1.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
2.
Fokker
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Fokker was a Dutch aircraft manufacturer named after its founder, Anthony Fokker. The company operated several different names, starting out in 1912 in Schwerin, Germany. During its most successful period in the 1920s and 1930s, it dominated the civil aviation market, Fokker went into bankruptcy in 1996, and its operations were sold to competitors. At age 20, while studying in Germany, Anthony Fokker built his initial aircraft, Fokker capitalized on having sold several Fokker Spin monoplanes to the German government and set up a factory in Germany to supply the German Army. His first new design for the Germans to be produced in any numbers was the Fokker M, when it was realized that arming these scouts with a machine gun firing through the propeller was desirable, Fokker developed a synchronization gear similar to that patented by Franz Schneider. Fitted with a version of this gear, the M.2. Later in the war, after the Fokker D, as this partnership proved to be troublesome, it was eventually dissolved again. In 1919, Fokker, owing large sums in back taxes, returned to the Netherlands and founded a new company near Amsterdam with the support of Steenkolen Handels Vereniging and he chose the name Nederlandse Vliegtuigenfabriek to conceal the Fokker brand because of his World War I involvement. Despite the strict disarmament conditions in the Treaty of Versailles, Fokker did not return home empty-handed. In 1919, he arranged an export permit and brought six entire trains of parts, and 180 types of aircraft across the Dutch-German border, among them 117 Fokker C. Is, D. VIIs and this initial stock enabled him to set up shop quickly. After his companys relocation, many Fokker C. I and C. IV military airplanes were delivered to Russia, Romania, and the still clandestine German air force. Success came on the market, too, with the development of the Fokker F. VII. Fokker continued to design and build aircraft, delivering planes to the Royal Netherlands Air Force. Foreign military customers eventually included Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, Hungary and these countries bought substantial numbers of the Fokker C. V reconnaissance aircraft, which became Fokkers main success in the late 1920s and early 1930s. In the 1920s, Fokker entered its glory years, becoming the worlds largest aircraft manufacturer by the late 1920s and its greatest success was the 1925 F. VIIa/3m trimotor passenger aircraft, which was used by 54 airline companies worldwide and captured 40% of the American market in 1936. A serious blow to Fokkers reputation came after the 1931 TWA Flight 599 disaster in Kansas, notre Dame legendary football coach Knute Rockne was among the fatalities, prompting extensive media coverage and technical investigation. As a result, all Fokkers were grounded in the USA, in 1931, discontented at being totally subordinate to GM management, Fokker resigned. On December 23,1939, he died in New York City, the Fokker factories were confiscated by the Germans and were used to build Bücker Bü181 Bestmann trainers and parts for the Junkers Ju 52 transport
3.
Fokker V.4
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The Fokker V.4 was a prototype German fighter aircraft of World War I. Inspired by the successful Sopwith Triplane, Anthony Fokker chose to create a triplane fighter, reinhold Platz was responsible for the design. The V.4 looked very much like the later Dr. I, all three wings were cantilever and the lower two wings had the same span. The rudder was balanced, but the ailerons and elevators lacked horn balances, in the past, this aircraft was given the V.3 designation in error. Aero Historian Peter M. Grosz finally corrected the error while researching Fokker fighter developments, the V.4 was eventually fitted with V.5 wings and sent to Austria-Hungary for evaluation
4.
Fokker F.I (1917)
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For the airliner, see Fokker F. I The Fokker F. I was a prototype German fighter triplane design of World War I. It was a version of the V.4 prototype triplane. For many decades, the V.5 was misidentified as the V.4, idflieg designated the first three V.5 aircraft F. I, but all subsequent triplanes were designated Dr. I. Werner Voss was shot down while flying F. I 103/17, manfred von Richthofen flew F. I 102/17 in September 1917, scoring his 60th victory in the aircraft on the 7th of that month. Von Richthofen then went back to flying his Albatros D. V, kurt Wolff was shot down in F. I 102/17 on 15 September 1917. F. I 101/17 was tested to destruction in August 1918, failing at a load factor of 7.75
5.
Triplane
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For the Japanese rock band, see Triplane A triplane is a fixed-wing aircraft equipped with three vertical stacked wing planes. Tailplanes and canard foreplanes are not normally included in this count, the triplane arrangement may be compared with the biplane in a number of ways. A triplane arrangement has a wing chord than a biplane of similar span. This gives each wing-plane a slender appearance with higher aspect ratio, making it more efficient and this potentially offers a faster rate of climb and tighter turning radius, both of which are important in a fighter. The Sopwith Triplane was an example, having the same wing span as the equivalent biplane. Alternatively, a triplane has reduced span compared to a biplane of given wing area and aspect ratio, leading to a more compact and this potentially offers better maneuverability for a fighter, and higher load-capacity with more practical ground handling for a large aircraft type. The famous Fokker Dr. I triplane offered a balance between the two approaches, having moderately shorter span and moderately higher aspect ratio than the equivalent biplane, the Fokker D. VI. Yet a third comparison may be made between a biplane and triplane having the wing plan, the triplanes third wing provides increased wing area. The extra weight is offset by the increased depth of the overall structure. The Caproni Ca.4 and Levy-Besson families of large, multi-engined triplanes both had some success with this approach, the multiplane idea was taken a step further by a small number of quadruplanes. None were successful, and as biplane design advanced, it clear that the disadvantages of the triplane and quadruplane outweighed their advantages. In a practical flying boat, even the lowest wing must be placed well above the waterline of the hull, the first heavier-than-air craft to carry a person in free flight was a triplane, as far back as 1848 and long before the advent of powered flight. One of the few Danish designs to fly, in 1907, however the Triplane has seldom proved a practical solution and few types have ever entered production. The majority of designs emerged during a narrow period from 1908 to 1923. The last triplane design, a private homebuild, was introduced shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War, the first heavier-than-air machine to carry a human on a free, untethered flight was a triplane glider constructed by George Cayley and flown in 1848. It was modern in form, having three stacked wings above the fuselage and a stabilising tail with both fin and tailplane. The wings were of typical Cayley kite-like planform having a low aspect ratio, the craft was not large enough to carry an adult so a local boy was chosen as the passenger, but his name is not known. Between 1907 and 1911 a number of pioneers experimented with triplanes, some capable of flight, none proved outstanding, although the series produced by A. V
6.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
7.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
8.
Manfred von Richthofen
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Manfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen, also widely known as the Red Baron, was a German fighter pilot with the Imperial German Army Air Service during the First World War. He is considered the ace-of-aces of the war, being credited with 80 air combat victories. Originally a cavalryman, Richthofen transferred to the Air Service in 1915 and he quickly distinguished himself as a fighter pilot, and during 1917 became leader of Jasta 11 and then the larger unit Jagdgeschwader 1. By 1918, he was regarded as a hero in Germany. Richthofen was shot down and killed near Amiens on 21 April 1918, There has been considerable discussion and debate regarding aspects of his career, especially the circumstances of his death. He remains perhaps the most widely known fighter pilot of all time, Richthofen was a Freiherr, a title of nobility often translated as baron. This is not a name nor strictly a hereditary title—since all male members of the family were entitled to it. This title, combined with the fact that he had his aircraft painted red, led to Richthofen being called The Red Baron both inside and outside Germany, during his lifetime he was more often described in German as Der Rote Kampfflieger. This name was used as the title of Richthofens 1917 autobiography, Manfred von Richthofen was born in Kleinburg, near Breslau, Lower Silesia, on 2 May 1892 into a prominent Prussian aristocratic family. His father was Major Albrecht Philipp Karl Julius Freiherr von Richthofen and he had an elder sister, Ilse, and two younger brothers. When he was four years old, Manfred moved with his family to nearby Schweidnitz and he enjoyed riding horses and hunting as well as gymnastics at school. He excelled at bars and won a number of awards at school. He and his brothers, Lothar and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, after being educated at home he attended a school at Schweidnitz before beginning military training when he was 11. After completing cadet training in 1911, he joined an Uhlan cavalry unit, disappointed and bored at not being able to directly participate in combat, the last straw for Richthofen was an order to transfer to the armys supply branch. He is supposed to have written in his application for transfer, I have not gone to war in order to collect cheese and eggs, in spite of this unmilitary attitude, and to his own surprise, his request was granted. Manfred joined the service at the end of May 1915. From June to August 1915, Richthofen served as an observer on reconnaissance missions over the Eastern Front with Feldflieger Abteilung 69, after a chance meeting with the German ace fighter pilot Oswald Boelcke, Richthofen entered training as a pilot in October 1915. In February 1916 Manfred rescued his brother Lothar from the boredom of training new troops in Luben, the following month, Manfred joined Kampfgeschwader 2 flying a two-seater Albatros C. III
9.
