1.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
2.
Fokker
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Fokker was a Dutch aircraft manufacturer named after its founder, Anthony Fokker. The company operated several different names, starting out in 1912 in Schwerin, Germany. During its most successful period in the 1920s and 1930s, it dominated the civil aviation market, Fokker went into bankruptcy in 1996, and its operations were sold to competitors. At age 20, while studying in Germany, Anthony Fokker built his initial aircraft, Fokker capitalized on having sold several Fokker Spin monoplanes to the German government and set up a factory in Germany to supply the German Army. His first new design for the Germans to be produced in any numbers was the Fokker M, when it was realized that arming these scouts with a machine gun firing through the propeller was desirable, Fokker developed a synchronization gear similar to that patented by Franz Schneider. Fitted with a version of this gear, the M.2. Later in the war, after the Fokker D, as this partnership proved to be troublesome, it was eventually dissolved again. In 1919, Fokker, owing large sums in back taxes, returned to the Netherlands and founded a new company near Amsterdam with the support of Steenkolen Handels Vereniging and he chose the name Nederlandse Vliegtuigenfabriek to conceal the Fokker brand because of his World War I involvement. Despite the strict disarmament conditions in the Treaty of Versailles, Fokker did not return home empty-handed. In 1919, he arranged an export permit and brought six entire trains of parts, and 180 types of aircraft across the Dutch-German border, among them 117 Fokker C. Is, D. VIIs and this initial stock enabled him to set up shop quickly. After his companys relocation, many Fokker C. I and C. IV military airplanes were delivered to Russia, Romania, and the still clandestine German air force. Success came on the market, too, with the development of the Fokker F. VII. Fokker continued to design and build aircraft, delivering planes to the Royal Netherlands Air Force. Foreign military customers eventually included Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, Hungary and these countries bought substantial numbers of the Fokker C. V reconnaissance aircraft, which became Fokkers main success in the late 1920s and early 1930s. In the 1920s, Fokker entered its glory years, becoming the worlds largest aircraft manufacturer by the late 1920s and its greatest success was the 1925 F. VIIa/3m trimotor passenger aircraft, which was used by 54 airline companies worldwide and captured 40% of the American market in 1936. A serious blow to Fokkers reputation came after the 1931 TWA Flight 599 disaster in Kansas, notre Dame legendary football coach Knute Rockne was among the fatalities, prompting extensive media coverage and technical investigation. As a result, all Fokkers were grounded in the USA, in 1931, discontented at being totally subordinate to GM management, Fokker resigned. On December 23,1939, he died in New York City, the Fokker factories were confiscated by the Germans and were used to build Bücker Bü181 Bestmann trainers and parts for the Junkers Ju 52 transport
3.
Reinhold Platz
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Reinhold Platz was a German aircraft designer and manufacturer in service of the Dutch company Fokker. Platz was hired by Fokker in 1912 as a welder and his first hands-on projects were to weld the frame parts for the Fokker Spin. Platz became the designer at the Fokker factory in Schwerin in 1916. Platz had no higher education like Anthony Fokker, but was a man of practical knowledge and this turned the two men into a strong team, in which Platz was able to bring forth new revolutionary ideas to aircraft design, while Anthony Fokker implemented them in prototype aircraft. Platz became the designer at the Fokker factory in Amsterdam after World War I. Platz is now credited with designing the innovative Fokker D. VII fighter aircraft. Platz was born in Cottbus and died in Ahrensburg, weyl, Alfred R. Fokker, The Creative Years. Reinhold Platz and the Fokker Co, over the Front, Vol.5, No
4.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
5.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
6.
Armistice of 11 November 1918
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It went into effect at 11 a. m. Paris time on 11 November 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies, the Germans were responding to the policies proposed by U. S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918. Although the armistice ended the fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. In addition, he recommended the acceptance of the demands of US president Woodrow Wilson including putting the Imperial Government on a democratic footing, hoping for more favorable peace terms. As he said to officers of his staff on 1 October, on 3 October, the liberal Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed Chancellor of Germany, replacing Georg von Hertling in order to negotiate an armistice. In the subsequent two exchanges, Wilsons allusions failed to convey the idea that the Kaisers abdication was a condition for peace. The leading statesmen of the Reich were not yet ready to contemplate such a monstrous possibility, in late October, Ludendorff, in a sudden change of mind, declared the conditions of the Allies unacceptable. He now demanded to resume the war which he himself had declared lost only one month earlier, however the German soldiers were pressing to get home. It was scarcely possible to arouse their readiness for battle anew, the Imperial Government stayed on course and Ludendorff was replaced by Wilhelm Groener. On 5 November, the Allies agreed to take up negotiations for a truce, the latest note from Wilson was received in Berlin on 6 November. That same day, the led by Matthias Erzberger departed for France. For example, they assumed that the de-militarization suggested by Wilson would be limited to the Central Powers, there were also contradictions with their post-War plans that did not include a consistent implementation of the ideal of national self-determination. Also on 9 November, Max von Baden handed over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, eberts SPD and Erzbergers Catholic Centre Party had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Imperial government since Bismarcks era in the 1870s and 1880s. They were well represented in the Imperial Reichstag, which had power over the government. Their prominence in the negotiations would cause the new Weimar Republic to lack legitimacy in right-wing. The Armistice was the result of a hurried and desperate process and they were then entrained and taken to the secret destination, aboard Ferdinand Fochs private train parked in a railway siding in the forest of Compiègne. Foch appeared only twice in the three days of negotiations, on the first day, to ask the German delegation what they wanted, the Germans were handed the list of Allied demands and given 72 hours to agree. The German delegation discussed the Allied terms not with Foch, but with other French, the Armistice amounted to complete German demilitarization, with few promises made by the Allies in return
7.
Anthony Fokker
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Anton Herman Gerard Anthony Fokker was a Dutch aviation pioneer and an aircraft manufacturer. He is most famous for the aircraft he produced in Germany during the First World War such as the Eindecker monoplanes, the Dr.1 triplane. After the treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to produce airplanes, Fokker moved his business to the Netherlands, there his company was responsible for a variety of successful aircraft including the Fokker trimotor, a successful passenger aircraft of the inter-war years. He died in North America in 1939, later authors suggest he was personally charismatic but unscrupulous in business and a controversial character. Anthony Fokker was born in Blitar, to Herman Fokker, a Dutch coffee plantation owner, some sources say that he was born in Kediri. At that time, Blitar was a part of the Kediri Residency, when Fokker was four, the family returned to the Netherlands and settled in Haarlem in order to provide Fokker and his older sister, Toos, with a Dutch upbringing. He devoted considerable effort to the development of a wheel that would not suffer from punctures and this idea had been experimented with elsewhere and was already patented. Fokkers first interest in flight stemmed from Wilbur Wrights exhibition flights in France in the summer and that same year Fokker built his first aircraft de Spin, which was destroyed by his business partner who flew it into a tree. He gained his pilot license in his second Spin aircraft, in his own country, he became a celebrity by flying around the tower of the Sint-Bavokerk in Haarlem on 31 August 1911, with the third version of the Spin. He also added to his fame by flying on this date as it was the birthday of Queen Wilhelmina, in 1912, Fokker moved to Johannisthal near Berlin where he founded his first own company, Fokker Aeroplanbau. In the following years he constructed a variety of airplanes and he relocated his factory to Schwerin where it was renamed Fokker Flugzeugwerke GmbH, and later shortened to Fokker Werke GmbH. At the outbreak of World War I the German government took control of the factory, in all, his company delivered about 700 military planes to the German air force as well as supplying the German navy and Austria-Hungary. Fokker himself was a pilot, demonstrating his aircraft on many occasions. On 13 June 1915, Fokker demonstrated the new Eindecker at Stenay in the German 5th Army Sector in front of the German Crown Prince and other VIPs. Fokker worked closely with a military pilot, Otto Parschau, to bring the Eindecker into military use. Max Immelmann, later to become a high-scoring Flying Ace with the Eindecker, commented in a letter shortly after this event on 25 June 1915 that, Fokker, especially. Weyl says that, while Fokker was a talented and bold pilot, Fokker distrusted qualified engineers and resented frequent German insistence on carrying out stringent structural tests to ensure prototype aircraft were fit for combat. He could be bad tempered and insensitive as when he abused his dying designer Martin Kreuzer on the evening of 27 June 1916
8.
