1.
Civic Center, Manhattan
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Civic Center is the area of lower Manhattan, New York City, that encompasses New York City Hall, One Police Plaza, the courthouses in Foley Square, and the surrounding area. Although government-related activities are predominant, other pursuits also occur within the district, including entertainment, industrial activity, residential dwellings, for example, there are Chinese restaurants near Civic Centers border with Chinatown, in addition to some museums and some residential buildings in the Civic Center area. The Jacob K. Javits Federal Building is located in the area and it includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation New York field office. Non-government buildings include the 387 feet 15 Park Row, an office,150 Nassau Street, a 21-story granite building, was once a publishers building, as were many in the area, but is now a residential building, as is 38 Park Row. The 76-story 8 Spruce Street is among the worlds tallest residential buildings, southbridge Towers, once Mitchell-Lama affordable housing, is now market-rate housing. Originally, the Lenape American Indians occupied the Civic Center area due to its rich pastoral fields and its proximity to the East River and Hudson River. There was a series of marshes in the area and a big pond in what is now Foley Square that the settlers called “The Collect” or “Collect Pond”. In fact, the area was so low lying that during the spring floods, then in 1609, Henry Hudson, an English explorer working for the Dutch, came and claimed the land for the Dutch. The colony there grew and farms began to expand, so the demand for workers increased, the Dutch West Indies Company decided to import slaves in 1625 to the new colony. The Civic Center was known as the commons and the first recorded building was a built by Jan de Wit. The next year, the colony was renamed New York and the seal was created the following year. Farms continued to grow and slavery expanded rapidly, the slaves built a burial ground in the north area of the Civic Center. The slaves would bury people at night though it was illegal. Because of the slaves’ sneaking out and racism, the Trinity Church banned African burial ceremonies in 1697 and this rule was then overturned in 1773. The city continued expanding and the government system became increasingly powerful, the local government decided to finance their first public works building through public funding. In 1735, the Almshouse was built as a center to house the ill and impoverished, a jail, a score later another jail was built called New Goal, which was a debtor prison. Soldier barracks were built on the border of the commons. During the pre-Revolutionary and Revolutionary eras, City Hall Park, in Lower Manhattan, was the site of many rallies, British soldiers chopped it down, and it was replaced five times
2.
Lower Manhattan
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Lower Manhattan is defined most commonly as the area delineated on the north by 14th Street, on the west by the Hudson River, on the east by the East River, and on the south by New York Harbor. The Lower Manhattan business district forms the core of the area below Chambers Street and it includes the Financial District and the World Trade Center site. At the islands southern tip is Battery Park, City Hall is just to the north of the Financial District, also south of Chambers Street are the planned community of Battery Park City and the South Street Seaport historic area. The neighborhood of TriBeCa straddles Chambers on the west side, at the streets east end is the giant Manhattan Municipal Building, North of Chambers Street and the Brooklyn Bridge and south of Canal Street lies most of New Yorks oldest Chinatown neighborhood. Many court buildings and other government offices are located in this area. The Lower East Side neighborhood straddles Canal, North of Canal Street and south of 14th Street are the neighborhoods of SoHo, the Meatpacking District, the West Village, Greenwich Village, Little Italy, Nolita, and the East Village. Between 14th and 23rd streets are lower Chelsea, Union Square, the Flatiron District, Gramercy, the area that would eventually encompass modern day New York City was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically identical Native Americans traditionally spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami, European settlement began with the founding of a Dutch fur trading post in Lower Manhattan, later called New Amsterdam in 1626. The first fort was built at the Battery to protect New Netherland, soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers, they helped to build the wall that defended the town against English, early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kiefts War against the Native Americans, the Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch, the Dutch Republic sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29,1645. On May 27,1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival, the colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. The first mayors of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year, in 1664, the English conquered the area and renamed it New York after the Duke of York. At that time, people of African descent made up 20% of the population of the city, with European settlers numbering approximately 1,500, during the mid 1600s, farms of free blacks covered 130 acres where Washington Square Park later developed. The Dutch briefly regained the city in 1673, renaming the city New Orange, the new English rulers of the formerly Dutch New Amsterdam and New Netherland renamed the settlement New York. As the colony grew and prospered, sentiment also grew for greater autonomy, by 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200. By 1703, 42% of households in New York had slaves, the 1735 libel trial of John Peter Zenger in the city was a seminal influence on freedom of the press in North America
3.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
4.