Sopwith Triplane
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The Sopwith Triplane was a British single seat fighter aircraft designed and manufactured by the Sopwith Aviation Company during the First World War. It was the first military triplane to see operational service, the Triplane joined Royal Naval Air Service squadrons in early 1917 and was immediately successful. It was nevertheless built in small numbers and was withdrawn from active service as Sopwith Camels arrived in the latter half of 1917. Surviving Triplanes continued to serve as trainers until the end of the war. The Triplane began as a venture by the Sopwith Aviation Company. Ailerons were fitted to all three wings, by using the variable incidence tailplane, the aircraft could be trimmed to fly hands-off. The introduction of a smaller 8 ft span tailplane in February 1917 improved elevator response, the Triplane was initially powered by the 110 hp Clerget 9Z nine-cylinder rotary engine, but most production examples were fitted with the 130 hp Clerget 9B rotary. At least one Triplane was tested with a 110 hp Le Rhône rotary engine, the initial prototype of what was to be referred to simply as the Triplane first flew on 28 May 1916, with Sopwith test pilot Harry Hawker at the controls. Within three minutes of takeoff, Hawker startled onlookers by looping the aircraft, serial N500, three times in succession, the Triplane was very agile, with effective, well-harmonised controls. When maneuvering, however, the Triplane presented an unusual appearance, one observer noted that the aircraft looked like a drunken flight of steps when rolling. In July 1916, N500 was sent to Dunkirk for evaluation with A Naval Squadron,1 Naval Wing, the second prototype, serial N504, was fitted with a 130 hp Clerget 9B. N504 first flew in August 1916 and was sent to France in December. This aircraft served as a trainer for several squadrons. Seeking modern aircraft for the Royal Flying Corps, the War Office also issued a contract to Clayton & Shuttleworth for 106 Triplanes, in February 1917, the War Office agreed to exchange its Triplane orders for the Admiraltys SPAD S. VII contracts. For unknown reasons, the RFC Triplane contract issued to Clayton & Shuttleworth was simply cancelled rather than being transferred to the RNAS, total production amounted to 147 aircraft. No.1 Naval Squadron became fully operational with the Triplane by December 1916, but the squadron did not see any significant action until February 1917, No.8 Naval Squadron received its Triplanes in February 1917. Nos.9 and 10 Naval Squadrons equipped with the type between April and May 1917, the only other major operator of the Triplane was a French naval squadron based at Dunkirk, which received 17 aircraft. The Triplanes combat debut was highly successful, the new fighters exceptional rate of climb and high service ceiling gave it a marked advantage over the Albatros D. III, though the Triplane was slower in a dive
10.
Vickers machine gun
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The Vickers machine gun or Vickers gun is a name primarily used to refer to the water-cooled.303 British machine gun produced by Vickers Limited, originally for the British Army. The machine gun typically required a six to eight-man team to operate, one fired, one fed the ammunition and it was in service from before the First World War until the 1960s, with air-cooled versions of it on many Allied World War I fighter aircraft. The weapon had a reputation for solidity and reliability. Using 100 barrels, they fired a million rounds without a failure and it was this absolute foolproof reliability which endeared the Vickers to every British soldier who ever fired one. The Vickers machine gun was based on the successful Maxim gun of the late 19th century, a muzzle booster was also added. The British Army formally adopted the Vickers gun as its machine gun on 26 November 1912. There were still great shortages when the First World War began, Vickers was, in fact, threatened with prosecution for war profiteering, due to the exorbitant price it was demanding for each gun. As a result, the price was slashed, as the war progressed, and numbers increased, it became the British Armys primary machine gun, and served on all fronts during the conflict. After the First World War, the Machine Gun Corps was disbanded, however, the Vickers remained in service with the British Army until 30 March 1968. Its last operational use was in the Radfan during the Aden Emergency and its successor in UK service is the L7 GPMG. In 1913, a Vickers machine gun was mounted on the experimental Vickers E. F. B.1 biplane, which was probably the worlds first purpose-built combat aeroplane. However, by the time the version, the Vickers F. B.5, had entered service the following year. During World War I, the Vickers gun became a weapon on British and French military aircraft. Although heavier than the Lewis, its closed bolt firing cycle made it easier to synchronize to allow it to fire through aircraft propellers. The belt feed was enclosed right up to the guns feed-way to inhibit effects from wind, steel disintegrating-link ammunition belts were perfected in the UK by William de Courcy Prideaux in mid-war and became standard for aircraft guns thereafter. The famous Sopwith Camel and the SPAD XIII types used twin synchronized Vickers, as did most British and French fighters between 1918 and the mid-1930s. Several sets of louvred slots were cut into the jacket to aid air cooling. The Gloster Gladiator was the last RAF fighter to be armed with the Vickers, the Fairey Swordfish continued to be fitted with the weapon until production ended in August 1944
11.
Albatros Flugzeugwerke
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Albatros-Flugzeugwerke GmbH was a German aircraft manufacturer best known for supplying the German airforces during World War I. The company was based in Johannisthal, Berlin, where it was founded by Walter Huth and it produced some of the most capable fighter aircraft of World War I, notably the Albatros D. III and Albatros D. V, both designed by Robert Thelen for the firm. The works continued to operate until 1931, when it was merged into Focke-Wulf, the company was founded in Berlin-Johannisthal the end of 1909, by Enno Walther Huth, as Albatros Werke AG. The initial activity of the company was the production of French Antoinette monoplane. He also produced versions of the Etrich Taube monoplane, including a biplane called Albatros Doppeltaube. In 1912 five Albatros F-2 were built and this was a modified version of the French Farman III biplane with a gondola for the crew and an Argus in-line engine instead of the original Gnome rotary engine. Four of these planes were sold to Bulgaria and they took part in the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. One of them performed on October 16,1912 the first military mission in the skies of Europe, during World War I produced about 10,300 aircraft
12.
Jagdstaffel 11
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It became the most successful fighter squadron in the Luftstreitkräfte. Jasta 11s first commander was First Lieutenant Rudolf Lang, from its mobilization at Brayelles, Jasta 11s first months of operations were very undistinguished. It was not until the appointment of 24-year-old Cavalry Captain Manfred von Richthofen on 16 January 1917 as Commanding Officer that the unit commenced its path to fame and he already had 16 victories and was awarded the Pour le Merite just before he assumed his command. Between 22 January 1917 and the end of March the Jasta claimed some 36 victories, the Jastas performance is all the more extraordinary as the unit usually flew in small flights of six or fewer. Significant scorers in the unit that April were Manfred von Richthofen, Lt. Kurt Wolff, Lt. Karl Schäfer, Manfreds brother Lothar and NCO pilot Sebastian Festner. Cavalry Captain Manfred von Richthofen First Lieutenant Rudolf Lang Lt. Kurt Wolff Lt. Richthofen was promoted to command JG I, which was the second fighter wing in the history of military aviation. It was dubbed Richthofens Flying Circus because it mimicked a circuss logistics by using dedicated railway trains to transport it to forward airfields, in September 1917, Jasta 11 would be equipped with Fokker Dr. I triplanes. It would operate these until April–May 1918, when it received the Fokker D. VIIs it would use until wars end, Manfred von Richthofen remained Jasta commander until 26 June 1917, when his deputy, Leutnant Karl Allmenroeder took over. Following the latters death the day, former Jasta 11 pilot Leutnant Kurt Wolff took over after his transfer back from Jasta 29. After Wolff was wounded in September, Oberlt, wilhelm Reinhard took charge until Wolff returned. Soon after Wolff was killed in action on 15 September, thereafter Lothar took command, Jasta 11 would then have a bewildering succession of other temporary commanding officers, especially when Lothar was frequently away from the front recovering from wounds. Oberleutnant Erich Rüdiger von Wedel was the last Staffelführer, from September 1918 until the end of the war, the Jasta was demobilised at Darmstadt on 16 November 1918. Jasta 11 eventually became the highest scoring German Jasta of World War I, the first was scored on 23 January 1917, the 100th on 23 April, the 200th on 17 August, the 250th on 2 April 1918, and the 300th on 28 June 1918. It numbered no fewer than twenty aces among its ranks, in return it suffered 17 pilots killed,2 POW, and 2 killed in flying accidents. Its loss rate was less than one-tenth of its opponents. The Red Baron Combat Wing, Jagdgeschwader Richthofen in Battle
13.
Reinhold Platz
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Reinhold Platz was a German aircraft designer and manufacturer in service of the Dutch company Fokker. Platz was hired by Fokker in 1912 as a welder and his first hands-on projects were to weld the frame parts for the Fokker Spin. Platz became the designer at the Fokker factory in Schwerin in 1916. Platz had no higher education like Anthony Fokker, but was a man of practical knowledge and this turned the two men into a strong team, in which Platz was able to bring forth new revolutionary ideas to aircraft design, while Anthony Fokker implemented them in prototype aircraft. Platz became the designer at the Fokker factory in Amsterdam after World War I. Platz is now credited with designing the innovative Fokker D. VII fighter aircraft. Platz was born in Cottbus and died in Ahrensburg, weyl, Alfred R. Fokker, The Creative Years. Reinhold Platz and the Fokker Co, over the Front, Vol.5, No
14.