Cantilever
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A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at only one end to a support from which it is protruding. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs, when subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies, in cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a truss bridge. A cantilever in a timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay. In the southern United States a historic barn type is the barn of log construction. Temporary cantilevers are used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built. So some truss arch bridges are built each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages, many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support and these structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies, the East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed, the largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford Football Ground uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field, the old, now demolished Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilever in Europe is located at St James Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing radio towers without guy-wires, and chimneys, which resist being blown over by the wind through cantilever action at their base. Another use of the cantilever is in fixed-wing aircraft design, pioneered by Hugo Junkers in 1915, early aircraft wings typically bore their loads by using two wings in a biplane configuration braced with wires and struts. They were similar to bridges, having been developed by Octave Chanute. The wings were braced with crossed wires so they would stay parallel, the cables and struts generated considerable drag, and there was constant experimentation for ways to eliminate them
9.
Junkers J 1
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The Junkers J1, nicknamed the Blechesel, was the worlds first practical all-metal aircraft. It should not be confused with the later, armoured all-metal Junkers J4 sesquiplane, five years later Reissner, with Junkers help, began construction of his all-metal canard design, which he named the Ente. Junkers firm built the flying surfaces, and radiator of Reissners design and he patented the concept of the flying wing aircraft in Germany in 1910. When World War I began, he turned to military projects, in July 1915 the Junkers firm received its first aircraft construction contract No. 96/7.17 A7/L from the German government, to produce a two-seat all-metal aircraft with a 130 km/h top speed, a loading of 50 kg/m². The Junkers J1 was a monoplane with a cantilever wing. External bracing was used only for support of the horizontal stabilisers, the innovative cantilever structure for the wings were also covered in chordwise sheet steel panels. These changes in wing section would become a Junkers design hallmark on the later 1918 Junkers D. I. single-seat all-metal fighter design, which was covered with corrugated duralumin. The J1 also relied on steel panels with span-wise corrugations running from root to tip as a structural element hidden under the outer metal covering to increase the wings strength. This particular design element of the J1 was used on later all-metal aircraft, the static tests were completed on 3 December 1915, preceding the engine thrust tests. Repairs were made through the period at the end of 1915. The second attempt at flight for the J1 was carried out at Döberitz by Gefreiter Paul Arnold of the FEA1 unit, the inflight handling of the J1 was acceptable, and it was stable in flight. The Junkers J1 was probably not flown again after January 1916, however, it survived World War I, and was displayed in 1926 at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. In December 1944 it was destroyed during a World War II bombing raid, a metal scale display model of the J1 was made by Junkers factory workers following its initial flights, and exhibited at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, after World War I. The Junkers Technology Museum in Dessau, Germany, intends to build a replica of this pioneering aircraft J1. Data from General characteristics Crew, one Length,8.64 m Wingspan,12.92 m Height,3.11 m Wing area,24.34 m2 Empty weight,920 kg Gross weight,1,080 kg Powerplant,1 × Mercedes D. II 6-cyl. Water-cooled in-line piston engine,90 kW Performance Maximum speed,170 km/h www. J1-project. com, Junkers J1 in Döberitz,1915 The J1 Projekt, homepage for a reproduction of the J1 being built in Germany
10.
Stall (fluid mechanics)
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In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when the angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may vary depending on the fluid, foil. Stalls in fixed-wing flight are often experienced as a reduction in lift as the pilot increases the wings angle of attack. A stall does not mean that the engine have stopped working, vectored thrust in manned and unmanned aircraft is used to surpass the stall limit, thereby giving rise to post-stall technology. Because stalls are most commonly discussed in connection with aviation, this article discusses stalls as they relate mainly to aircraft, the principles of stall discussed here translate to foils in other fluids as well. A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack increases beyond a point such that lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is called the angle of attack. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus angle-of-attack curve at which the lift coefficient occurs. Flow separation begins to occur at angles of attack while attached flow over the wing is still dominant. As angle of attack increases, the regions on the top of the wing increase in size. At the critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that additional increases in angle of attack produce less lift, a fixed-wing aircraft during a stall may experience buffeting or a change in attitude. Most aircraft are designed to have a stall with characteristics that will warn the pilot. For example, an aircraft that does not buffet before the stall may have an alarm or a stick shaker installed to simulate the feel of a buffet by vibrating the stick fore. The buffet margin is, for a set of conditions, the amount of ‘g’. The critical angle of attack in steady straight and level flight can be attained only at low airspeed, attempts to increase the angle of attack at higher airspeeds can cause a high-speed stall or may merely cause the aircraft to climb. Any yaw of the aircraft as it enters the stall regime can result in autorotation, as air no longer flows smoothly over the wings during a stall, aileron control of roll becomes less effective, whilst simultaneously the tendency for the ailerons to generate adverse yaw increases. This characteristic increases the lift from the wing and increases the likelihood of the aircraft entering into a spin
11.
Biplane
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A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The first powered, controlled aeroplane to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane wing arrangement, while a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage over a monoplane, it produces more drag than a similar unbraced or cantilever monoplane wing. Improved structural techniques, better materials and the quest for greater speed made the biplane configuration obsolete for most purposes by the late 1930s. Biplanes offer several advantages over conventional cantilever monoplane designs, they permit lighter wing structures, low wing loading, however, interference between the airflow over each wing increases drag substantially, and biplanes generally need extensive bracing, which causes additional drag. Biplanes are distinguished from tandem wing arrangements, where the wings are placed forward and aft, instead of above, the term is also occasionally used in biology, to describe the wings of some flying animals. In a biplane aircraft, two wings are placed one above the other, either or both of the main wings can support ailerons, while flaps are more usually positioned on the lower wing. Bracing is nearly always added between the upper and lower wings, in the form of wires and/or slender interplane struts positioned symmetrically on either side of the fuselage. The primary advantage of the biplane over the traditional single plane or monoplane is to combine great stiffness with light weight. A braced monoplane wing must support itself fully, while the two wings of a help to stiffen each other. The biplane is therefore inherently stiffer than the monoplane, also, the structural forces in the spars of a biplane wing tend to be lower, so the wing can use less material to obtain the same overall strength and is therefore much lighter. A disadvantage of the biplane was the need for extra struts to space the wings apart, the low power supplied by the engines available in the first years of aviation meant that aeroplanes could only fly slowly. This required an even lower stalling speed, which in turn required a low wing loading, combining both large wing area with light weight. A biplane wing of a span and chord has twice the area of a monoplane the same size and so can fly more slowly. Alternatively, a wing of the same area as a monoplane has lower span and chord, reducing the structural forces. Biplanes suffer aerodynamic interference between the two planes and this means that a biplane does not in practice obtain twice the lift of the similarly-sized monoplane. The farther apart the wings are spaced the less the interference, given the slow speed and low power of early aircraft, the drag penalty of the wires and struts and the mutual interference of airflows were relatively minor and acceptable factors. The smaller biplane wing also allows greater maneuverability, during World War One, this further enhanced the dominance of the biplane and, despite the need for speed, military aircraft were among the last to abandon the biplane form. Specialist sports Aerobatic biplanes are still occasionally made, biplanes were originally designed with the wings positioned directly one above the other
12.
Mercedes D.III
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The initial versions were introduced in 1914 at 160 hp, but a series of changes improved this to 170 hp in 1917, and 180 by mid-1918. These later models were used on almost all late-war German fighters, and its only real competition, compared to the Allied engines it faced, the D. III was generally outdated. The D. III was based on the pattern as the earlier Mercedes D. II. Like most inlines of the era, it used an aluminum crankcase as the main structural component. The technology for screwing a threaded cylinder of steel into an aluminum crankcase did not exist at that time, jackets for cooling water covered the top 2/3 of the cylinder, feeding a radiator via connections at the back of the engine. The D. III featured a rather prominent overhead cam operating the intake and exhaust valves. Ignition was provided by two sets of plugs, one located on either side of the cylinders, each powered by a separate magneto for redundancy. The ignition cables were protected in tubes running down either side of the cylinders, fuel was fed into the cylinders via pipes on the port side of the engine, supplied from a twin-barrel carburetor located just above the crankcase. Both the fuel and oil reservoirs were pressurized by an air compressor run off the crank. The only obvious change from the earlier D. II was to use separate cooling jackets for each cylinder. Daimler also used the pistons of the D. III to produce the reduction geared, eight-cylinder 220 hp Mercedes D. IV during this period, the lengthened crankshaft of the D. IV proved prone to breaking. The original D. III was introduced in 1914, while it saw widespread use in early examples of the C-series of two-seat general-purpose biplanes, the D. III was too large for contemporary fighter designs and did not see use in that role. II. By 1916 new designs had grown in size and performance and the D. III became popular on new designs, by 1917 the D. III was being widely used in fighters, most notably on the famous Albatros D. I. Production of this version was essentially wound down by May 1917, development of the basic design led to the slightly modified 170 hp D. IIIa, which took over on the production lines in June 1917. The main change was to change the profile to have a flat head instead of the former concave one. Other changes were mainly in details, notably a redesigned crankcase. Many of the accessories were also redesigned or moved around on the engine and this engine has been referred to in postwar British analysis as generating 180 hp. A more radical upgrade was the 180/200 hp D. IIIaü, introduced in late 1917, the D. IIIaü was a refinement of the D. III and D. IIIa design
13.