Lafayette Street
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Lafayette Street is a major north-south street in New York Citys Lower Manhattan. It originates at the intersection of Reade Street and Centre Street, the one-way street then successively runs through Chinatown, Little Italy, NoLIta, and NoHo and finally, between East 9th and East 10th Streets, merges with Fourth Avenue. A buffered bike lane runs outside of the traffic lane. North of Spring Street, Lafayette Street is northbound -only, south of Spring Street, the street is named after the Marquis de Lafayette, a French hero of the American Revolutionary War. Lots along both sides of the new street sold briskly, earning Astor many times what he had paid for the two decades before. At that time its route was carved from the former Elm Street, Marion Street, schermerhorns moved uptown to 49 West 23rd Street. Before long, half of Colonnade Row was demolished to make way for a warehouse for Wanamakers Department Store, the main store burnt down in 1956, but the annex and warehouse buildings remain extant on Lafayette. This program was renewed in 2009 for the dates of August 8,15, and 22,2009 from 7,00 AM to 1,00 PM, as of 2013, it takes place on the first, second, and third Saturdays of every August. The New York City Subways 46 <6> B D F M trains intersect at a station complex at Bleecker Street / Broadway – Lafayette Street. The IRT Lexington Avenue Line runs under Lafayette Street, with stops at Canal Street, Spring Street, Bleecker Street, NoHo Historic District Designation Report, New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, p. 6–7 Lafayette Street Storefronts – photographs of buildings and stores along Lafayette Street
5.
New York City Hall
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New York City Hall, the seat of New York City government, is located at the center of City Hall Park in the Civic Center area of Lower Manhattan, between Broadway, Park Row, and Chambers Street. Constructed from 1803 to 1812, New York City Hall is a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, both its exterior and interior are designated New York City landmarks. New Amsterdams first City Hall was built by the Dutch in the 17th century near 73 Pearl Street, the citys second City Hall, built in 1700, stood on Wall and Nassau Streets. That building was renamed Federal Hall after New York became the first official capital of the United States after the Revolutionary War. Plans for building a new City Hall were discussed by the New York City Council as early as 1776, the Council chose a site at the old Common at the northern limits of the City, now City Hall Park. City Hall was originally an area for the first almhouse in 1653, in 1736, there was a financed almhouse for those who were fit to work, for the unfit, and those that were like criminals but were paupers. In 1802 the City held a competition for a new City Hall, mangin was also the architect of the landmark St. Patricks Old Cathedral on Mulberry Street. McComb, whose father had worked on the old City Hall, was a New Yorker and he would supervise the construction of the building, and designed the architectural detailing as well. Also, many architects were in favor of Greek Revival style and created Brooklyn City Hall, the cornerstone of the new City Hall was laid in 1803. Construction was delayed after the City Council objected that the design was too extravagant, labor disputes and an outbreak of yellow fever further slowed construction. The building was not dedicated until 1811, and opened officially in 1812, the Outer Room is adjacent to the traditional Mayors office, which is a small space on the northwest corner of the first floor. The Ceremonial Room is where the mayor would meet officials and hold small group meetings, there are 108 paintings from the late 18th century through the 20th. The New York Times declared it almost unrivaled as an ensemble, among the collection is John Trumbull’s 1805 portrait of Alexander Hamilton, the source of the face on the United States ten-dollar bill. There were significant efforts to restore the paintings in the 1920s and 1940s, in 2006 a new restoration campaign began for 47 paintings identified by the Art Commission as highest in priority. On July 23,2003 at 2,08 p. m, City Hall was the scene of a rare political assassination. Othniel Askew, a rival of City Councilman James E. Davis. Askew shot Davis twice, fatally wounding him, a police officer on the floor of the chamber then fatally shot Askew. Askew and Davis had entered the building together without passing through a metal detector, as a result of the security breach, then-Mayor Michael Bloomberg revised security policy to require that everyone entering the building pass through metal detectors without exception
6.