Hugo Junkers
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Hugo Junkers was a German engineer and aircraft designer. As such, he is credited with pioneering the design of all-metal airplanes. As founder of the Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG, he was one of the mainstays of the German aircraft industry in the years between World War I and World War II. In particular, his multi-engined all-metal passenger- and freight planes helped establish airlines in Germany, although his name is also linked to some of the most successful German warplanes of the Second World War, Hugo Junkers himself had nothing to do with their development. He was forced out of his own company by the Nazi government in 1934 and died on his 76th birthday, as well as aircraft, Junkers also built both diesel and petrol engines and held various thermodynamic and metallurgical patents. He was also one of the sponsors of the Bauhaus movement. Junkers was born in Rheydt in the Prussian Rhine Province, the son of a well-off industrialist, after taking his Abitur exams in 1878, he attended the Royal Polytechnic University in Charlottenburg and the Royal Technical University in Aachen, where he completed his engineering studies in 1883. At first, he returned to Rheydt to work in his fathers company, Slaby placed him with the Continental-Gasgesellschaft in Dessau, where he worked on the development of the first opposed-piston engine. In order to measure heating value, Junkers patented a calorimeter, Junkers personally introduced the calorimeter at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, where it was awarded a gold medal. The next year, he patented a gas-fired bath boiler, which he refined as a tankless heater, in 1895, he founded Junkers & Co. to utilize his inventions. From 1897, he was offered a professorship of engineering at Aachen. Junkers aeronautical work began in earnest only at the age of fifty, Reissner had developed an all-metal aircraft, on which work first started in 1909 at the Brand Heath, equipped with corrugated iron wings built by Junkers & Co. in Dessau. The iron wings were patented one year later, Junkers had a wind tunnel built and invented a hydraulic brake. He had far-sighted ideas of metal aeroplanes and flying wings, during World War I, the government forced him to focus on aircraft production. In 1915, he developed the worlds first practical aircraft design, the Junkers J1 Blechesel. During this time, the German governments IdFlieg military aviation inspectorate forced him to merge his firm with Anthony Fokkers to form the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft on 20 October 1917. By 1918, his firm had created the worlds first low-winged, single-seat fighter aircraft, the Junkers D. I, however, the D. I did not enter production until 1918. He also produced a two-seat fighter, the Junkers CL. I, the Junkers F.13 of 1919 was the first of several successful civil aircraft designs produced by Junkers Flugzeugwerke, later designs include the Junkers Ju 52/3m from 1932
15.
Aileron
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An aileron is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll, movement around this axis is called rolling or banking. The aileron was first patented by the British scientist and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton in 1868, considerable litigation ensued within the United States over the legal issues of lateral roll control, until World War I which compelled the U. S. Government to legislate a legal resolution. The name aileron, from French, meaning wing, also refers to the extremities of a birds wings used to control their flight. It first appeared in print in the 7th edition of Cassells French-English Dictionary of 1877, in the context of powered airplanes it appears in print about 1908. Prior to that, ailerons were often referred to as rudders, their older technical sibling, among the earliest printed aeronautical use of aileron was that in the French aviation journal LAérophile of 1908. He was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868, Boultons description of his lateral flight control system was both clear and complete. It was the first record we have of appreciation of the necessity for active lateral control as distinguished from, with this invention of Boultons we have the birth of the present-day three torque method of airborne control as was praised by Charles Manly. This was also endorsed by C. H, the fact that the Wright brothers were able to gain a patent in 1906 did not invalidate Boultons lost and forgotten invention. The pioneering U. S. aeronautical engineer Octave Chanute published descriptions and drawings of the Wright brothers 1902 glider in the leading periodical of the day, LAérophile. This prompted Esnault-Pelterie, a French military engineer, to build a Wright-style glider in 1904 that used ailerons in lieu of wing warping. The French journal L’Aérophile then published photos of the ailerons on Esnault-Pelterie’s glider which were included in his June 1905 article, during the early years of powered flight the Wrights had better roll control on their designs than airplanes that used movable surfaces. From 1908, as aileron designs were refined it became clear that ailerons were much more effective, ailerons also had the advantage of not weakening the airplanes wing structure as did the wing warping technique, which was one reason for Esnault-Pelteries decision to switch to ailerons. By 1911 most biplanes used ailerons rather than wing warping - by 1915 ailerons had become almost universal on monoplanes as well, the Wright brothers quietly changed their aircraft flight controls from wing warping to the use of ailerons at that time as well. In 1886 his third glider design used rotation of the wing rather than just a trailing edge portion for roll control. By his own all of these changes in addition to his use of an elevator for pitch control provided entire control of the machine in the wind. Both Bullet prototypes crashed during their first flights when their wings broke off in flight due to flutter as a result of being deliberately unbraced. S, the patents importance lay in its claim of a new and useful method of controlling an airplane. Curiously, John J. Montgomery was granted U. S, Patent 831173 at nearly the same time for his methods of wing warping
16.
Elevator (aeronautics)
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Elevators are flight control surfaces, usually at the rear of an aircraft, which control the aircrafts pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and the lift of the wing. The elevators are usually hinged to the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer and they may be the only pitch control surface present, sometimes located at front or integrated into a rear all-moving tailplane also called a slab elevator or stabilator. The effects of drag and engine thrust may also result in pitch moments that need to be compensated with the horizontal stabilizer, both the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator contribute to pitch stability, but only the elevators provide pitch control. They do so by decreasing or increasing the force created by the stabilizer, an increased downward force, produced by up elevator, forces the tail down. At constant speed, the wing angle of attack causes a greater lift to be produced by the wing, accelerating the aircraft upwards. The drag and power demand also increase, a downward force at the tail, produced by down elevator, allows the tail to rise. At constant speed, the decrease in angle of attack reduces the lift, on many low-speed aircraft, a trim tab is present at the rear of the elevator, which the pilot can adjust to eliminate forces on the control column at the desired attitude and airspeed. Supersonic aircraft have all-moving tailplanes, because shock waves generated on the horizontal stabilizer greatly reduced the effectiveness of hinged elevators, delta winged aircraft combine ailerons and elevators –and their respective control inputs– into one control surface called elevon. Elevators are usually part of the tail, at the rear of an aircraft, in some aircraft, pitch-control surfaces are in the front, ahead of the wing, in a two-surface aircraft, this type of configuration is called a canard or a tandem wing. The Wright Brothers early aircraft were of type, Mignet Pou-du-Ciel. Some early three surface aircraft had front elevators, modern three surface aircraft may have both front and rear elevators and these may be used in many unmanned aerial vehicles and 6th generation fighter aircraft. Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics, in flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing is a NASA effort, the Adaptive Compliant Wing is a military and commercial effort. In this use, fluidics promises lower mass, costs, and very low inertia and response times, and simplicity
17.
Bracing (aeronautics)
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In aeronautics, bracing comprises additional structural members which stiffen the functional airframe to give it rigidity and strength under load. Bracing may be applied both internally and externally, and may take the form of strut, which act in compression or tension as the need arises, and/or wires, which act only in tension. Another disadvantage of bracing wires is that they require routine checking and adjustment, or rigging, during the early years of aviation, bracing was a universal feature of all forms of aeroplane, including the monoplanes and biplanes which were then equally common. Today, bracing in the form of lift struts is still used for light commercial designs where a high wing. Bracing works by creating a triangulated truss structure which resists bending or twisting, by comparison, an unbraced cantilever structure bends easily unless it carries a lot of heavy reinforcement. Making the structure allows it to be much lighter and stiffer. To reduce weight and air resistance, the structure may be made hollow, for example, a high-wing monoplane may be given a diagonal lifting strut running from the bottom of the fuselage to a position far out towards the wingtip. This increases the depth of the wing root to the height of the fuselage. Typically, the ends of bracing struts are joined to the internal structural components such as a wing spar or a fuselage bulkhead. Bracing may be used to resist all the forces which occur in an airframe, including lift, weight, drag. A strut is a bracing component stiff enough to resist these forces whether they place it under compression or tension, a wire is a bracing component able only to resist tension, going slack under compression, and consequently is nearly always used in conjunction with struts. A square frame made of bars is not rigid but tends to bend at the corners. Bracing it with a diagonal bar would be heavy. A wire would be much lighter but would stop it collapsing only one way, to hold it rigid, two cross-bracing wires are needed. This method of cross-bracing can be clearly on early biplanes. Another way of arranging a rigid structure is to make the cross pieces solid enough to act in compression and this method was once common on monoplanes, where the wing and a central cabane or a pylon form the cross members while wire bracing forms the outer diamond. Most commonly found on biplane and other aircraft, wire bracing was also common on early monoplanes. Unlike struts, bracing wires always act in tension The thickness and profile of a wire affect the drag it causes, wires may be made of multi-stranded cable, a single strand of piano wire, or aerofoil sectioned steel
18.
Jagdstaffel 26
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Royal Prussian Jagdstaffel 26 was a hunting group of the Luftstreitkräfte, the air arm of the Imperial German Army during World War I. As one of the original German fighter squadrons, the unit would score 177 verified aerial victories, the Jasta would pay a bloody price for its success, five pilots killed in action, nine wounded in action, and one prisoner of war. Royal Prussian Jagdstaffel 26 was founded on 14 December 1916 at the FEA9 training center in Darmstadt and it mobilized on 20 January 1917. Its first war patrols followed a week later, and the first victory was scored on 25 February 1917, just four days before, on 21 February, Jasta 26 had become part of Jagdgeschwader III, with Bruno Loerzer raised to its command. As part of JG III, Jasta 26 would battle to the end of the war and it would end the war as one of the top-scoring German fighter squadrons. It disbanded at FEA5 at Hannover, Germany on 3 December 1918, Bruno Loerzer, Pour le Mérite, Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, Iron Cross, scored over half of his 44 victories while commanding Jasta 26. The squadrons other winner of the Blue Max was Walter Blume, Otto Fruhner, leading ace of the Jasta with 27 wins, won the enlisted mans equivalent of the Blue Max, the Military Merit Cross, as well as the Iron Cross. Erich Buder and Otto Esswein also won the MMC and Iron Cross, Fritz Beckhardt, Fritz Kosmahl and Franz Brandt both won both the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern and Iron Cross. Xavier Dannhuber was a winner of the Hohenzollern, several other aces also served in the unit, including Christian Mesch, Fritz Loerzer, Helmut Lange, Fritz Classen, and Claus Riemer. While specifics of aircraft usage by Jasta 26 are not known, the Albatros D. III entered service in January 1917, coincidental with the units foundation. The Albatros D. V arrived as a replacement for the D. III later in 1917, the Fokker Dr. I triplane was brought into service in August 1917. Fokker D. VIIs were introduced in late April or early May 1918, Jasta 26 was originally mobilized in the Armee-Abteilung B Sector on 20 January 1917. From there, it was assigned to 2nd Armee Sector on 12 April, on 16 June, it was reassigned to 4th Armee Sector. During December 1917, after only a years operation, the squadron scored its 100th victory, on 21 February 1918, Jasta 26 was assigned to JG III, along with Jasta 2, Jasta 27, and Jasta 36. On 13 March 1918, the moved to support 17th Armee. A month later, on 11 April, they moved back to aid 4 Armee, on 27 May 1918, they were seconded to 7th Armee. On 25 August 1918, the entire JG III was assigned to support of 17th Armee for Jasta 26s last posting of the war, bibliography Franks, Norman, Bailey, Frank W. & Guest, Russell F. Above The Lines, The Aces and Fighter Units of the German Air Service, Naval Air Service, and Flanders Marine Corps, 1914–1918
19.