Adlershof
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Adlershof is a locality in the borough Treptow-Köpenick of Berlin, Germany. On the southwestern side of Adlershof now is built the new City of Science, Technology, the local management seeks to establish the word Adlershof as a synonym for WISTA, ignoring the traditional center of Adlershof. A part of the area today as the City of Science, Technology. Germanys first motorized aircraft took off from here at the beginning of the 20th century, albatros, Fokker, Rumpler and Wright made Adlershof-Johannisthal famous. In 1912 the German Experimental Institute for Aviation made Adlershof its headquarters, laboratories, motor test beds, wind tunnels and hangars were erected in the 20s and 30s and are historical landmarks today. Adlershof is particularly known for a series of competitions between various aviation firms fighter aircraft designs that were held there starting in 1918. The first of these contests, held in January 1918, led to the Fokker D. VII winning the competition and going on to become one of Germanys most feared planes. All three were put into production largely in order to make up for the production of the Fokkers. A final war-time contest in October was too late to have any effect on the war effort, after World War II, the airport was closed and from then on three institutions determined Adlershofs destiny, The Ministry of State Security stationed its 12,000 strong Guard Regiment there. In 1952 East Germanys National Television began broadcasting from Adlershof, and the East German Academy of Science was established with nine scientific institutes in the fields of physics and chemistry. Scientific Equipment Engineering with its approx,1,700 workers developed and produced a majority of East Germanys research equipment. A substantial portion of the research done at the Academy institutes was notable for its connection with the industry. Adlershof produced many products and inventions, such as ultra-short pulse lasers, time-resolved optical spectroscopy. Other things like trifocals and contraceptive pills were also invented here, in 1989 over 5,600 people were working in Adlershof, more than half the R&D capacity of the whole Science Academy. For the rest of the employees, it was recommended that they either find new jobs or start their own companies. So of the 250 newly founded companies, approx 100 were founded by ex-academy workers, today almost 90 per cent of the companies co-operate with at least one partner, and 60 per cent with three or more partners at the site. In September 1991 the State of Berlin founded the “Adlershof Development Society”, in 1992 the Senate of Berlin decided to establish an integrated scientific and business landscape on the Adlershof site and made building investments amounting to about 230 million euros. The goal was to bring together the synergies from science and industry, a Service-Centre and the East-West Co-operation Centre for Middle and Eastern European entrepreneurs top off the profile
14.
Manfred von Richthofen
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Manfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen, also widely known as the Red Baron, was a German fighter pilot with the Imperial German Army Air Service during the First World War. He is considered the ace-of-aces of the war, being credited with 80 air combat victories. Originally a cavalryman, Richthofen transferred to the Air Service in 1915 and he quickly distinguished himself as a fighter pilot, and during 1917 became leader of Jasta 11 and then the larger unit Jagdgeschwader 1. By 1918, he was regarded as a hero in Germany. Richthofen was shot down and killed near Amiens on 21 April 1918, There has been considerable discussion and debate regarding aspects of his career, especially the circumstances of his death. He remains perhaps the most widely known fighter pilot of all time, Richthofen was a Freiherr, a title of nobility often translated as baron. This is not a name nor strictly a hereditary title—since all male members of the family were entitled to it. This title, combined with the fact that he had his aircraft painted red, led to Richthofen being called The Red Baron both inside and outside Germany, during his lifetime he was more often described in German as Der Rote Kampfflieger. This name was used as the title of Richthofens 1917 autobiography, Manfred von Richthofen was born in Kleinburg, near Breslau, Lower Silesia, on 2 May 1892 into a prominent Prussian aristocratic family. His father was Major Albrecht Philipp Karl Julius Freiherr von Richthofen and he had an elder sister, Ilse, and two younger brothers. When he was four years old, Manfred moved with his family to nearby Schweidnitz and he enjoyed riding horses and hunting as well as gymnastics at school. He excelled at bars and won a number of awards at school. He and his brothers, Lothar and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, after being educated at home he attended a school at Schweidnitz before beginning military training when he was 11. After completing cadet training in 1911, he joined an Uhlan cavalry unit, disappointed and bored at not being able to directly participate in combat, the last straw for Richthofen was an order to transfer to the armys supply branch. He is supposed to have written in his application for transfer, I have not gone to war in order to collect cheese and eggs, in spite of this unmilitary attitude, and to his own surprise, his request was granted. Manfred joined the service at the end of May 1915. From June to August 1915, Richthofen served as an observer on reconnaissance missions over the Eastern Front with Feldflieger Abteilung 69, after a chance meeting with the German ace fighter pilot Oswald Boelcke, Richthofen entered training as a pilot in October 1915. In February 1916 Manfred rescued his brother Lothar from the boredom of training new troops in Luben, the following month, Manfred joined Kampfgeschwader 2 flying a two-seater Albatros C. III
15.
Albatros Flugzeugwerke
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Albatros-Flugzeugwerke GmbH was a German aircraft manufacturer best known for supplying the German airforces during World War I. The company was based in Johannisthal, Berlin, where it was founded by Walter Huth and it produced some of the most capable fighter aircraft of World War I, notably the Albatros D. III and Albatros D. V, both designed by Robert Thelen for the firm. The works continued to operate until 1931, when it was merged into Focke-Wulf, the company was founded in Berlin-Johannisthal the end of 1909, by Enno Walther Huth, as Albatros Werke AG. The initial activity of the company was the production of French Antoinette monoplane. He also produced versions of the Etrich Taube monoplane, including a biplane called Albatros Doppeltaube. In 1912 five Albatros F-2 were built and this was a modified version of the French Farman III biplane with a gondola for the crew and an Argus in-line engine instead of the original Gnome rotary engine. Four of these planes were sold to Bulgaria and they took part in the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. One of them performed on October 16,1912 the first military mission in the skies of Europe, during World War I produced about 10,300 aircraft
16.
AEG
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Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft AG was a German producer of electrical equipment founded as the Deutsche Edison-Gesellschaft für angewandte Elektricität in 1883 in Berlin by Emil Rathenau. After World War II its headquarters moved to Frankfurt am Main, in 1967 AEG joined with its subsidiary Telefunken AG creating Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft AEG-Telefunken. In 1985 Daimler-Benz purchased the AEG-Telefunken Aktiengesellschaft, which was renamed to AEG Aktiengesellschaft, the remains of AEG became part of Adtranz and Deutsche Aerospace. After acquiring the AEG household subsidiary AEG Hausgeräte GmbH in 1994, in 2005 Electrolux obtained the rights to the brand name AEG, the AEG name is also licensed to various brand partners under the Electrolux Global Brand Licensing programme. In 1883 Emil Rathenau founded Deutsche Edison-Gesellschaft für angewandte Elektricität in Berlin, initially producing electrical equipment, the company soon became involved in AC electric transmission systems. In 1907 Peter Behrens was appointed as consultant to AEG. This led to the creation of the initial corporate identity, with products. The company expanded in the first half of the 20th century, during the same period it entered the automobile and airplane markets. Electrical equipment for railways was produced during this time, beginning a history of supplying the German railways with electrical equipment. After WWII, the company lost its businesses in the part of Germany. After a merger in 1967 the company was renamed Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft AEG-Telefunken, the company experienced financial difficulties during the 1970s, resulting in the sale of some assets. In 1983 the consumer electronics division Telefunken Fernseh und Rundfunk GmbH was sold, under Daimler-Benz ownership, the former AEG companies eventually become part of the newly named Adtranz in 1995 and the AEG name was no longer used. Electrolux, which had acquired the household subsidiary AEG Hausgeräte GmbH of AEG in 1994. The company originated in 1882, when Emil Rathenau acquired licences to use some of Thomas Edisons lamp patents in Germany, the Deutsche Edison Gesellschaft was founded in 1883 with the financial backing of banks and private individuals, with Emil Rathenau as company director. In 1884, Munich-born engineer Oskar von Miller joined the executive board, the original factory was located near Stettiner Bahnhof. In 1887 the Company acquired land in the Berlin-Gesundbrunnen area on which the Weddingsche Maschinenfabrik was previously located, in the same year, in addition to a restructuring and expansion of the production range, the AEG name was adopted. In 1887 Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrowolsky joined the company as chief engineer, later becoming vice-director and his work on polyphase electric power led him to become the worlds leading engineer in three-phase electric power systems at the end of the 1880s. This success marked one of beginnings of the use of alternating current for electrification in Germany
17.