Canal Street (Manhattan)
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It runs through the neighborhood of Chinatown, and forms the southern boundaries of SoHo and Little Italy as well as the northern boundary of Tribeca. The street acts as a connector between Jersey City, New Jersey, via the Holland Tunnel, and Brooklyn, New York City. It is a street for most of its length – from West Street to the Manhattan Bridge – with two unidirectional stretches between Forsyth Street and the Manhattan Bridge. To deal with this, the citys Common Council ordered that the swamps be drained and, in 1803, a drain was built continuing the path of the sluggish stream to the Hudson River, which redirected the underground springs which watered the swamps. The pond was drained by 1813 or 1815. The area was developed, but the springs remained and caused the dry land to be boggy, the Common Council then authorized a canal, in the form of a 40-foot wide, 8-foot deep ditch, which would continue carrying off the excess water. Because it was not efficient, and did not have sufficient flow, it, too, the city covered it over in 1819, but as it had no air traps, the covered canal became a stinking covered sewer. Canal Street was completed in 1820, following the path of the covered canal, early in the 20th century, the jewelry trade centered on the corner of Canal Street and Bowery, but moved mid century to the modern Diamond District on 47th Street. In the 1920s, the Citizens Savings Bank built a notable domed headquarters at the intersections southwest corner which remains a local landmark. The portion of Canal Street around Sixth Avenue was New Yorks principal market for parts for a quarter-century after the closing of Radio Row for the building of the World Trade Center. Canal Street is a commercial district, crowded with comparatively low-rent open storefronts. For a generation after World War II, the segment hosted many stores selling exotic high-tech components to would-be inventors and engineers. Canal Street is also the main Chinese jewelry business district of Chinatown, tourists as well as locals pack its sidewalks every day to frequent the open-air stalls and bare-bones stores selling items such as perfume, purses, hardware, and industrial plastics at low prices. Many of these goods are grey market imports and many notoriously counterfeit, with fake trademarked brand names on electronics, clothing, widespread sale of these counterfeit goods persists along Canal Street and in its hidden back rooms despite frequent police raids. In addition, legislation was proposed in 2013 to try to make purchasing counterfeit items a crime, routes intersecting with the street include M20 at Hudson Street and at Varick Street, M5 at Sixth Avenue and Broadway, M103 at Bowery, M15 at Allen Street, and M9. New York City portal Notes Canal Street Map Canal Street Storefronts – photographs of buildings, Canal Street Panoramic Video Tour – Kogetos Dotspot immersive, panoramic video of a walking tour captured on an iPhone. Canal Street, A New York Songline – a virtual walking tour
7.