Idflieg aircraft designation system
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The Idflieg designation system was used to designate German heavier-than-air military aircraft from the early days of the Fliegertruppe/Luftstreitkräfte to the end of World War I. The system necessarily evolved during this period, as new types were produced. Airships were totally outside either system, being numbered in the same way as German destroyers and submarines. As well as serving to identify types, the Idflieg type designations were often included as part of German aircraft serial number markings. Each designation consisted of one of the letters, followed by a Roman numeral. For example, the first D-class aircraft built by Albatros was designated the Albatros D. I, the second, exceptions were the single-seat Fokker A types that became the famous E class fighters when they were armed with synchronised machine guns. After 1915 the A class became extinct, as examples reached obsolescence and were discarded, later monoplanes were included in the D, C, or CL classes, with operationally equivalent biplanes. B – originally, inclusive of all biplanes, again, this designation was not connected to any official specification, apart from the wing layout. In practice, specifications applied to later types limited aircraft retaining the B designation after 1915 to low powered unarmed two-seaters, mostly used for training and this was the first new designation to be introduced after the outbreak of war, and also the first to have a defining specification. An engine of more than 150 hp was also specified, a number of future German fighter aces obtained their first victories in the C typeCL – lightweight C class aircraft. Later C types became progressively larger – the CL specification was intended to provide smaller aircraft, in practice, the CL types were mainly used for close support. Engine power of a CL was limited to less than 200 hp –, in other respects CL types were similar to Cs – in fact serial and type numbers generally fell in the same sequence. CN – C class aircraft modified to carry a bomb load for use at night. Designation replaced by N. D – single-seat armed aircraft, specifically intended for use by the new jagdstaffeln or fighter squadrons, until late in 1918, when designations for fighter aircraft were simplified, D implied an armed doppeldecker, or biplane. By the end of the war all single-seat fighters were designated as D types, DJ – Armoured D class aircraft. The only type in this class was the prototype AEG DJ. I, Dr – single-seat armed triplane, or Dreidecker. The first two Fokker Dr. I aircraft were in fact designated F. I, by the end of the war all new single-seat fighters were designated as D types, regardless of wing layout. E – armed monoplane, from Eindecker and this was initially simply the monoplane version of the C class armed biplane, having the same relationship to the C class as the A had to the B, and several early E types were two-seaters
20.
Tailplane
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Not all fixed-wing aircraft have tailplanes. The function of the tailplane is to provide stability and control, in particular, the tailplane helps adjust for changes in the center of pressure or center of gravity caused by changes in speed and attitude, fuel consumption, or dropping cargo or payload. The tailplane comprises the fixed horizontal stabiliser and movable elevator. Besides its planform, it is characterised by, Number of tailplanes - from 0 to 3 Location of tailplane - mounted high, mid or low on the fuselage, fixed stabilizer and movable elevator surfaces, or a single combined stabilator or flying tail. This means that any disturbance which raises the nose produces a pitching moment which tends to raise the nose further. The longitudinal stability of an aircraft may change when it is flown hands-off, i. e. when the controls are subject to aerodynamic forces. In addition to giving a restoring force a tailplane gives damping and this is caused by the relative wind seen by the tail as the aircraft rotates around the center of mass. For example, when the aircraft is oscillating, but is aligned with the overall vehicles motion. Depending on the design and flight regime, its tailplane may create positive lift or negative lift. It is sometimes assumed that on an aircraft this will always be a net down force. On some pioneer designs, such as the Bleriot XI, the center of gravity was between the center of pressure from the wings and the tailplane, which provided positive lift. However this arrangement can be unstable and these often had severe handling issues. Later examples of aircraft from World War I and onwards into the years that had positive lift tailplanes include, chronologically. But with care a lifting tailplane can be made stable, an example is provided by the Bachem Ba 349 Natter VTOL rocket-powered interceptor, which had a lifting tail and was both stable and controllable in flight. In many modern aircraft, the center of gravity is placed ahead of the center of pressure of the main wing. The wing lift then exerts a pitch-down moment around the centre of gravity, a disadvantage is that it generates trim drag. Using a computer to control the elevator allows aerodynamically unstable aircraft to be flown in the same manner, aircraft such as the F-16 are flown with artificial stability. The advantage of this is a significant reduction drag caused by the tailplane, at transonic speeds, an aircraft can experience a shift rearwards in the center of pressure due to the buildup and movement of shockwaves
21.
Jagdstaffel
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A Jagdstaffel was a fighter Staffel of the German Imperial Luftstreitkräfte during World War I. The Feldfliegerabteilungen were subordinate to the Army command to which they were attached, by the end of the spring of 1915 the first German fighter aircraft were being issued in small numbers to various ordinary Feldflieger-Abteilungen. At this period their function was seen almost entirely as protection for the missions which were the primary responsibility of the German air service. Fighter aircraft already in service and their pilots, were detached from the general-purpose FFA units and brought together in pairs, such units were formed at Vaux, Avillers, Jametz, Cunel and other places along the Western Front as Luftwachtdienst units, consisting only of fighters. This process was by no means universally welcomed, nor did it bring immediate success, Boelcke, as the leading fighter pilot of the day, was called on to organise the manning, equipment and training of Jasta 2 which was to become the model for these new squadrons. Initially Jasta 2 was equipped with a collection of fighters, including early Fokker. In September the squadron began to receive the first of the superior Albatros fighters that would create the German air superiority of the first half of 1917, several pilots of Jasta 2 trained by Boelcke, became fighter leaders, notably Manfred von Richthofen. By April 1917, the Jagdstaffeln had established air superiority on the Western Front. V/D. Va, the Jagdstaffeln concentrated on hindering the work of the Allied two-seater corps, reconnaissance and bombing squadrons. Most Jagdstaffeln were considered to be Prussian while other units were associated with Bavaria, Saxony. The Bavarian Jagdstaffeln in particular were associated for organisational and supply purposes with the Bavarian army, to obtain a local and temporary air superiority, larger fighter units were established, composed of several Jagdstaffeln, known as Jagdgeschwader and Jagdgruppen. These units were moved from one section of the front to another as the situation demanded. By March 1918, there were 80 Jagdstaffeln in the Luftstreitkräfte, a long overdue re-equipment with new types began, most notably the Fokker D. VII, which for the first time since mid-1917, gave the Jagdstaffeln equipment that matched their opponents. German aircraft left the factory in a standard finish - although this differed from one manufacturer to another, initial clear varnish on fabric and wooden surfaces had changed by 1916 to various camouflage schemes. In the Jagdstaffeln this gave way to a riot of colour, a squadron theme was sometimes followed, with machines decorated in similar colours or with similar motifs but generally personal preference seems to have been standard. Jasta 1 Jasta 2 Jasta 5 Jasta 11 Jasta 15 Jasta 18 Jagdstaffeln
22.
Oberleutnant
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Oberleutnant is the highest lieutenant officer rank in the armed forces of Germany, Austrian Armed Forces, and Military of Switzerland. In the German Army, it dates from the early 19th century, translated as senior lieutenant, the rank is typically bestowed upon commissioned officers after five to six years of active duty service. Oberleutnant is used by both the German Army and the German Air Force, in the NATO military comparison system, a German Oberleutnant is the equivalent of a First lieutenant or Poruchik in the Army/Air Forces of Allied nations. Other uses The equivalent naval rank is Oberleutnant zur See, in Nazi Germany, within the SS, SA and Waffen-SS, the rank of Obersturmführer was considered the equivalent of an Oberleutnant in the German Army. Comparative military ranks of World War I Comparative military ranks of World War II Ranks of the German Bundeswehr Rank insignia of the German Bundeswehr Yliluutnantti
23.