Johannisthal Air Field
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The Johannisthal Air Field, located 15 km South-East of Berlin, between Johannisthal and Adlershof, was Germanys first airfield. It opened on 26 September 1909, a few weeks after the worlds first airfield at Rheims, known as the birthplace of heavier-than-air flight in Germany, Johannistal was Berlins primary airport until the Tempelhofer Field was developed in the 1920s. Johannistal was the field from which Germanys first commercial flights took off, later the area became known as Adlershof, and before the collapse of the Berlin Wall, it was closed to the public. The former airport was used by the National Peoples Army as a training ground, while the Academy of Sciences of the GDR employed approximately 5,500 scientists. Following the reunification of Germany, some of these institutions were taken over by West German institutions. The Johannisthal field is today an urban development, the Berlin-Adlershof City of Science. By 2003 a new district will be built on the 4.20 square kilometre property, the area will accommodate high-tech industries, science and research institutes and a congress centre, as well as a sport and recreation centre. The former home of the East German TV will be transformed into a media centre, in total, there will be 30,000 jobs and housing for 15,000 people. Laboratories, motor test beds, wind tunnels and hangars, erected in the 1920s and 1930s by the German Experimental Institute for Aviation, are landmarks of the Aerodynamic Park today. The runways are part of a new green biotop, the 1913 Johannisthal Air Disaster happened close to the air field, killing all 28 passengers. The German astronaut Reinhard Furrer died on September 9,1995 during historic flight show, media related to Flugplatz Berlin-Johannisthal at Wikimedia Commons Johannisthal Air Field official website
18.
Lozenge camouflage
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It takes its name from the repeated polygon shapes incorporated in the designs, many of which resembled lozenges. In Germany it was called Buntfarbenaufdruck but this includes other camouflage designs such as Splittermuster and Leibermuster. Some modern German sources refer to lozenge camouflage as Lozenge-Tarnung, as tarnung means concealment and this printed fabric was used in various forms and colors from late 1916 until the end of the war. Lozenge camouflage came in varying widths, sometimes in 4. 5-foot-wide bolts of fabric, some aircraft had the fabric applied diagonally. As a part of repairs, regularly laid fabric patterns from the factory might be overlaid with the same pattern but at a different angle. Later in the war, some patterns were applied more quickly with fabric laid sparwise along the full wingspan, hasty factory work began to resemble the rushed field repairs. Darker lozenge patterns were used for upper wing surfaces, while lighter ones were used for the undersides of the aircraft, even darker shades were used for night operations by aircraft such as Zeppelin-Staaken R. VI and Gotha G. V heavy bombers. These aircraft were often hand-painted in similar but unrepeating patterns on their fuselages, the heaviest Riesenflugzeug were painted in lozenge patterns—they were never covered in printed fabric. As with all camouflage, the need to hide or obscure the aircraft from the enemy was counterbalanced by the need to have friendly forces recognize the aircraft, further, individual pilots often added their own personal coloration to aircraft that they flew regularly. An individual might paint the nose and tail in bright, unique colors to distinguish him in the air from his squadron mates, all of these practices rendered the lozenge camouflage less effective. Flying aces such as Georg von Hantelmann painted their fighters with two goals, to display unit colors, and to show personal flair, factory-applied lozenge camouflage was not seen as important. Hantelmanns Albatros D. V was decorated with a prominent deaths head in white against the dark blue fuselage and red nose which indicated his unit, only the wings and rudder of his Albatros were laid with lozenge camouflage. Similarly, Ernst Udet, the second-highest scoring ace of World War I, painted his Fokker D. VII bright red with white stripes. His aircraft ineffectively retained its lozenge camouflage on the surface of the lower wing. Aircraft livery List of camouflage patterns Lawson, Stephen T. associate editor of Aeroscale, German 5 Color Lozenge Camouflage Scheme Toelle, Alan
19.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
20.
Hungarian General Machine Factory
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MÁG stands for Magyar Általános Gépgyár Rt, the most important Hungarian vehicle manufacturer before World War II, based in Budapest. More successful was their later Phönix model, a German Cudell model built under license, the company was reorganised in 1912 and the automobile manufacturing division became the Magyar Általános Gépgyár Rt in 1913. MÁG introduced several models, designed by János Csonka, Jenő Fejes, World War I brought new business for the company, as it produced airplane engines under Austro-Daimler license, as well as complete airplanes. After the war new car appeared, including the Magomobil in 1924. By the mid-1920s it was apparent that MÁG is not competitive on the Hungarian market and its financer and owner, the Hungarian General Credit Bank tried to find a buyer. In the meantime another new model, the Magosix was introduced with a 6-cylinder engine and it used many American parts to compete with the locally available American models but to no avail. The economic crisis of 1929 was the last straw, and the Bank pulled the plug, a total of 2000 passenger cars,150 trucks and buses, as well as 1000 automobile engines had been produced
21.
Austro-Daimler
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Austro-Daimler was an Austrian automaker company, from 1899 until 1934. It was subsidiary of the German Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft, in 1890, Eduard Bierenz was appointed as Austrian retailer. The company sold so well that also it began manufacturing the automobiles after uniting with Eduard Fischers engineering factory, the works were located at Wiener-Neustadt. By this subsidiary DMG became the first automotive multinational in history, thus on August 11,1899, the Austrian Daimler Engine Society was founded. Whilst the assembling parts stemmed from Stuttgart, in 1900 they built their first automobile which featured 2 cylinders,4 hp, soon they started producing engines for luxurious cars, trucks, buses, maritime ships, and trains. In 1902, Paul Daimler, Gottlieb Daimlers son, took charge of the Technical Department, in 1905 he built the companys first armoured car, which had 30 hp. Also, the company produced engines for trucks and buses. However, Daimler returned to Stuttgart in 1905 to take over the research and development department, senior Ferdinand Porsche took Daimlers place as technical designer. Although Austro-Daimler cars were competing at races already, Porsche pioneered aerodynamic usage with two famous racecars, also, he designed the Mercédès-Electrique-Mixte which was manufactured from 1902 until 1907. Porsche also impelled a company reformation, at a time when the company had 800 workers, the company was renamed Austro-Daimler on July 27,1906. That same year Emil Jellinek — who was Austrian too — bought several Austro-Daimler licenses to found ancillary companies abroad, in 1908, the Austro-Daimler began producing Zeppelin engines. Indeed, for Porsche this was a personal interest since he liked to take Archduke Franz Ferdinand flying over Vienna, pushing the companys development further, Porsche granted Austro-Daimlers definitive independence from DMGs ownership in 1909. In 1910, the company was renamed Austrian Daimler Engines AG whose logo was the Austrian Royal double-headed eagle, in 1912 DMG sold its remaining shares. In 1911 Austro-Daimler began producing the Prinz Heinrich model, this car and it could develop 95 bhp at 2,100 rpm, there was also a less potent version with side valves and a 6, 900-cc engine capable of developing 60 hp at only 1,200 rpm. During the First World War, the 4,500 workers of Austro-Daimler contributed in large quantities to wartime production, after the war, the company returned to the production of automobiles. Austro-Daimler still claimed Royal patronage via its connection with Prince Heinrich, in the first place, Austro-Daimler fused with several companies — Skoda, Fiat, and Puch. Then, it was submerged under Camillo Castiglionis squandering management, at this time, Porsche created the 1. 3-liter Sascha racing cars in the early 1920s. The smallest model the company offered was a 2, 212-cc four-cylinder, however, as the economic situation worsened, Porsche abandoned the company in 1923, ridding himself of Austro-Daimlers financial difficulties
22.