Chinatown, Manhattan
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Manhattans Chinatown is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City, bordering the Lower East Side to its east, Little Italy to its north, Civic Center to its south, and Tribeca to its west. Chinatown is home to the largest enclave of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with an estimated population of 90,000 to 100,000 people, Manhattans Chinatown is also one of the oldest Chinese ethnic enclaves. Historically it was populated by Cantonese speakers. However, in the 1980s-90s, large numbers of Fuzhounese-speaking immigrants also arrived, a new and rapidly growing Chinese community is now forming in East Harlem, Uptown Manhattan, nearly tripling in population between the years 2000 and 2010, according to U. S. Census figures. After the City of New York itself, the boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn encompass the largest Chinese populations, respectively, Ah Ken is claimed to have arrived in the area during the 1840s, he is the first Chinese person credited as having permanently immigrated to Chinatown. As a Cantonese businessman, Ah Ken eventually founded a cigar store on Park Row. It has been speculated that it may have been Ah Ken who kept a boarding house on lower Mott Street. It was with the profits he earned as a landlord, earning an average of $100 a month, faced with increasing racial discrimination and new laws that prevented participation in many occupations on the U. S. West Coast, some Chinese immigrants moved to the East Coast cities in search of employment, early businesses in these cities included hand laundries and restaurants. Chinatown started on Mott, Park, Pell, and Doyers Streets, by 1870, there was a Chinese population of 200. By the time the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed, in 1900, the US Census reported 7,028 Chinese males in residence, but only 142 Chinese women. This significant gender inequality remained present until the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943, wenfei Wang, Shangyi Zhou, and C. Cindy Fan, authors of Growth and Decline of Muslim Hui Enclaves in Beijing, wrote that because of immigration restrictions, Chinatown continued to be virtually a bachelor society until 1965. The early days of Chinatown were dominated by Chinese tongs, which were a mixture of clan associations, landsmans associations, political alliances, the associations started to give protection from harassment due to anti-Chinese sentiment. Each of these associations was aligned with a street gang, the associations were a source of assistance to new immigrants, giving out loans, aiding in starting businesses, and so forth. The associations formed a body named the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association. Though this body was meant to foster relations between the Tongs, open warfare periodically flared between the On Leong and Hip Sing tongs, much of the Chinese gang warfare took place on Doyers street. Gangs like the Ghost Shadows and Flying Dragons were prevalent until the 1990s, the Chinese gangs controlled certain territories of Manhattans Chinatown
8.
Tribeca
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Tribeca /traɪˈbɛkə/, originally written as TriBeCa, is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Its name is an abbreviation from Triangle Below Canal Street. The triangle, or more accurately, a trapezoid, is bounded by Canal Street, West Street, Broadway, the neighborhood is home to the Tribeca Film Festival. The Tribeca name came to be applied to the south of Canal Street. Lispenard Street, east–west as is Canal, is two blocks long and creates the first block south of Canal from West Broadway to Broadway. The Canal–Lispenard block that runs from Church Street to Broadway is wide at Church Street but is narrower at Broadway, thus, it appears somewhat triangular on City maps, unlike a rectangle as most city blocks are depicted. The Lispenard Street residents decided to name their group the Triangle Below Canal Block Association, once the “newspaper of record” began referring to the neighborhood as Tribeca, it stuck. This was related by former resident and councilmember for the area, Kathryn Freed, the area was among the first residential neighborhoods developed in New York beyond the boundaries of the city during colonial times, with residential development beginning in the late 18th century. Several streets in the area are named after Anthony Lispenard Bleecker, Lispenard Street, as well as Bleecker Street in NoHo, are named for similar reasons. By the mid-19th century the area transformed into a center, with large numbers of store. The area was served by the IRT Ninth Avenue Line. However, by the 1960s, Tribecas industrial base had all but vanished, since the 1980s, large scale conversion of the area has transformed Tribeca into an upscale residential area. For 15 years, the annual walking tour through artist studios in Tribeca has allowed people to get a unique glimpse into the lives of Tribecas best creative talent. Tribeca suffered both physically and financially after the September 11,2001 terrorist attacks, but government grants, the Tribeca Film Festival was established to help contribute to the long-term recovery of lower Manhattan after 9/11. The festival also celebrates New York City as a filmmaking center. The mission of the festival is to enable the international film community. Tribeca is a filming location for movies and television shows. By the early 21st century, Tribeca became one of Manhattans most fashionable and desirable neighborhoods, in 2006, Forbes magazine ranked its 10013 zip code as New York Citys most expensive
9.