Kurt Wolff (aviator)
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Oberleutnant Kurt Wolff was one of Imperial Germanys highest scoring fighter aces during World War I. After claiming 33 victories, he was killed in action at the age of 22, Kurt Wolff was born in Greifswald, Pomerania. He was orphaned as a child and was raised by relatives in Memel, Wolff enlisted in the army in 1912 at the age of 17, joining a transport unit, Railway Regiment Nr.4. He received a commission on 17 April 1915, and he transferred to the air service in July, Wolffs first flight was almost his last. The aeroplane crashed, dislocating Wolffs shoulder and killing his pilot instructor, nevertheless, Wolff received his pilots badge in late 1915 and was assigned to 2-seater unit Kasta 26 of Kagohl 5, followed by service with Kagohl 7 and KG40. On 12 October 1916 he was posted to the then undistinguished Jasta 11, for months, Wolff, like most of his Jasta comrades, had no success in the air. That changed when command was given to Manfred von Richthofen, under the Red Barons leadership, Jasta 11 thrived and Wolff became an excellent scout pilot. Like his commanding officer, Wolff soon became a collector of souvenirs from the aircraft he shot down. His room at his airfield soon became decorated with serial numbers, parts and he first claimed on 6 March 1917, a Royal Aircraft Factory B. E. 2d of No.16 Squadron RFC. Four more followed during March, and he scored 22 victories during what the RFC termed Bloody April, with 4 victories on 13 April 1917, harvey-Kelly - commander of No.19 Squadron. Like the rest of the Jasta, Wolffs Albatros D. III was painted red, though he added individual markings by painting his elevators, Wolffs youthful looks and frail physical stature masked his deadly skills as a combat pilot. Karl Bodenschatz, in his Jagd in Flanders Himmel, said of him, Jasta 11, at first glance, you could only say delicate little flower. A slender, thin little figure, a young face. He looks as if you could tip him backwards with one harsh word, but below this friendly schoolboys face dangles the order Pour le Mérite. And so far, these modest looking eyes have taken 30 enemy airplanes from the sky over the sights of his guns, set them afire. This slender youth is already one of the best men of the old Richthofen Staffel 11, Wolff was awarded the coveted Pour Le Mérite on 4 May and on 6 May was assigned to command Jasta 29, replacing Lt. von Dornheim who had recently been killed. He shot down a French SPAD on 13 May and a No.60 Squadron Nieuport 17 on 27 June before he returned to command Jasta 11 in July 1917, replacing Leut. Karl Allmenroeder, who had fallen in combat. He downed a RE-8 of No.4 Squadron and a Sopwith Triplane of No.1 Naval Squadron in early July
24.
Leutnant
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Leutnant is the lowest Lieutenant officer rank in the armed forces of Germany, Austrian Armed Forces, and military of Switzerland. The German noun (with the meaning “Stellvertreter” from Middle High German «locum tenens» Platzhalter was derived from the French word «Lieutenant» about 1500, in most German-speaking armies it is the lowest officer rank (in German-speaking navies «Leutnant zur See». In the German Bundeswehr the ranks Leutnant OF1b and Oberleutnant OF1a belong to the Leutnant rank group, in some other armed forces there is the lower grade of Unterleutnant. From about 1500 until the middle of the 17th century the designation of «Leutnant» was commonly used for any deputy to a commanding officer. So at the level there was the appointment of General-Leutnant, at the regimental level there was that of Oberst-Leutnant. With the formation of standing armies in the half of the 17th century. In the 18th and 19th century, at the unit level several Leutnants served as platoon leaders, at that time the ranks of Premier-Lieutenant and Seconde-Lieutenant came into existence. With effect from January 1,1899 in the German Empire these ranks were renamed as Oberleutnant and Leutnant, the term «Leutnant» has been used in German armed forces since 1899. In the Bundeswehr today the «Leutnant» will be appointed as platoon leader. However, the rank of «Leutnant» might also be held while an officer is studying at the University of the German Federal Armed Forces or at another training or education establishment. The «Leutnant» of the Bundeswehr belongs to the Leutnant’s rank group, in Germany Leutnant is the designation of a soldier of the lowest officer rank. The equivalent in the German Navy is the Leutnant zur See, in the GDR National Peoples Army the OF1b-rank «Leutnant» was the second lowest commissioned offer rank until 1990. This was in reference to the Soviet military doctrine and in line to other armed forces of the Warsaw pact, the equivalent rank of the Volksmarine was the Leutnant zur See, later simple Leutnant. However, internal the wording Leutnant zur See was used continuously, in reference to the Soviet armed forces and to other armed forces of the Warsaw pact Leutnant was the second lowest officer rank until 1990. In Nazi Germany, within the SS and Waffen-SS, the rank of SS-Untersturmführer was considered to be the equivalent of an Leutnant in the German Army, however, in the SA the equivalent to Leutnant was SA-Sturmführer. In Austria the Leutnant is the second lowest CO rank, mandatory to be promoted to that OF1b-rank is a six-month course of high school studies with 180 ECTS points on the Theresian Military Academy in the Wiener Neustadt. The studies are focused on “Military Command and Control” and the graduate to Bachelor. The career in the Militia is structured in a different way, here the modular education comprises the so-called one-year volunteer year as well as several courses, seminars, and exercises with a final aptitude test
25.
Werner Voss
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Werner Voss was a World War I German flying ace credited with 48 aerial victories. Voss, a son from Krefeld, was a patriotic young man even while still in school. He began his career in November 1914 as a 17‑year‑old Hussar. After turning to aviation, he proved to be a natural pilot, after flight school and six months in a bomber unit, he joined a newly formed fighter squadron, Jagdstaffel 2 on 21 November 1916. There he became friends with Manfred von Richthofen, by 6 April 1917, Voss had scored 24 victories and awarded Germanys highest award, the Pour le Mérite. The medals mandatory months leave removed Voss from the battlefield during Bloody April, in his absence, nevertheless, Richthofen regarded Voss as his only possible rival as top scoring ace of the war. Soon after Voss returned from leave, he was at odds with his squadron commander and he was detailed from his squadron to evaluate new fighter aircraft and became enthusiastic about the Fokker Triplane. After transferring through three temporary squadron commands in two months, Voss was given command of Jagdstaffel 10 on 30 July 1917 at Richthofens request, by now, his victory total was 34. His last stand came on 23 September 1917, just hours after his 48th victory, after he fell in solo opposition to eight British aces, he was described by his preeminent foe, James McCudden, as the bravest German airman. Werner Voss was born in Krefeld, Germany, on 13 April 1897 and his mother, Johanna Mathilde Pastor Voss, was a pious homemaker who raised her children in the Evangelical Lutheran faith. His father Maxmilian owned a dye factory, Werner was soon followed by two brothers, Maxmilian Jr. was born in 1898, and Otto on 22 April 1901. An unusual feature of the Voss household was the presence of two first cousins, Margaret and Katherine, the elder Vosses longed for daughters, so they virtually adopted their nieces. The two nieces were referred to within the family as daughters and sisters. The Voss family home at 75 Blumenthalstrasse was a comfortable house with surrounding grounds. Young Werner was expected to carry on the trade as he grew into his heritage. However, even before World War I burgeoned, he was drawn towards patriotic service. When he finished his schooling at Krefelds Moltke Gymnasium, he joined the Krefeld Militia, in April 1914, disregarding conscription laws, underaged Werner Voss joined Ersatz Eskadron 2. As the war erupted, Voss qualified as a motorcyclist and motorcycle mechanic and he received his Certificate of Graduation as a motorcyclist on 2 August 1914, subsequently, his parents would give him a 300 cc Vee-twin Wanderer motorcycle for his 18th birthday
26.
Jagdgeschwader 1 (World War I)
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Jagdgeschwader 1 of World War I, was a fighter unit of the German Luftstreitkräfte, comprising four Jastas. It was formed on 24 June 1917, with Manfred von Richthofen as commanding officer, during early 1917, it became apparent to the German High Command that they would always be outnumbered in air operations over the Western Front. The average Jasta could only muster some six or eight aircraft in total for a patrol, in order to maintain some impact and local command of the air the Jastas began to fly in larger, composite groups. By mid 1917 the first official grouping of Jastas saw JG1 formed and its role was simple, to achieve localized air superiority wherever it was sent and to deny Allied air operations over a specific location. The unit was highly mobile, and JG1 and its supporting logistical infrastructure traveled to wherever local air superiority was needed. Thus 9-victory ace Leutnant Eduard Ritter von Dostler and the rising Leutnant Hans von Adam were soon posted to Jasta 6, and Lieutenant Werner Voss into Jasta 10. This policy had the effect of making the Jagdgeschwader an elite unit, JG1 itself suffered a dilution of talent when competent members were posted away to command their own Jastas in late 1917, when the number of Jastas were doubled from 40 to 80. JG1 was soon flying intensively over the Flanders battlefield above the Allied offensive started in June 1917. Richthofen was severely wounded in the head on 6 July, leading elements of JG1 in combat with F. E. 2ds of the Royal Flying Corpss No.20 Squadron. Oberleutnant Kurt von Doering, Commanding Officer of Jasta 4, took temporary command. Richthofen reassumed command on 25 July, but left on a period of leave on 6 September. JG1 was the first unit to operationally trial the new Fokker Dr. I triplane, Jasta 10s Werner Voss would be the triplanes greatest exponent, scoring 10 victories with it in just 21 days before his death in combat. The unit meantime soldiered on with the Albatros D. V, JG1 was rushed from Ypres to Cambrai by 23 November 1917, following the launch of the British offensive, and did much to stabilise the air war over the battlefield when the bad weather permitted. At this time Richthofen recruited Hans Kirchstein and Fritz Friedrichs from two-seater units, by April 1918 the formation was flying from Harbonnieres, the most south westerly airfield they were to ultimately occupy. Most of JG 1s victims at this time were the low flying fighter bombers, after von Richthofens death in April 1918, Hauptmann Wilhelm Reinhard became JG1 Commanding Officer. On 10 May JG1 claimed its 300th victory while on 20 May the unit received the title of JG1 Richthofen. Soon after JG1 moved to the 7th Army front to support the forthcoming Aisne offensive, JG1 moved to Guise, and then Puiseux Ferme, operating primarily against the French and the newly arrived American Air Forces. Between 31 May and 8 June JG1 claimed some 43 French aircraft and balloons, Jasta 6s Lt. Hans Kirschstein was the star performer of JG1 at this time, claiming 27 victories between 18 March and 14 June
27.