BMW IIIa
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BMW IIIa was an inline six-cylinder SOHC valvetrain, water-cooled aircraft engine, the first-ever product from BMW GmbH. Its success laid the foundation for future BMW success and it is best known as the powerplant of the Fokker D. VIIF, which outperformed any allied aircraft. On 20 May 1917, Rapp Motorenwerke registered the documentation for the design for the new engine. Designed by Max Friz and based on the Rapp III engine, it was an SOHC in-line six-cylinder, just as the earlier Mercedes D. III was and it was designed with a high compression ratio of 6.4,1. The first design drawings were available in May, and on 17 September the engine was on the test rig, after a successful maiden flight for the IIIa in December 1917, volume production started up at the beginning of 1918. The military authorities were responsible for the fact that the first BMW product was designated with a III instead of a I, as early as 1915, the IdFlieg German military aviation inspectorate introduced uniform model designations for aero engines, with the Roman numeral referring to the performance class. The BMW engine was 185 bhp and was assigned to category III, burning a special high octane fuel of gasoline blended with Benzole, the carburettor adjusted the richness of the fuel-air mixture according to the aircrafts altitude. It enabled the engine, now dubbed BMW IIIa, to develop a constant 200 horsepower up to an altitude of 2000 meters -a decisive advantage over competitors engines, German and British horsepower ratings apparently differed. Postwar British tests put the rating of the BMW IIIa at 230 hp and this corresponds to British ratings of the Mercedes DIIIa engine being rated by the British as 180 hp and the DIIIau at 200 hp. This discrepancy may explain the significant difference in performance of the BMW IIIa equipped Fokker D. VIIF both against Mercedes powered D. VIIs and their Allied opponents, the ability to gain power at higher altitudes was why this engine had unique superiority in air combat. It was primarily used in the Fokker D VII and in the Junkers Ju A20, when equipped with the BMW IIIa engine, the Fokker D VII could outclimb any Allied opponent it encountered in combat. Highly maneuverable at all speeds and altitudes, it proved to be more than a match for any of the British or French fighter planes of 1918. The water-cooled in-line 6-cylinder engines reputation grew quickly after its abilities were proven in air combat by Jasta 11. On September 13,1919, Franz Zeno Diemer set an altitude record for a passenger aircraft in a Ju F-13 powered by a BMW IIIa aircraft engine
23.
BMW
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Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, usually known under its abbreviation BMW, is a German luxury vehicle, motorcycle, and engine manufacturing company founded in 1916. It is one of the luxury automakers in the world. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, headquartered in Munich, Bavaria, BMW owns Mini cars and is the parent company of Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. BMW was established as a business entity following a restructuring of the Rapp Motorenwerke aircraft manufacturing firm in 1912 named Aerowerke Gustav Otto, after the end of World War I in 1918, BMW was forced to cease aircraft-engine production by the terms of the Versailles Armistice Treaty. The company consequently shifted to production as the restrictions of the treaty started to be lifted in 1923. BMWs first significant aircraft engine, and commercial product of any sort, was the BMW IIIa inline-six liquid-cooled engine of 1918, known for good fuel economy, with German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. The factory in Munich made ample use of forced labour, foreign civilians, prisoners of war, the few Me 262 A-1b test examples built used the more developed version of the 003 jet, recording an official top speed of 800 km/h. The first-ever four-engine jet aircraft flown were the sixth and eighth prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance-bomber. Through 1944 the 003s reliability improved, making it a power plant for air frame designs competing for the Jägernotprogramms light fighter production contract. Which was won by the Heinkel He 162 Spatz design, the BMW003 aviation turbojet was also under consideration as the basic starting point for a pioneering turboshaft powerplant for German armored fighting vehicles in 1944–45, as the GT101. Towards the end of the Third Reich, BMW developed some military aircraft projects for the Luftwaffe, the BMW Strahlbomber, the BMW Schnellbomber and the BMW Strahljäger, but none of them were built. By the year 1958, the division of BMW was in financial difficulties. It was decided to carry on by trying to cash in on the current economy car boom exploited so successfully by German ex-aircraft manufacturers such as Messerschmitt, BMW bought the rights to manufacture the Italian Iso Isetta. BMWs version of the cars were to be powered by a modified form of BMWs motorcycle engine. This was moderately successful and helped the company get back on its feet, since 1959, the controlling majority shareholder of the BMW Aktiengesellschaft has been the Quandt family, which owns about 46% of the stock. The rest is in public float, BMW acquired the Hans Glas company based in Dingolfing, Germany, in 1966. Glas vehicles were badged as BMW until the company was fully absorbed. However, this factory was outmoded and BMWs biggest immediate gain was, according to themselves, the Glas factories continued to build a limited number of their existing models, while adding the manufacture of BMW front and rear axles until they could be closer incorporated into BMW
24.
Overhead camshaft
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Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
25.
Straight-six engine
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The straight-six engine or inline-six engine is an internal combustion engine with the cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. The bank of cylinders may be oriented at any angle, and where the bank is inclined to the vertical, the straight-six layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders. In automobiles, the design is used for engine displacements ranging from approximately 2 to 5 litres. It is also used for smaller engines but these, although very smooth running. Since the length of an engine is proportional to the number of cylinders in one bank. Pre-World War II engines could be large by modern standards — such as the Rolls Royce Silver Ghosts 7.4 L engine and the 824 cu in of the 1910s Peerless, Pierce. They were used in a variety of including the de Havilland Dragon Rapide. The largest are used to ships, and use fuel oil. The straight-six can also be viewed as a modular component of larger motors which stack several straight-sixes together, e. g. flat- or V-12s, W-18s. Straight-six engines were introduced earlier than V6 engines. While the first straight-six was manufactured in 1903 by Spyker, it was not until 1950 that a production V6 was introduced, V6s had intrinsic vibration problems not present in the straight-six. The poor secondary harmonic balance of four-cylinder engines is largely addressed with the use of balance shafts although it can never match the in-line six, TVR used a straight-six configuration exclusively in their final cars before their demise. In a reversal of trends, Mercedes-Benz announced a return to inline-6 engines in October 2016. This was a part of a trend toward higher efficiency engines with fewer cylinders, manufacturers began to replace V8 engines with straight-6 engines and V6 engines with straight-4 engines, while V8 engines became smaller. Straight-sixes continue to be used in medium to large trucks, Ford is one notable exception using a V8 in medium duty trucks. GM pickup trucks abandoned the straight-six in 1984 for the 4.3 V6, in 2002, General Motors introduced the Vortec 4200 as part of the modular straight-four, straight-five and straight-six GM Atlas engine line. It was used in their sport utility vehicles. Jeep abandoned the straight-six in 2006 with the 2006 Jeep Wrangler being the last vehicle, Ram Trucks continues to offer straight-six engines in its heavy duty pickup truck and chassis cab models, although only V6 and V8 engines are available in the smaller versions
26.
Max Friz
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Max Friz was a German mechanical engineer specializing in engine design. He was the key contributor of engine design and innovation led to the founding of Bayerische Motoren Werke AG in 1917. Assumed to be originally from Urach, very little is known about Friz youth and it is known however, that at a young age, he apprenticed to the Kuhn steam engine company in Cannstatt starting in 1898. In 1902, he enrolled at the Royal Building Trade School in Stuttgart-Esslingen furthering his engineering skills, Friz designed the first practical German aircraft engines in 1912-1913 while at Austro-Daimler. The engines had separate cylinders on the crankcase and an overhead camshaft driven by a vertical shaft, at the end of 1916 the young engineer Max Friz applied for a position with Rapp Motorenwerke. At that time Friz was still working for the Daimler engine company in Untertürkheim, however, he was frustrated because the chief engineer, Paul Daimler, ignored the suggestions of his young assistant on engine development. Faced with this situation, Friz remembered his former colleague, Karl Rapp, at first Rapp was going to turn down Friz’s request, however, Josef Popp successfully intervened on Friz’s behalf, because he recognized that Rapp Motorenwerke lacked an able designer. At the Daimler engine company, Max Friz had tried in vain to develop an oversized, high-compression engine, not until he had moved to Munich was Friz able to put his own ideas for a high-altitude engine into practice. In the space of a few weeks he designed a new aero-engine, which, with an innovative carburettor, later, this engine would gain world renown under the designation BMW IIIa. Upon arriving at Rapp Motorenwerke, Friz was tasked to develop an engine that could attain very high altitudes as well as be durable. A higher operational ceiling was a critical strategic advantage for the pilot. In the spring of 1917, at the time Friz was working at the board on his groundbreaking engine. The Army High Command wanted to commit itself to a few types of aircraft and aeroengine, in the spring of 1917 a commission from the Reichswehr therefore inspected the Rapp engine plant. They had to decide which engines would in future have to be produced under license in Munich, in the end, the Rapp management was faced with the choice of manufacturing either Daimler or Benz engines. However, Franz Josef Popp seized the opportunity of presenting the new engine to the commission of experts, the interest shown by the officers was considerable, and soon there was no more talk of the Rapp engine factory being relegated to the rank of a mere assembler. In fact, the Reichswehr was so impressed by the new engine that it placed an order for 600 units, the aeroengine developed by Friz had turned Rapp Motorenwerke into an essential contributor to the war effort virtually overnight. On 20 May 1917, Rapp Motorenwerke registered the documentation for the design for the new engine. Friz design, based on Karl Rapps design) was laid out as an in-line six-cylinder and this is precisely the reason why the engine, now dubbed Type IIIa, had unique superiority in air combat
27.
