming there. The Allegheny Front forms part of the Appalachian Structural Front, separating the Appalachian Plateau from the Appalachians Ridge, the various other escarpments along this structural feature include the Catskill Escarpment to the northeast and the Cumberland Escarpment to the southwest. The name Allegheny Front is applied to the escarpment throughout much of its extent, the highest part of the crest of the Allegheny Front is also its southernmost high point, Mount Porte Crayon at 4,770 feet, on the Pendleton/Randolph county line in West Virginia. Its lowest point,790 feet, is along the North Branch of the Potomac River near Keyser, no waterway crosses the Front from east to west. The Allegheny Plateau, the Eastern drainage divide, and the emphasis the cartographer placed on the Allegheny Front is obvious in this minimalist styled 19th century map, the portage railroad ascends the gap due east of the mining town of Ebensburg, PA. The Allegheny Front begins in central Pennsylvania just northwest of the town of Lock Haven and extends southwest paralleling, first, Bald Eagle Mountain, and then Brush Mountain to its east. Across the Mason–Dixon line in Maryland, the Front becomes Dans Mountain, west of Cumberland, along Marylands southern border, the North Branch of the Potomac River cuts down through the Front at 790 feet just west of Keyser, West Virginia. The Allegheny Fronts southern end is Mount Porte Crayon, after which the land drops steeply to Seneca Creek, south of Mount Porte Crayon and Seneca Creek, the Appalachian Structural Front is less clearly unified. Allegheny Mountains long, nearly level crest is generally about 4,000 to 4,200 feet in elevation, most of the Allegheny Front is capped by a nearly horizontal, erosion-resistant stratum of white Pottsville conglomerate, sometimes where flat with younger Carboniferous strata on top. The silica-cemented gravel-containing Pottsville rock formed as part of a vast delta in the Pennsylvanian geologic period, the Pottsville bedrock outcrops conspicuously in various more exposed areas along the Fronts eastern edge. S. The nearly continuous high elevation and clifftop bedrock exposures of the Allegheny Front provide an important corridor of habitat in the central Appalachian Mountains. During the fall, the Allegheny Front is associated with an important flyway for birds traveling from their northern breeding grounds to their southern wintering sites. In good weather, the birds can be seen from late morning, among the bird-banding stations and migratory bird observatories associated with this flyway are, Allegheny Front Hawk Watch on the border between Bedford and Somerset counties, Pennsylvania. On 20 September 2003, after the remnants of Hurricane Isabel passed western Pennsylvania,833 hawks were counted passing the site, the Allegheny Front Hawk Watch set three Eastern Flyway Golden Eagle records during the 2015 migration. The first was counting 74 Golden Eagle on October 24,2015 and this helped propel the hawk site to a new fall record of 320 Golden Eagles being counted during the fall migration. This coupled with the 66 goldens counted in the spring of 2015, Allegheny Front Migratory Observatory near the Red Creek Campground at Dolly Sods, West Virginia. The station is open from August to October in good weather, established in 1958, it is the only cooperative banding station in West Virginia
12.
Central Asian Flyway
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The concept of flyway is essentially an operational concept linked to waterfowl whose populations one wishes to manage over their entire migration space. These wintering areas are separate, and present entirely different ecological, historical and cultural situations. The flyway covers 30 countries of North, Central and South Asia, the remaining countries in the Central Asian Flyway are, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iraq, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Oman, Qatar and Yemen. Regional cooperation among the Central Asian Flyway states is undertaken to promote the conservation of migratory waterbirds, regional plans complement actions that are being undertaken by national governments to promote conservation. Several countries have well established protected areas to conserve important habitats for migratory waterbirds, Bangladesh According to the Ramsar definition, more than two-thirds of the country’s landmass may be classified as wetlands. It is a country dominated by wetland including estuaries, mangrove swamps namely the Sundarbans, freshwater marshes such as haor, swamps, there are about 628 bird species in Bangladesh, of which 244 are Migratory. About 100 species of migratory birds regularly or occasionally visit the country, considering the present threats to waterbird conservation in the country,31 migratory waterbird species are of high priority for future action for conservation. 14 of these species are threatened, the wetlands are home to about 70 species of resident waterbirds including ducks, grebe, cormorants, bitterns, herons, egrets, storks, rails, jacanas, finfoot, waders, gulls, turns and skimmers. Eleven species of resident waterbirds are identified as threatened, the wetlands of Bangladesh are being degraded rapidly due to population pressure, withdrawal of water for irrigation, destruction of swamp forest and many other anthropogenic and natural causes. Immediate action is required for restoring these habitats and conserving the water birds in Bangladesh, the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh are included within 139,699 ha of 3 Wildlife sanctuaries which are part of the Sunderbans World Heritage Site. The Ministry of Land is the authority for land management including wetlands. Bangladesh is signatory to CBD, CMS, CITES and Ramsar Convention, no national level initiative has been taken for waterbirds. But self-funded waterbird census is undertaken each year in selected habitats, India India is the core country of the CAF and supports 257 species of water birds. Of these,81 species are birds of CAF conservation concern. India has identified more than 300 potential RAMSAR sites, of which 25 have been implemented, current flyway management systems rely on information from local hunters, erratic wildlife surveys and raw estimates. There have been reports of black storks, cranes and flocks of vulnerable marbled teal. World Wide Fund for Nature reported that Pakistan’s wetlands and their rich biological resources are threatened by over-exploitation, habitat destruction, the main causes for wetland degradation are ineffective management, poor stakeholder participation and lack of coordination for management strategies. Russia About half the territory of the Russian Federation is in the range of the Central-Asian Flyway, among 176 CAF species,143 are located in Russian territory
13.
Frederick Charles Lincoln
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Frederick Charles Lincoln was an American ornithologist. Lincoln was born on 5 May 1892 in Denver, Colorado, as a teenager working at the Colorado Museum of Natural History in 1909, Lincoln learned to prepare specimens from Alexander Wetmore and L. J. Hershey, the museums Curator of Ornithology. Lincolns interest in birds continued to develop, and he went on to succeed Hershey as curator in 1913. He took time out in 1918–1919 to serve as expert in the U. S. Army Signal Corps. The professional relationship with Wetmore would continue, the two scientists took field trips together in Washington and Hispaniola and co-wrote eight publications. In 1920, Lincoln joined the U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey and was given the task of organizing and expanding the bird banding program nationwide. He proposed a means to estimate the population size of a bird species, using reports from hunters and counting returns. He developed the concept, a key idea in the management. Lincoln joined the American Ornithologists Union in 1910 and was elected a Fellow of the organization in 1934, Lincoln died on 16 September 1960 in Washington, D. C. and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Lincoln received an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Colorado in 1956, in 1957, the History and Purposes of Bird Banding. Washington, DC, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, United States Department of Agriculture. Calculating Waterfowl Abundance on the Basis of Banding Returns, Washington, DC, United States Department of Agriculture. The Waterfowl Flyways of North America, Washington, DC, United States Department of Agriculture. The Migration of North American Birds, Washington, DC, United States Department of Agriculture. New York, NY, Doubleday, Doran & Company, gabrielson, Ira N. Lincoln, Frederick C. Frederick C. Lincoln and the Formation of the North American Bird Banding Program, Bird Conservation Implementation and Integration in the Americas. Third International Partners in Flight Conference, albany, California, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station