Castor oil
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Castor oil is a vegetable oil obtained by pressing the seeds of the castor oil plant. The common name castor oil, from which the plant gets its name, probably comes from its use as a replacement for castoreum, castor oil is a colorless to very pale yellow liquid with a distinct taste and odor once first ingested. Its boiling point is 313 °C and its density is 961 kg/m3 and it is a triglyceride in which approximately 90 percent of fatty acid chains are ricinoleates. Oleate and linoleates are the significant components. Castor oil is known as a source of ricinoleic acid. Among fatty acids, ricinoleic acid is unusual in that it has a functional group on the 12th carbon. This functional group causes ricinoleic acid to be more polar than most fats, the chemical reactivity of the alcohol group also allows chemical derivatization that is not possible with most other seed oils. Because of its ricinoleic acid content, castor oil is a chemical in feedstocks. As an example, in July 2007, Indian castor oil sold for about US$0.90 per kilogram whereas U. S. soybean, sunflower, annually 270, 000–360,000 tonnes of castor oil are produced for a variety of uses. In the food industry, castor oil is used in food additives, flavorings, candy, as a mold inhibitor, polyoxyethylated castor oil is also used in the food industries. In India, Pakistan and Nepal food grains are preserved by the application of castor oil and it stops rice, wheat, and pulses from rotting. For example, the pigeon pea is commonly available coated in oil for extended storage. Despite castor oil being used to induce labor in pregnant women. Therapeutically, modern drugs are given in a pure chemical state. Optive Plus and Refresh Ultra, are artificial tears to treat dry eye, castor oil is also one of the components of Vishnevsky liniment. In naturopathy castor oil has been promoted as a treatment for a variety of health conditions. The claim has made that applying it to the skin can help cure cancer. However, according to the American Cancer Society, available evidence does not support claims that castor oil on the skin cures cancer or any other disease
28.
Heinrich Gontermann
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Heinrich Gontermann was a German First World War fighter ace credited with 39 victories during the war. Born in Siegen, Southern Westphalia, on 25 February 1896, Heinrich Gontermann grew into a slender man. He abstained from smoking and was only a social drinker and he was a patriotic, religious introvert. Gontermanns father, an officer, pushed him towards a career in the military. After leaving school, Heinrich enlisted into the 6th Uhlan Cavalry Regiment in Hanau on 14 August 1914, only days after arriving in his regiment, he was sent into action. Gontermann had a reputation for being aloof, but during his time with the Uhlans he displayed leadership abilities and he was slightly wounded in September 1914, and he was promoted to Feldwebel. Early in the spring of 1915, he was given a commission as Leutnant. While he continued to lead his men through 1915 Gontermann applied for a transfer to the newly formed German Army Air Service, but in October 1915 he was transferred to the 80th Fusilier Regiment. He was finally accepted for training, and upon his graduation in early 1916 was posted to Kampfstaffel Tergnier as a reconnaissance pilot flying the Roland C. II. Later that spring he was posted to Field-Abteilung 25 where he flew both as a pilot and as an observer on AGO C. Is, Gontermann applied for aviation training at Jastaschule and a transfer to a fighter unit. He was accepted and on 11 November 1916 joined Jasta 5, three days later, while on his first combat sortie, he shot down his first aircraft, an FE. 2b on patrol over Morval. There was a lull in his scoring until 6 March 1917 and he scored regularly in March, becoming an ace on the 24th by downing a Sopwith 1½ Strutter. He added a second one the following day and it was after this victory that he wrote home, Today I shot down a two-seater. He broke up into dust in the air and it is a horrible job but one must do ones duty. During Bloody April,1917, Gontermann had 12 victories, on the 8th, he achieved his first success as a balloon buster, with all its extraordinary hazards, by downing an observation balloon. He shot down 4 others within the month, including a victory on the 16th. On 26 April 1917, he brought his total to 17 victories. Gontermann was also promoted to Staffelführer of Prussian Jagdstaffel 15 four days later and he replaced Max Reinhold, who was killed in action
29.
Rib (aeronautics)
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In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of the structure of a wing, especially in traditional construction. By analogy with the definition of rib, the ribs attach to the main spar. Usually ribs incorporate the airfoil shape of the wing, and the skin adopts this shape when stretched over the ribs, there are several types of ribs. Form-ribs, plate-type ribs, truss ribs, closed-ribs, forged ribs and milled ribs, form-ribs are made from a sheet of metal bent into shape, such as a U-profile. This profile is placed on the skin, just like a stringer, plate-type ribs consist of sheet-metal, which has upturned edges and weight-saving holes cut into it. Truss ribs are built up out of profiles that are joined together and these joints require great attention during design and manufacture. The ribs may be light or heavy in design make them suitable for a wide range of loads. Closed-ribs are constructed from profiles and sheet metal and are suitable for closing off sections of the wing, here too, particular care must be taken with the joints and this type of rib is also suitable for application in a variety of loading conditions. Forged ribs are manufactured using heavy press-machinery, the result is fairly rough, for more refined parts, high-pressure presses are required, which are very expensive. Forged pieces have to further treatment. Forged ribs are used for sections where very high loads apply - near the undercarriage for example and they are manufactured by milling away excess material from a solid block of metal. The shape of these ribs is always accurately defined, such ribs are used under similar conditions as those for forged ribs. Ribs are made out of wood, metal, plastic, composites, the wings of kites, hang gliders, paragliders, powered kites, powered hang gliders, ultralights, windmills are aircraft that have versions that use ribs to form the wing shape
30.
Spar (aeronautics)
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In a fixed-wing aircraft, the spar is often the main structural member of the wing, running spanwise at right angles to the fuselage. The spar carries flight loads and the weight of the wings while on the ground, other structural and forming members such as ribs may be attached to the spar or spars, with stressed skin construction also sharing the loads where it is used. There may be more than one spar in a wing or none at all, however, where a single spar carries the majority of the forces on it, it is known as the main spar. Spars are also used in other aircraft aerofoil surfaces such as the tailplane and fin and serve a similar function, the wing spar provides the majority of the weight support and dynamic load integrity of cantilever monoplanes, often coupled with the strength of the wing D box itself. Together, these two structural components collectively provide the wing rigidity needed to enable the aircraft to fly safely, some of the forces acting on a wing spar are, Upward bending loads resulting from the wing lift force that supports the fuselage in flight. These forces are often offset by carrying fuel in the wings or employing wing-tip-mounted fuel tanks, downward bending loads while stationary on the ground due to the weight of the structure, fuel carried in the wings, and wing-mounted engines if used. Drag loads dependent on airspeed and inertia, chordwise twisting loads due to aerodynamic effects at high airspeeds often associated with washout, and the use of ailerons resulting in control reversal. Further twisting loads are induced by changes of thrust settings to underwing-mounted engines, the D box construction is beneficial to reduce wing twisting. Early aircraft used spars often carved from solid spruce or ash, wooden spars are still being used in light aircraft such as the Robin DR400 and its relatives. Even in modern times, homebuilt aircraft such as the replica Spitfires use laminated wooden spars. These spars are laminated usually from spruce or douglas fir, a number of enthusiasts build replica Spitfires that will actually fly using a variety of engines relative to the size of the aircraft. Larger aircraft using this method of construction may have the spar caps sealed to provide integral fuel tanks. Fatigue of metal wing spars has been a causal factor in aviation accidents. A design aspect of the Supermarine Spitfire wing that greatly to its success was an innovative spar boom design. Two of these booms were linked together by a web, creating a lightweight. A version of this construction method is also used in the BD-5. Many modern aircraft use carbon fibre and Kevlar in their construction, of note are the developments made by Scaled Composites and the German glider manufacturers Schempp-Hirth and Schleicher. These companies initially employed solid fibreglass spars in their designs but now often use carbon fibre in their high performance gliders such as the ASG29, the increase in strength and reduction in weight compared to the earlier fibreglass-sparred aircraft allows a greater quantity of water ballast to be carried
31.
Lothar von Richthofen
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Lothar-Siegfried Freiherr von Richthofen was a German First World War fighter ace credited with 40 victories. He was a brother of top-scoring ace Manfred von Richthofen. Following the war he worked for a while on a farm before taking an industrial position and he married in June 1919 and had two children. Yearning for aviation he accepted a position as a pilot, conveying passengers and he died on 4 July 1922 in a flying accident at Fuhlsbuettel, he was aged 27. Lothar von Richthofen was born on 27 September 1894 and he and his brothers, Manfred and Bolko, hunted wild boar, elk, birds, and deer. Like his brother Manfred, Lothar began the war as an officer with the 4th Dragoon Regiment. He had remained in the public Gymnasium, he was enrolled in military training at the Kriegsschule in Danzig when war began. On his own initiative Lothar returned to his unit, Lothar was nearly cut down by sniper fire while on patrol. In mid-October 1914, while stationed at Attigny, he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class for valour and it was the only consolation that Lothar received during his cavalry service. The following month, his regiment was transferred to the Eastern Front, in February 1916 Manfred rescued his brother Lothar from the boredom of training new troops in Luben and encouraged him to also transfer to the Fliegertruppe. Richthofen joined the German Army Air Service in late 1915 and he served from January 1916 as an observer with Jasta 23, sometimes observing for Otto Creutzmann and saw action during the Battle of Verdun. He won the Iron Cross 1st Class in December and then training as a pilot. His first posting as a pilot was to his brothers Jasta 11 on 6 March 1917, an impulsive and aggressive pilot, unlike his coolly calculating brother Manfred, Lothars first victory claim followed on 28 March for an FE 2b of No.25 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps. The German high command appreciated the value of two Richthofens fighting together to defeat the enemy in the air. Taking part in the period of German dominance called Bloody April by the British, when his brother went on leave, Lothar von Richthofen assumed command of the squadron. During the first week of May 1917, Lothar von Richthofen scored three more victories, in a running battle in deteriorating visibility in the middle of a thunderstorm over Bourlon Wood, both sides became scattered. Richthofen engaged in combat with the British Triplane. At about the time, Ball was seen by fellow 56 Squadron pilot Cyril Crowe chasing a red Albatros into a thundercloud
32.