Jagdstaffel 11
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It became the most successful fighter squadron in the Luftstreitkräfte. Jasta 11s first commander was First Lieutenant Rudolf Lang, from its mobilization at Brayelles, Jasta 11s first months of operations were very undistinguished. It was not until the appointment of 24-year-old Cavalry Captain Manfred von Richthofen on 16 January 1917 as Commanding Officer that the unit commenced its path to fame and he already had 16 victories and was awarded the Pour le Merite just before he assumed his command. Between 22 January 1917 and the end of March the Jasta claimed some 36 victories, the Jastas performance is all the more extraordinary as the unit usually flew in small flights of six or fewer. Significant scorers in the unit that April were Manfred von Richthofen, Lt. Kurt Wolff, Lt. Karl Schäfer, Manfreds brother Lothar and NCO pilot Sebastian Festner. Cavalry Captain Manfred von Richthofen First Lieutenant Rudolf Lang Lt. Kurt Wolff Lt. Richthofen was promoted to command JG I, which was the second fighter wing in the history of military aviation. It was dubbed Richthofens Flying Circus because it mimicked a circuss logistics by using dedicated railway trains to transport it to forward airfields, in September 1917, Jasta 11 would be equipped with Fokker Dr. I triplanes. It would operate these until April–May 1918, when it received the Fokker D. VIIs it would use until wars end, Manfred von Richthofen remained Jasta commander until 26 June 1917, when his deputy, Leutnant Karl Allmenroeder took over. Following the latters death the day, former Jasta 11 pilot Leutnant Kurt Wolff took over after his transfer back from Jasta 29. After Wolff was wounded in September, Oberlt, wilhelm Reinhard took charge until Wolff returned. Soon after Wolff was killed in action on 15 September, thereafter Lothar took command, Jasta 11 would then have a bewildering succession of other temporary commanding officers, especially when Lothar was frequently away from the front recovering from wounds. Oberleutnant Erich Rüdiger von Wedel was the last Staffelführer, from September 1918 until the end of the war, the Jasta was demobilised at Darmstadt on 16 November 1918. Jasta 11 eventually became the highest scoring German Jasta of World War I, the first was scored on 23 January 1917, the 100th on 23 April, the 200th on 17 August, the 250th on 2 April 1918, and the 300th on 28 June 1918. It numbered no fewer than twenty aces among its ranks, in return it suffered 17 pilots killed,2 POW, and 2 killed in flying accidents. Its loss rate was less than one-tenth of its opponents. The Red Baron Combat Wing, Jagdgeschwader Richthofen in Battle
28.
Pfalz Flugzeugwerke
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Pfalz Flugzeugwerke was a World War I German aircraft manufacturer, located at the Speyer airfield in the Palatinate. They are best known for their series of fighters, notably the Pfalz D. III, the company went bankrupt after the Armistice, when the French occupation forces confiscated all of the equipment, but the factory was re-used by various other companies until re-forming in 1997. Today they are a parts manufacturer referred to as PFW, Pfalz was the brainchild of Alfred Eversbusch, son of a foundry owner in Neustadt an der Weinstraße. It appears that he had built his own aircraft between 1912 and 1913, although the origin of the design is unclear. They initially proposed to build designs from Albatros, but their attempts at a deal amounted to nothing and their next deal was with Gustav Otto Flugzeugwerke, building examples of his pusher-propeller biplane design. The original example was sent to Africa on a tour, the company had always planned to set up shop at the new airfield in Speyer, but they initially had problems securing land for a factory. The Gustav designs were built in the Speyer Festival Hall. It was not until February 6,1914, that the city agreed to sell Pfalz 7,000 m² to build their factory, construction was completed in July, only one month before the start of World War I. By this point, the company had arranged a license to produce Morane-Saulnier monoplanes, when these became uncompetitive on the Western Front, Pfalz shifted production to the LFG Roland D. I and D. II. The D. II was produced into late 1916, by which point it too was no longer competitive. III engine to create the Pfalz D. III. About 600 D. IIIs and slightly modified D. IIIas were built between its introduction in August and its replacement a year later, many were still in service at that time, about 450. Adaptations of the D. III with the new Siemens-Halske Sh. III rotary resulted in the Pfalz D. VIII, III proved to be rather unreliable due to the ersatz engine oil available, and only a small number of D. VIIIs were built. These did see use by Jasta 2 at least, although it is unclear how many were built in total. The D. VIII was also adapted to triplane configuration as the Pfalz Dr. I for entry in the First Fighter Competition at Adlershof in January 1918, like the D. VIII, it was powered by the Sh. III, and therefore completely outpowered its Oberursel UR. II powered contemporaries, is were built and used operationally for some time. It entered the Second Fighter Competition in June 1918 against the famous Fokker E. V monoplane, although generally similar to the Fokker D. VII in looks and performance, the D. XII was widely considered to be inferior in handling characteristics and difficult to land. Nevertheless the D. XII was ordered into production, and about 800 were produced before the Armistice, many of these survived the war and were taken as booty by the Allies. A few aircraft were featured in various movies, notably Hells Angels
29.
Sopwith Camel
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The Sopwith Camel was a British First World War single-seat biplane fighter aircraft introduced on the Western Front in 1917. It had been developed by the Sopwith Aviation Company as a successor to the earlier Sopwith Pup, the Camel was powered by a single rotary engine and was armed with twin synchronized machine guns. Though proving difficult to handle, it provided for a level of manoeuvrability to an experienced pilot. In total, Camel pilots have been credited with the shooting down of 1,294 enemy aircraft, the Camel also saw use as a two-seat trainer aircraft. In January 1920, the last aircraft of the type were withdrawn from RAF service and it was recognised that the new fighter would need to be faster and have a heavier armament. The design effort to produce this successor, initially designated as the Sopwith F.1, was headed by Sopwiths chief designer, early in its development, the new aircraft was simply referred to as the Big Pup. A metal fairing over the gun breeches, intended to protect the guns from freezing at altitude, however, the Camel name never had any official status in regards to the aircraft. On 22 December 1916, the prototype Camel was first flown by Harry Hawker at Brooklands, Weybridge, Surrey, in May 1917, the first production contract for an initial batch of 250 Camels was issued by the British War Office. Throughout 1917, a total of 1,325 Camels were manufactured, by the time that production of the type came to an end, approximately 5,490 Camels of all types had been built. In early 1918, production of the navalised Ships Camel 2F.1 began, while possessing some clear similarities with the Pup, it was furnished with a noticeably bulkier fuselage. In addition to the guns, a total of four Cooper bombs could be carried for ground attack purposes. The upper wing featured a central section for the purpose of providing improved upwards visibility for the pilot. Production Camels were powered by various engines, most commonly either the Clerget 9B or the Bentley BR1. In order to evade a potential manufacturing bottleneck being imposed upon the aircraft in the event of an engine shortage. Unlike the preceding Pup and Triplane, the Camel was considered to be difficult to fly, the Camel soon gained an unfortunate reputation with pilots. Many inexperienced pilots would crash on take-off when the fuel load usually carried pushed the aircrafts centre of gravity beyond the rearmost safe limits. When in level flight, the Camel was markedly tail-heavy, the aircraft could be rigged so that at higher altitudes it could be flown hands off. A stall immediately resulted in a dangerous spin, at length, with the assistance of Lieut Morgan, who managed our workshops, I took the main tank out of several Camels and replaced with a smaller one, which enabled us to fit in dual control
30.