Tammany Hall
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The Tammany Society emerged as the center for Democratic-Republican Party politics in the city in the early 19th century. After 1854, the Society expanded its control even further by earning the loyalty of the citys rapidly expanding immigrant community. By 1872 Tammany had an Irish Catholic boss, and in 1928 a Tammany hero, New York Governor Al Smith, however, Tammany Hall also served as an engine for graft and political corruption, perhaps most infamously under William M. Boss Tweed in the mid-19th century. By the 1880s, Tammany was building local clubs that appealed to activists from the ethnic middle-class. Charles Murphy was the effective but quiet boss of Tammany from 1902–1924. Big Tim Sullivan was the Tammany leader in the Bowery, in the early twentieth century Murphy and Sullivan promoted Tammany as a reformed agency dedicated to the interests of the working class. The new image deflected attacks and built up a following among the emerging ethnic middle-class, in the process Robert F. Wagner became a powerful United States Senator, and Al Smith served multiple terms as governor and was the Democratic presidential candidate in 1928. Tammany Halls influence waned from 1930 to 1945 when it engaged in a battle with Franklin D. Roosevelt, the states governor. In 1932, Mayor Jimmy Walker was forced from office when his bribery was exposed, Roosevelt stripped Tammany of federal patronage. Republican Fiorello La Guardia was elected mayor on a Fusion ticket, by the mid-1960s Tammany Hall ceased to exist. The society was developed as a club for pure Americans. The name Tammany comes from Tamanend, a Native American leader of the Lenape, the society adopted many Native American words and also their customs, going so far as to call its hall a wigwam. The first Grand Sachem, as the leader was titled, was William Mooney, by 1798, the societys activities had grown increasingly political. High ranking Democratic-Republican Aaron Burr saw Tammany Hall as an opportunity to counter Alexander Hamiltons Society of the Cincinnati, eventually Tammany emerged as the center of Democratic-Republican Party politics in the city. Burr used Tammany Hall influence in the election of 1800, in which he was elected Vice President of the United States, many historians believe that without Tammany, President John Adams might have won New York States electoral votes and won reelection. Early cases of corruption involving Tammany Hall came to light during the groups feud with local politician Dewitt Clinton. The feud began in 1802 after Clinton accused Aaron Burr of being a traitor to the Democratic-Republican Party, Clintons uncle, George Clinton was jealous of Burrs achievements and positions. However George was too old to compete with young Aaron Burr, in 1803, Clinton left the United States Senate and became Mayor of New York City
10.
Bar
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Some types of bars, such as pubs, may also serve food from a restaurant menu. The term bar also refers to the countertop and area where drinks are served, bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. Bars that offer entertainment or live music are often referred to as music bars, live venues, types of bars range from inexpensive dive bars to elegant places of entertainment often accompanying restaurants for dining. Many bars have a discount period, designated a happy hour to encourage off-peak-time patronage, bars that fill to capacity sometimes implement a cover charge or a minimum drink purchase requirement during their peak hours. Bars may have bouncers to ensure patrons are of age, to eject drunk or belligerent patrons. Such bars often feature entertainment, which may be a band, vocalist, comedian. The term bar is derived from the counter on which drinks are served. Patrons may sit or stand at the bar and be served by the bartender, depending on the size of a bar and its approach, alcohol may be served at the bar by bartenders, at tables by servers, or by a combination of the two. The back bar is a set of shelves of glasses and bottles behind that counter, in some establishments, the back bar is elaborately decorated with woodwork, etched glass, mirrors, and lights. There have been different names for public drinking spaces throughout history. In the colonial era of the United States taverns were an important meeting place, during the 19th century saloons were very important to the leisure time of the working class. Today, even when an establishment uses a different name, such as tavern or saloon, the sale and/or consumption of alcoholic beverages was prohibited in the first half of the 20th century in several countries, including Finland, Iceland, Norway, and the United States. In the United States, illegal bars during Prohibition were called speakeasies, blind pigs, laws in many jurisdictions prohibit minors from entering a bar. If those under legal drinking age are allowed to enter, as is the case with pubs that serve food, in some jurisdictions, bars cannot serve a patron who is already intoxicated. Cities and towns usually have restrictions on where bars may be located. Some bars may have a license to serve beer and wine, in some jurisdictions, patrons buying alcohol must also order food. In some jurisdictions, bar owners have a liability for the conduct of patrons who they serve. A bars owners and managers choose the name, décor, drink menu, lighting
11.
Bronze
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These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
12.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