Sopwith Camel
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The Sopwith Camel was a British First World War single-seat biplane fighter aircraft introduced on the Western Front in 1917. It had been developed by the Sopwith Aviation Company as a successor to the earlier Sopwith Pup, the Camel was powered by a single rotary engine and was armed with twin synchronized machine guns. Though proving difficult to handle, it provided for a level of manoeuvrability to an experienced pilot. In total, Camel pilots have been credited with the shooting down of 1,294 enemy aircraft, the Camel also saw use as a two-seat trainer aircraft. In January 1920, the last aircraft of the type were withdrawn from RAF service and it was recognised that the new fighter would need to be faster and have a heavier armament. The design effort to produce this successor, initially designated as the Sopwith F.1, was headed by Sopwiths chief designer, early in its development, the new aircraft was simply referred to as the Big Pup. A metal fairing over the gun breeches, intended to protect the guns from freezing at altitude, however, the Camel name never had any official status in regards to the aircraft. On 22 December 1916, the prototype Camel was first flown by Harry Hawker at Brooklands, Weybridge, Surrey, in May 1917, the first production contract for an initial batch of 250 Camels was issued by the British War Office. Throughout 1917, a total of 1,325 Camels were manufactured, by the time that production of the type came to an end, approximately 5,490 Camels of all types had been built. In early 1918, production of the navalised Ships Camel 2F.1 began, while possessing some clear similarities with the Pup, it was furnished with a noticeably bulkier fuselage. In addition to the guns, a total of four Cooper bombs could be carried for ground attack purposes. The upper wing featured a central section for the purpose of providing improved upwards visibility for the pilot. Production Camels were powered by various engines, most commonly either the Clerget 9B or the Bentley BR1. In order to evade a potential manufacturing bottleneck being imposed upon the aircraft in the event of an engine shortage. Unlike the preceding Pup and Triplane, the Camel was considered to be difficult to fly, the Camel soon gained an unfortunate reputation with pilots. Many inexperienced pilots would crash on take-off when the fuel load usually carried pushed the aircrafts centre of gravity beyond the rearmost safe limits. When in level flight, the Camel was markedly tail-heavy, the aircraft could be rigged so that at higher altitudes it could be flown hands off. A stall immediately resulted in a dangerous spin, at length, with the assistance of Lieut Morgan, who managed our workshops, I took the main tank out of several Camels and replaced with a smaller one, which enabled us to fit in dual control
33.
Bristol F.2 Fighter
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The Bristol F.2 Fighter was a British two-seat biplane fighter and reconnaissance aircraft of the First World War developed by the Bristol Aeroplane Company. It is often called the Bristol Fighter, other popular names include the Brisfit or Biff. Despite being a two-seater, the F. 2B proved to be an aircraft that was able to hold its own against opposing single-seat fighters. Having overcome a disastrous start to its career, the F. 2Bs robust design ensured that it remained in service into the 1930s. As the type was phased out of service, many of the surplus aircraft entered into civilian uses. Amongst other attributes and performance requirements, there was an emphasis placed upon the aircrafts self-defence capabilities. Various submissions were made to meet the RCFs specification, the Royal Aircraft Factory responded with its R. E.8 design, on 16 June 1916, the first prototype R. E.8 was presented for final inspection and production examples commenced delivery in September 1916. While thousands of R. E. 8s were produced, according to aviation author J. M. Bruce, the Bristol F.2 Fighter came about as a result of Frank Barnwells brief experience as a front-line pilot with the Royal Flying Corps. The first proposal that was prepared by Barnwell, which was designated the Type 9 R. 2A, was an equal-span two-seat biplane that made use of the 120 hp Beardmore engine. This was considered to be underpowered, and thus a second revised design, designated as the Type 9A R. 2B, was an unequal-span biplane that was powered by the 150 hp Hispano Suiza, was proposed. On both the R. 2A and R. 2B, the crew were placed together in a mid-gap mounted fuselage. Neither the R. 2A or R. 2B were constructed as a result of the new 190 hp Rolls-Royce Falcon inline engine having become available. Barnwell deciding to design a third revision of the aircraft around the Falcon engine and this aircraft, designated as the Type 12 F. 2A, was a two-bay equal-span biplane, closely resembling the R. 2A but being slightly smaller. These features were intended to optimize the field of fire for the observer, in July 1916, work commenced on the construction of a pair of prototypes, on 28 August 1916, a initial contract was awarded for 50 production aircraft. On 9 September 1916, the first prototype performed its maiden flight, the first prototype had its lower wings attached to an open wing-anchorage frame and had end-plates at the wing roots. Other changes to the first prototype during flight testing including the elimination of the end-plates from the wing roots. The first prototype was outfitted with a Scarff ring mounting near the rear cockpit. On 25 October 1916, the F. 2B variant performed its first flight, the F. 2B was over 10 mph faster than the F. 2A and was three minutes faster at reaching 10,000 ft
34.
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
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The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was a U. S. federal agency founded on March 3,1915, to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1,1958, the agency was dissolved, and its assets and personnel transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics, NACA was pronounced as discrete letters, rather than as a whole word. NACA was also key in developing the area rule that is used on all modern supersonic aircraft and it was modeled on similar national agencies found in Europe. The most influential agency upon which the NACA was based was the British Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, in December 1912, President William Howard Taft had appointed a National Aerodynamical Laboratory Commission chaired by Robert S. Woodward, president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Legislation was introduced in both houses of Congress early in January 1913 to approve the commission, but when it came to a vote, assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt wrote that he heartily the principle on which the legislation was based. Walcott suggested the tactic of adding the resolution to the Naval Appropriations Bill, according to one source, The enabling legislation for the NACA slipped through almost unnoticed as a rider attached to the Naval Appropriation Bill, on 3 March 1915. The committee of 12 people, all unpaid, were allocated a budget of $5,000 per year. President Woodrow Wilson signed it into law the day, thus formally creating the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. On January 29,1920, President Wilson appointed pioneering flier, by the early 1920s, it had adopted a new and more ambitious mission, to promote military and civilian aviation through applied research that looked beyond current needs. NACA researchers pursued this mission through the impressive collection of in-house wind tunnels, engine test stands. Commercial and military clients were also permitted to use NACA facilities on a contract basis, facilities Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory Ames Aeronautical Laboratory Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory Muroc Flight Test Unit In 1922, NACA had 100 employees. In addition to assignments, staff were encouraged to pursue unauthorized bootleg research. The result was a string of fundamental breakthroughs, including thin airfoil theory, NACA engine cowl, the NACA airfoil series. The full-size 30-by-60-foot Langley wind tunnel operated at no more than 100 miles per hour and these were speeds Lockheed engineers considered useless for their purposes. Arnold took up the matter and overruled NACA objections to higher air speeds, NACA built a handful of new high-speed wind tunnels, and Mach 0.75 (570 mph was reached at Moffetts 16-foot wind tunnel late in 1942. In the years immediately preceding World War II, NACA was involved in the development of designs that served key roles in the war effort. This enabled the B-17 to be used as a key aircraft in the war effort, the designs and information gained from NACA research on the B-17 were used in nearly every major U. S. military powerplant of the Second World War. Nearly every aircraft used some form of forced induction that relied on information developed by NACA, because of this, U. S. -produced aircraft had a significant power advantage above 15,000 feet, which was never fully countered by Axis forces
35.
Fokker D.VII
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The Fokker D. VII was a German World War I fighter aircraft designed by Reinhold Platz of the Fokker-Flugzeugwerke. Germany produced around 3,300 D. VII aircraft in the half of 1918. In service with the Luftstreitkräfte, the D. VII quickly proved itself to be a formidable aircraft, the Armistice ending the war specifically required Germany to surrender all D. VIIs to the Allies. Surviving aircraft saw continued service with many other countries in the years after World War I. Fokkers chief designer, Reinhold Platz, had working on a series of experimental planes. These aircraft were characterized by the use of cantilever wings, Junkers had originated the idea in 1915 with the first all-metal aircraft, the Junkers J1, nicknamed Blechesel. The resulting wings were thick, with a leading edge. This gave greater lift and more docile stalling behavior than the thin wings commonly used at the time, late in 1917, Fokker built the experimental V11 biplane, fitted with the standard Mercedes D. IIIa engine. In January 1918, Idflieg held a competition at Adlershof. For the first time, frontline pilots would participate in the evaluation and selection of new fighters. Fokker submitted the V11 along with other prototypes. Manfred von Richthofen flew the V11 and found it tricky, unpleasant, in response to these complaints, Reinhold Platz lengthened the rear fuselage by one structural bay, and added a triangular vertical fin in front of the rudder. Upon flying the modified V11, Richthofen praised it as the best aircraft of the competition and it offered excellent performance from the outdated Mercedes engine, yet was safe and easy to fly. Richthofens recommendation virtually decided the competition, but he was not alone in recommending it, Fokker immediately received a provisional order for 400 production aircraft, which were designated D. VII by Idflieg. Fokkers factory was not up to the task of meeting all D. VII production orders, Idflieg therefore directed Albatros and AEG to build the D. VII under license, though AEG did not ultimately produce any aircraft. Because the Fokker factory did not use detailed plans as part of its production process, Albatros paid Fokker a five percent royalty for every D. VII built under license. Albatros Flugzeugwerke and its subsidiary, Ostdeutsche Albatros Werke, built the D. VII at factories in Johannisthal and Schneidemühl, aircraft markings included the type designation and factory suffix, immediately before the individual serial number. Some parts were not interchangeable between aircraft produced at different factories, even between Albatros and OAW, additionally each manufacturer tended to differ in nose paint styles
36.
Armistice of 11 November 1918
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It went into effect at 11 a. m. Paris time on 11 November 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies, the Germans were responding to the policies proposed by U. S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918. Although the armistice ended the fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. In addition, he recommended the acceptance of the demands of US president Woodrow Wilson including putting the Imperial Government on a democratic footing, hoping for more favorable peace terms. As he said to officers of his staff on 1 October, on 3 October, the liberal Prince Maximilian of Baden was appointed Chancellor of Germany, replacing Georg von Hertling in order to negotiate an armistice. In the subsequent two exchanges, Wilsons allusions failed to convey the idea that the Kaisers abdication was a condition for peace. The leading statesmen of the Reich were not yet ready to contemplate such a monstrous possibility, in late October, Ludendorff, in a sudden change of mind, declared the conditions of the Allies unacceptable. He now demanded to resume the war which he himself had declared lost only one month earlier, however the German soldiers were pressing to get home. It was scarcely possible to arouse their readiness for battle anew, the Imperial Government stayed on course and Ludendorff was replaced by Wilhelm Groener. On 5 November, the Allies agreed to take up negotiations for a truce, the latest note from Wilson was received in Berlin on 6 November. That same day, the led by Matthias Erzberger departed for France. For example, they assumed that the de-militarization suggested by Wilson would be limited to the Central Powers, there were also contradictions with their post-War plans that did not include a consistent implementation of the ideal of national self-determination. Also on 9 November, Max von Baden handed over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, eberts SPD and Erzbergers Catholic Centre Party had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Imperial government since Bismarcks era in the 1870s and 1880s. They were well represented in the Imperial Reichstag, which had power over the government. Their prominence in the negotiations would cause the new Weimar Republic to lack legitimacy in right-wing. The Armistice was the result of a hurried and desperate process and they were then entrained and taken to the secret destination, aboard Ferdinand Fochs private train parked in a railway siding in the forest of Compiègne. Foch appeared only twice in the three days of negotiations, on the first day, to ask the German delegation what they wanted, the Germans were handed the list of Allied demands and given 72 hours to agree. The German delegation discussed the Allied terms not with Foch, but with other French, the Armistice amounted to complete German demilitarization, with few promises made by the Allies in return
37.
Nivelles
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Nivelles is a Walloon city and municipality located in the Belgian province of Walloon Brabant. The Nivelles municipality includes the old communes of Baulers, Bornival, Thines, the Nivelles district includes all the municipalities in Walloon Brabant. The Collegiate Church of Saint Gertrude has been classified as a site of Wallonia. Starting in 4000 BC, the Nivelles region was turned into agricultural land by the Danubian settlers. Most of their ancestral Rubanean civilization was destroyed by the Roman invaders during the first century AD, in turn, most of the Roman constructions, including villas, were destroyed during the Germanic invasions of the 3rd century. In the 7th century, the territory was part of the Austrasian Frankish kingdom, after Pippins death in 640, the bishop of Maastricht, the future Saint Amand, urged Pippins widow, Itta, to found an abbey in their villa. Ittas daughter, Gertrude, became the monasterys first abbess and was venerated as a saint upon her death, the growing influx of pilgrims necessitated the construction of ever-bigger churches, which culminated in the huge Romanesque structure that still stands today. The dedication of the church took place in 1046 in the presence of Wazo, Prince-Bishop of Liège and this was the golden age of the Nivelles monastery, which now owned territories as far as Friesland, the Moselle and the Rhine. In the 13th century, the city grew around the church became part of the Duchy of Brabant. The population was mainly artisans and guild members, who did not hesitate to fight the abbesses and these rights were finally granted by Joanna, Duchess of Brabant in the 14th century. In 1647, an important uprising by the thread manufacturers resulted in many of the citys entrepreneurs leaving for France, the wars of the 17th century between France and the Spanish Netherlands made the situation worse as Nivelles went through successive sieges and military occupations. The Austrian and French regimes of the 18th century brought religious, in 1830, Nivelles was one of the first cities to send patriotic troops to Brussels to fight in the Belgian Revolution. The following years were marked by the growth of industry, including metallurgy. The rebuilding of the church was completed in 1984, but remains can be seen of wall fragments on the side of the collegiate. The collegiate church of Gertrude of Nivelles, patron saint of the city and it has been classified as one of Europes major heritage sites. Tombs from the Merovingian and Carolingian periods have found under the church. The Romanesque crypt is one of the largest of its kind in Europe, the two-meter-tall statue that strikes the hours in one of the towers is affectionately known as Jean de Nivelles. The Recollets convent and its date from the 16th century
38.
Valenciennes
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Valenciennes is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies on the Scheldt river, although the city and region experienced a steady population decline between 1975 and 1990, it has since rebounded. The 1999 census recorded that the population of the commune of Valenciennes was 41,278, Valenciennes is first mentioned in 693 in a legal document written by Clovis II. In the 843 Treaty of Verdun, it was made a city between Neustria and the Austrasia. Later in the 9th century the region was overrun by the Normans, in 923 it passed to the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia dependent on the Holy Roman Empire. Once the Empire of the Franks was established, the city began to develop, under the Ottonian emperors, Valenciennes became the centre of marches on the border of the Empire. In 1008, a famine brought the Plague. According to the tradition, the Virgin Mary held a cordon around the city which. Since then, every year at that time, the Valenciennois used to walk around the 14 kilometres road round the town, many Counts succeeded, first as Margraves of Valenciennes and from 1070 as counts of Hainaut. In 1285, the currency of Hainaut was replaced by the currency of France, Valenciennes was full of activity, with numerous corporations, and outside its walls a large number of convents developed, like that of the Dominicans. In the 14th century, the Tower of Dodenne was built by Albert of Bavaria, where even today, in the 15th century, the County of Hainault, of which Valenciennes is part, was re-attached to Burgundy, losing its autonomy. On the Journée des Mals Brûlés in 1562, a mob freed some Protestants condemned to die at the stake, in the wave of iconoclastic attacks called the Beeldenstorm that swept the Low Countries in the summer of 1566, the city was the furthest south to see an attack. In 1576, when for a time the Southern Netherlands joined the revolt, however, in 1580, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma took Valenciennes and Protestantism was eradicated there. Hereafter, Valenciennes remained under Spanish protection, no longer involved in later fighting of the Eighty Years War. With its manufacturers of wool and fine linens, the city was able to economically independent. In 1591, the Jesuits built a school and then the foundations of a church of Sainte-Croix, in 1611, the façade of the town hall was completely rebuilt in magnificent Renaissance style. In the seventeenth century the Scheldt was channelled between Cambrai and Valenciennes, benefitting Valenciennes wool, fabric and fine arts, to use up flax yarn, women began to make the famous Valenciennes lace. The French army laid siege to the city in 1656, defending the city, Albert de Merode, marquis de Trélon was injured during a sortie on horseback, died as a result of his injuries and was buried in the Church of St. Paul
39.
Siemens-Halske Sh.III
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Siemens-Halskes Sh. III was an 11-cylinder, air-cooled rotary engine developed in Germany during World War I, similar to the Sh. I. Also unusual for an engine was the inclusion of a true throttle control. Power was rated at 120 kW, a bonus was the counter-rotating masses tended to cancel out the gyroscopic forces of the engine. This was achieved by using bevel-gears housed in the rear of the crankcase, for a normal rotary engine that had its crankshaft fastened to the airframe, the point of ignition always stayed in the same place in the cylinders rotative action as they spun with the crankcase. Production problems at the Siemens works, and poor quality lubricating oil, the license-built Rhemag versions of the Sh. III did not have such problems, so the Siemens-made engines were gradually withdrawn from service. Gray, Peter & Owen Thetford German Aircraft of the First World War
40.
Zeughaus
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The Zeughaus in Berlin, Germany is the oldest structure at Unter den Linden. It was built by the Brandenburg Elector Frederick III between 1695 and 1730 in the style, to be used as an artillery arsenal for the display of cannons from Brandenburg. The first building master was Johann Arnold Nering, after his death in 1695, he was followed by Martin Grünberg, then Andreas Schlüter and finally Jean de Bodt. Andreas Schlüter designed the keystones above the windows in the form of heads of giants. Georg Friedrich Hitzig constructed the monumental flight of steps to the floor of the north wing. The building was converted into a museum in 1875. In March 1943, Rudolf von Gersdorff tried, but failed to assassinate by suicide bombing Adolf Hitler, from 1949-65 the Zeughaus was restored after heavy war losses, the interior being completely redesigned. Today, the Zeughaus is the site of the Deutsches Historisches Museum
Luftstreitkräfte
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