SPAD S.XIII
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The SPAD S. XIII was a French biplane fighter aircraft of World War I, developed by Société Pour LAviation et ses Dérivés from the earlier highly successful SPAD S. VII. It was one of the most capable fighters of the war, the SPAD S. VII was a single-seat fighter aircraft powered by a 150 horsepower Hispano-Suiza 8A water cooled V-8 engine and armed with a single synchronised Vickers machine gun. It demonstrated excellent performance for the time, and entered service with the French Aéronautique Militaire in August 1916, First to fly was the S. XII, armed with a 37 mm cannon firing through the propeller shaft. This saw limited use, but was followed into production by the conventionally armed S. XIII. The S. XIII was of similar layout to the S. VII, i. e. a single engined biplane of wooden construction with fabric covering. It was armed with two Vickers machine guns with 400 rounds per gun, replacing the gun of the earlier aircraft. The powerplant was a geared Hispano-Suiza engine, at first a 8Ba providing 200 hp, the sum of these improvements was a notable improvement in flight and combat performance. While giving the Spad XIII outstanding performance, the engines proved to be unreliable. This significantly and severely affected serviceability, with it being stated in November 1917, even in April 1918, an official report stated that two-thirds of the 200 hp SPADs were out of use at any one time due to engine problems. By the end of the war about one half of the aircraft in US service had been converted, the SPAD S. XIII first flew on 4 April 1917, with deliveries to the French Air Service starting in the next month. The new fighter played an important part in the French plans for its force, being expected to replace the SPAD S. VII. Deliveries were much slower than expected, however, with 764 delivered by the end of March 1918 compared with a planned 2,230, the S. XIII eventually equipped virtually every French fighter squadron,74 Escadrilles using the SPAD during the First World War. Other Allied forces were quick to adopt the new fighter as well, nearly half of the 893 purchased for the United States Army Air Service were still in service in 1920. After the war, it was exported to Japan, Poland. In the United States, some SPAD XIIIs were re-engined with 180 hp Wright-Hispano engines to improve reliability, the S. XIII was flown by famous French fighter pilots such as Georges Guynemer and Rene Fonck, and also by Italian ace Francesco Baracca. Aces of the United States Army Air Service who flew the Spad XIII include Eddie Rickenbacker, argentina Argentine Air Force - Two aircraft. Belgium Groupe de Chasse 10me Escadrille de Chasse Brazil Brazilian Air Force Czechoslovakia Czech Air Force - Postwar, finland Finnish Air Force - One aircraft. Siam Royal Siamese Air Force Kingdom of Spain Spanish Air Force Turkey Turkish Air Force United Kingdom Royal Flying CorpsNo,19 Squadron RFC - One aircraft No.23 Squadron RFC - December 1917—May 1918
31.
Phosphorus
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Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
32.
Liberty L-6
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The Liberty L-6 was a six-cylinder water-cooled inline aircraft engine developed in the United States during World War I. The Liberty L-6, which developed 200-215 hp, was built by the Thomas-Morse Aircraft Corp. and Wright Aeronautical Corp. Since it was based on the engine design as the more successful Liberty L-12 V-12 liquid-cooled aviation engine. The Liberty L-6s smaller displacement of some 825 cu. in, since the L-6 was too large for mail airplanes and other engines were available, the L-6 was canceled after only 52 had been built. In 192010 more L-6 engines were ordered, designated L-825, several of which were installed in the Curtiss PN-1, and the Engineering Division TW-1
33.
Hungarian Soviet Republic
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The Hungarian Soviet Republic or Hungarian Republic of Councils was a short-lived independent communist state established in Hungary in the aftermath of World War I. It was the successor of the Hungarian Democratic Republic and lasted only from 21 March to 1 August 1919, the state was led by Béla Kun and was not recognized by France, the UK or the US. It was the second socialist state in the world to be formed after the October Revolution in Russia brought the Bolsheviks to power. De facto, the Hungarian Soviet Republic didnt have an independent foreign policy, it had to follow and fulfill the commands, instructions, the Hungarian Republic of Councils had military conflicts with the Kingdom of Romania, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the evolving Czechoslovakia. It collapsed on 1 August 1919 when Hungarians sent representatives to negotiate their surrender to the Romanian forces, as the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed in 1918, an independent Hungarian Democratic Republic was formed after the Aster Revolution. Official proclamation of the republic was on 16 November 1918 and its president became Mihály Károlyi, Károlyi struggled to establish the governments authority and to control the country. Led by Béla Kun, the first members returned to Hungary and it recruited members while propagating partys ideas, radicalising many Social Democrats in the process. By February 1919, the party numbered 30,000 to 40,000 members, including many unemployed ex-soldiers, young intellectuals, the Communists came to power as the only group with an organised fighting force, promising Hungary would be able to defend its territory without conscription. Kun founded a newspaper, called Vörös Újság and concentrated on attacking Károlyis liberal government, during the following months, the Communist Partys power-base rapidly expanded. Their supporters began to stage aggressive demonstrations against the media, in one crucial incident, a demonstration turned violent on 20 February and the protesters attacked the editorial office of the Social Democrats official paper, called Népszava. In the ensuing chaos, seven people—including policemen—were killed, the government arrested the leaders of the Communist party, banned Vörös Újság and closed down the partys buildings. The arrests were particularly violent, with police officers openly beating the communists and this resulted in a wave of public sympathy for the Communist Party. On 1 March, Vörös Újság was given permission to again. The leaders were permitted to receive guests in their prison, which allowed them to keep up with political affairs, on 20 March, Károlyi announced that Dénes Berinkey government would resign. Mihály Károlyi resigned on 21 March, president Károlyi, who was an outspoken anti-Communist, was not informed about the fusion of the communist and social democrat parties. Thus, while believing to have appointed a social democratic government, on 21 March, he informed the Council of Ministers that only Social Democrats could form a new government, as they were the party with the highest public support. Béla Kun and his communist friends were released from the Margit Ring prison on the night of 20 March,1919. Liberal president Károlyi was arrested by the new communist regime on the first day, later he could manage to escape
34.
Alfred Comte
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Alfred Comte was a Swiss aviation pioneer. He was active as a pilot, photographer, instructor, also as one of the first aviation entrepreneurs and was successful in the construction of civilian, at the age of 15 Alfred Comte built a motorized bicycle. Comte obtained his pilots license in 1913 from the Aéro-Club of France. At the start of World War I, he served as a pilot in the Swiss military, in 1916 he carried out night flights from Delémont to prevent air space violations, Porrentruy had been bombed by aircraft of unknown origin. Germany and France consented to a Swiss proposal to mount light-beacons along the Swiss-German-France borders to prevent further mistakes, on 5 November 1919 he co-founded an airline providing aerial photography and passenger flights, Comte, Mittelholzer, and Co. In 1920, this merged with the financially stronger Ad Astra Aero. Alfred Comte was a frequent participant in events for acrobatic flying. In December 1920 he established a school of aviation of his own, during World War II, Comte returned to military aviation duties and was promoted to captain. From 1946 to 1950 he once managed a school of aviation and was also involved in establishing the private airfield Wangen-Lachen on the southern shore of lake Obersee. He finally retired from flying and died in 1965 in Zürich, between 1923 and 1935, Alfred Comte concentrated on airplane design and construction in his own company, Alfred Comte Schweizerische Flugzeugfabrik. In all, around 40 aircraft were built, with an additional eight Fokker D. VII under license for the Swiss Air Force, the company had a good reputation, but financially it was not successful, and a fire destroyed some of Comtes designs. The Great Depression hit the small business hard, it could not be saved even by switching to the production of steel furniture. Alfred Comte, in, Schweizer Pioniere der Wirtschaft und Technik, françois Kohler, Comte, Alfred in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland,19 December 2003. Walter Dürig, Zur Geschichte der schweizerischen Eigenentwicklung von Flugzeugen
35.
Swiss Air Force
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The Swiss Air Force is the air component of the Swiss Armed Forces, established on 31 July 1914 as part of the army and in October 1936 an independent service. In peacetime, Dübendorf is the air force headquarters. The Swiss Air Force operates from fixed bases but its personnel are also trained to carry out air operations from temporary highway airstrips. In case of crisis or war, several stretches of road are specially prepared for this option, the first military aviation in Switzerland took the form of balloon transport, pioneered by Swiss balloonist Eduard Spelterini, but by 1914 there was still little official support for an air corps. The outbreak of World War I changed opinions drastically and cavalry officer Theodor Real was charged with forming a flying corps, Switzerland remained neutral and isolated during the conflict, and the air corps confined its activities to training and exercises, reconnaissance and patrol. The Swiss Air Force as a military service was created in October 1936. Later in the war, the Allied bomber offensive sometimes took US or British bombers into Swiss airspace, Swiss aircraft would attempt to intercept individual aircraft and force them to land, interning the crews. Only one further Swiss pilot was killed during the war, shot down by a US fighter in September 1944, from September red and white neutrality bands were added to the wings of aircraft to stop accidental attacks on Swiss aircraft by Allied aircraft. On 1 October 1943 the first American bomber was shot near Bad Ragaz, the officers were interned in Davos, airmen in Adelboden. The representative of the U. S. military in Bern, U. S. military attaché Barnwell R. Legge, legation to coordinate their escape attempts, but the majority of the soldiers thought it was a diplomatic ruse or did not receive the instruction directly. Soldiers who were caught after their escape from the internment camp, were detained in the Wauwilermoos internment camp near Luzern. Official Swiss records identify 6,501 airspace violations during the course of the war, after World War II the service was renamed the Swiss Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Command and in 1966 became a separate service independent from the Army, under its present name Schweizer Luftwaffe. The Venoms served until 1983, while Vampires and Hunters continued in service until 1990 and 1994 respectively. Switzerland was among those European countries that purchased the North American P-51 Mustang from US surplus stocks post World War 2, however the inability to field an air force of sufficient capability to carry out such missions led to a return of traditional protection of own territory doctrine. Meanwhile, the Air Force also began to ad hoc airbases in the mountains, with sections of highway strengthened to act as runways. After the prototypes EFW N-20 and FFA P-16, Switzerland did not invest in development of its own combat aircraft, in 1964 the procurement of the Dassault Mirage III fighters caused a scandal due to severe budget overruns. The Patrouille Suisse display team was founded in 1964, the 50th anniversary year of the Swiss Air Force, in 1969, Air Force logistics and air defence were reassigned into brigades. The Armed Forces Meteo Group and Avalanche Rescue Service came under air force and air defence command, the 1970s were the years of historic major manoeuvres with over 22,000 participants
36.
Ranger Engines
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The Ranger Engines Division of the Fairchild Engine & Aircraft Corporation was an American aircraft engine company. It was known as the Fairchild Engine Division after World War II, World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 5th Edition. Phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, England, UK, Sutton Publishing Limited
37.
De Havilland Gipsy Queen
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The de Havilland Gipsy Queen is a British six-cylinder aero engine of 9.2 litres capacity that was developed in 1936 by the de Havilland Engine Company. It was developed from the de Havilland Gipsy Six for military aircraft use, produced between 1936 and 1950 Gipsy Queen engines still power vintage de Havilland aircraft types today. Note, Gipsy Queen I205 hp, military version of Gipsy Six II, splined crankshaft, but intended for fix-pitch airscrews fitted with an adapter. No fittings for a VP airscrew fitted, Gipsy Queen II210 hp, military version of the Gipsy Six Series II. Gipsy Queen III200 hp, military version of Gipsy Six, strengthened crankcase, tapered crankshaft for fixed-pitch, most of these engines were fitted with a very basic top-cover, as per the early Gipsy-Six, with no accessory drives at the rear of the top-cover whatsoever. Gipsy Queen IV Supercharged version, originally designated Gipsy Queen IIIS and this engine was widely advertised at the time, however, it never entered production, as it was superseded by the completely re-engineered Queen 30. Gipsy Queen 30, All-new engine from this point, Gipsy Queen 33 As Gipsy Queen 30 for pusher installation. Gipsy Queen 34 As Gipsy Queen 30, Gipsy Queen 50295 hp, Single-speed, single stage supercharger. Gipsy Queen 51295 hp, as Gipsy Queen 50, Gipsy Queen 70-1 Renamed Gipsy Six S. G,1,889 built. Gipsy Queen 70-2380 hp 3
38.
Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome
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The aerodrome was the creation of Cole Palen, who was partially inspired by the Shuttleworth Collection in England. He regularly flew many of the aircraft during weekend airshows as his alter-ego and these airshows still continue mid-June through mid-October, and biplane rides are available before and after the shows. The simple early shows led to a philosophy of not only showing the aircraft in their natural environment, from this the series of weekend air shows that the Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome featured — still running to this day — was to become famous for what was developed. Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome features numerous aircraft ranging from Wright-era reconstructions to biplanes and monoplanes of the 1930s, among Palens earliest additions to the museum in the mid-1960s was a Fokker Triplane reproduction, powered with a vintage Le Rhône 9J110 hp rotary engine. It was built by Cole Palen for flight in his weekend airshows as early as 1967 and this aircraft, and a pair of Dr. I reproductions, each powered by radial engines, were flown for nearly two decades by Palen. Both Coles first rotary-engined reproduction, and the second of the stationary radial-powered reproductions, are now on static display, one of these is on loan at the New England Air Museum with the Le Rhône engine. The Allied opponent for Palens Triplane in the years was mostly provided by a Sopwith Pup. King eventually sold the aircraft in 1992 to the Owls Head Transportation Museum in Maine, in 1971 a replica was produced of the 1910 Short S.29 using a 60 hp ENV V-8 engine. An accurate Sopwith Dolphin reproduction was built by Palen, the first known airworthy reproduction of the Dolphin ever known to have been attempted, powered by a vintage direct-drive Hispano-Suiza V-8 engine, this aircraft regularly flew at Palens weekend air shows from 1980 onward. The aircraft never directly struck the ground in the crash, the Dolphin was placed on static display until November 2007, when Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome began restoring it to flying condition. When completed, the aircraft once again be painted in the markings of No.19 Squadron. Another German aircraft in the collection is an Albatros D. Va reproduction and it is powered by a modified six-cylinder, uprighted Fairchild Ranger engine, fitted after the original liquid-cooled Mercedes D. II engine sheared its crankshaft. Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome has had two airworthy Fokker D, one of the Coughlin DVIII Fokkers returned to the Aerodrome in 2016. On August 17,2008, around 4 p. m, the aircraft being used was part of the aerodromes World War I collection and was reported to be a reproduction French Nieuport 24, obtained from a New Zealand facility. It was the first fatality during an airshow at the facility, bainbridge, E. Gordon. The Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome. Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Exposition Pr of Florida,1977, the Skies Over Rhinebeck, A Pilots Story. Return to Rhinebeck, Flying Vintage Aeroplanes, ramsbury, UK, Airlife Publishing Ltd.1999. Wind in the Wires, A Golden Era of Flight, 1909-1939, ramsbury, UK, Airlife Publishing Ltd.1995
39.
Benz Bz.IV
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The Benz Bz. IV was a German six-cylinder, water-cooled, inline engine developed for aircraft use. Deliveries began in 1916 and some 6,400 were produced, the Bz. IV was a dual-camshaft design, with two intake and two exhaust valves per cylinder. The cylinders were cast iron surrounded by a sheet metal cooling jacket, the crankcase was aluminium and pistons were initially steel but later versions had aluminium pistons. A high compression version of the engine was produced from 1917 onwards, in February 1918, pistons from Bz. IV were the first captured aluminium pistons to be examined by the British Ministry of Munitions
40.
Fokker C.I
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The Fokker C. I was a German reconnaissance biplane under development at the end of World War I. The design was essentially an enlarged Fokker D. VII fighter with two seats and a 138 kW BMW IIIa engine, the C. I was originally developed to sell to the German Army. It never saw service in World War I, but Anthony Fokker managed to smuggle out of Germany at the time of the Armistice. The prototype, V.38, was tested at Schwerin, after the armistice, production continued in the Netherlands. The C. I went into Dutch service after 16 were ordered in February 1919, the C. Is served in the reconnaissance and trainer roles. The last C. I left service in 1936, denmark Royal Danish Air Force German Empire Luftstreitkrafte Netherlands Royal Netherlands Navy Dutch Army Aviation United States United States Navy - Two aircraft were purchased by US Navy in 1921. Soviet Union Soviet Air Force V38 Prototype, C. I Two-seat reconnaissance aircraft, powered by a 138 kW BMW IIIa piston engine. C. II Three-seat passenger transport version, powered by a 138 kW BMW IIIa piston engine, C. III Two-seat advanced trainer version of the C. I, powered by a 164 kW Hispano-Suiza 8B engine. General characteristics Crew,2 Length,7.23 m Wingspan,10.5 m Height,2.87 m Wing area,26.3 m2 Empty weight,855 kg Gross weight,1,255 kg Powerplant,1 × BMW IIIa 6-cyl
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Argentina: Argentine Naval Aviation (one ex-French captured aircraft postwar)
Austria-Hungary: Austro-Hungarian Navy
Belgium
Kingdom of Bulgaria: Bulgarian Air Force
Czechoslovakia: (postwar)
Denmark: Royal Danish Air Force (postwar)
Finland: Finnish Air Force (postwar)
German Empire
Kingdom of Hungary: Royal Hungarian Air Force (postwar)
Netherlands: (postwar)
Latvia: Latvian Air Force (postwar)
Lithuania: Lithuanian Air Force (postwar)
Poland: Polish Air Force (postwar)
Kingdom of Romania: Royal Romanian Air Force (postwar)
Soviet Union: Soviet Air Force (postwar)
Sweden: Swedish Air Force (postwar)
Switzerland: Swiss Air Force
Ottoman Empire: Ottoman Air Force
United States:
