1.
Troubadour
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A troubadour was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages. Since the word troubadour is etymologically masculine, a female troubadour is usually called a trobairitz, the troubadour school or tradition began in the late 11th century in Occitania, but it subsequently spread into Italy and Spain. Under the influence of the troubadours, related movements sprang up throughout Europe, the Minnesang in Germany, trovadorismo in Galicia and Portugal, dante Alighieri in his De vulgari eloquentia defined the troubadour lyric as fictio rethorica musicaque poita, rhetorical, musical, and poetical fiction. The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry, most were metaphysical, intellectual, and formulaic. Many were humorous or vulgar satires, works can be grouped into three styles, the trobar leu, trobar ric, and trobar clus. The oldest mention of the word troubadour as trobadors is found in a 12th-century Occitan text by Cercamon. The English word troubadour is a rendition from a French word first recorded in 1575 in an historical context to mean langue doc poet at the court in the 12th and 13th century. The French word is borrowed itself from the Occitan word trobador and this recreated form is deduced from the Latin root tropus, meaning a trope and the various meanings of the Old Occitan related words. In turn, the Latin word derives ultimately from Greek τρόπος, meaning turn, B Intervocal Latin shifted regularly to in Occitan. The Latin suffix -ātor, -atōris explains the Occitan suffix, according to its declension and accentuation, Gallo-Romance *TROPĀTOR > Occitan trobaire, there is an alternative theory to explain the meaning of trobar as “to compose, to discuss, to invent. It has the support of some historians, specialists of literature, According to them, the Arabic word ṭaraba “song could partly be the etymon of the verb trobar. Another Arabic root had already been proposed before, Ḍ-R-B “strike and they entertain the possibility that the nearly homophonous Ḍ-R-B root may have contributed to the sense of the newly coined Romance verb trobar. In archaic and classical poetry, the word is only used in a mocking sense. Cercamon writes, Ist trobador, entre ver e mentir, Afollon drutz e molhers et espos, Peire dAlvernha also begins his famous mockery of contemporary authors cantarai daquest trobadors, after which he proceeds to explain why none of them is worth anything. When referring to themselves seriously, troubadours almost invariably use the word chantaire, the early study of the troubadours focused intensely on their origins. No academic consensus was achieved in the area. In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or completely recopied in Williams manuscript, trend admitted that the troubadours derived their sense of form and even the subject matter of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims. Meg Bogin, American translator of the trobairitz, held this hypothesis, to such a strong and multi-faceted tradition of love literature and song nearby must be added the presence of the Toledo School of Translators starting in 1126
2.
Catharism
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Catharism was a Christian dualist or Gnostic revival movement that thrived in some areas of Southern Europe, particularly northern Italy and southern France, between the 12th and 14th centuries. The followers were known as Cathars and are now remembered for a prolonged period of persecution by the Catholic church which did not recognise their belief as truly Christian. It appeared in Europe in the Languedoc region of France in the 11th century, the beliefs are believed to have been brought from Persia or the Byzantine Empire. Cathar beliefs varied between communities, because Catharism was initially taught by ascetic priests who had set few guidelines, the Catholic Church denounced its practices including the Consolamentum ritual, by which Cathar individuals were baptized and raised to the status of perfect. Though the term Cathar has been used for centuries to identify the movement, in Cathar texts, the terms Good Men or Good Christians are the common terms of self-identification. The idea of two Gods or principles, one being good and the evil, was central to Cathar beliefs. All visible matter, including the body, was created by this evil god. This was the antithesis to the monotheistic Catholic Church, whose principle was that there was only one God. From the beginning of his reign, Pope Innocent III attempted to end Catharism by sending missionaries and by persuading the local authorities to act against them. In 1208 Innocents papal legate Pierre de Castelnau was murdered while returning to Rome after excommunicating Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, who, in his view, was too lenient with the Cathars. Pope Innocent III then abandoned the option of sending Catholic missionaries and jurists, declared Pierre de Castelnau a martyr and launched the Albigensian Crusade which all but ended Catharism. The origins of the Cathars beliefs are unclear, but most theories agree they came from the Byzantine Empire, mostly by the trade routes and spread from the First Bulgarian Empire to the Netherlands. The name of Bulgarians was also applied to the Albigensians, and that there was a substantial transmission of ritual and ideas from Bogomilism to Catharism is beyond reasonable doubt. St John Damascene, writing in the 8th century AD, also notes of a sect called the Cathari, in his book On Heresies. He says of them, They absolutely reject those who marry a second time, conclusions about Cathar ideology continue to be fiercely debated with commentators regularly accusing their opponents of speculation, distortion and bias. There are a few texts from the Cathars themselves which were preserved by their opponents which give a glimpse of the workings of their faith. One large text which has survived, The Book of Two Principles, elaborates the principles of theology from the point of view of some of the Albanenses Cathars. Cathars, in general, formed a party in opposition to the Catholic Church
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Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toulouse
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The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toulouse is an archdiocese of the Roman Catholic Church in France. The diocese comprises the Department of Haute-Garonne and its see is Toulouse Cathedral, in the city of Toulouse, and the current archbishop is Robert Jean Louis Le Gall, appointed in 2006 and translated from the Diocese of Mende. Toulouse, chief town of the Tectosagi, at the end of the second century B. C, in the fourth century it was reckoned the fifteenth town in importance in the empire. In 413 it was taken by Astulph, the Goth, in 508 after conquest by Clovis it became Frankish. The Passio Sancti Saturnini corroborates this date as that of his incumbency, subsequent tradition claims that he was a disciple of St. Peter. St. Papoul was his companion and like him a martyr, St. Honoratus, given in some lists as St. Firminus of Amiens. Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, known as Raymond de Saint Gilles, was one of the leaders of the First Crusade, Raymond VI and Raymond VII, Counts of Toulouse, had leanings towards the Cathars. Louis had resigned to his brother Robert all rights over the Kingdom of Naples and his successor was Peter de la Chapelle Taillefer who was created cardinal in 1305. To this epoch belongs a change took place in the history of the Diocese of Toulouse. It decreased in size but increased in dignity, before 1295 the Diocese of Toulouse was very extensive. At the beginning of the thirteenth century Bishop Fulk had wished to divide it into several dioceses, in 1295 a portion of territory was cut off by Boniface VIII to form the Diocese of Pamiers. The majority of these sees were composed of cut off from the ancient See of Toulouse itself. Pope John XXII offered the See of Riez in Provence to Gaillard de Preyssac, Bishop of Toulouse since 1305, Gaillard refused the offer, and retired to Avignon where he died in 1327. He left a book on the Passion of the Saviour, protestantism entered Toulouse in 1532 through foreign students. As early as 1563 the Catholics of Toulouse founded a league to uphold the prerogatives of Catholicism, protected by the Parlement, from 1586 to 1595 the League party under Montmorency, Governor of Languedoc, and the Duc de Joyeuse held control in Toulouse. The rule of Henry IV of France was definitively recognized there in 1596, Catholic Church in France Centre national des Archives de lÉglise de France, L’Épiscopat francais depuis 1919, retrieved, 2016-12-24. Source This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
4.
Richard I of England
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Richard I was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Aquitaine and Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Poitiers, Anjou, Maine, and Nantes and he was the third of five sons of King Henry II of England and Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was known as Richard Cœur de Lion or Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a military leader. He was also known in Occitan as Oc e No, because of his reputation for terseness, by the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father. Richard spoke both French and Occitan and he was born in England, where he spent his childhood, before becoming king, however, he lived most of his adult life in the Duchy of Aquitaine, in the southwest of France. Following his accession, he spent very little time, perhaps as little as six months, most of his life as king was spent on Crusade, in captivity, or actively defending his lands in France. Rather than regarding his kingdom as a responsibility requiring his presence as ruler, nevertheless, he was seen as a pious hero by his subjects. He remains one of the few kings of England remembered by his epithet, rather than regnal number, Richard was born on 8 September 1157, probably at Beaumont Palace, in Oxford, England, son of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was a brother of Count William IX of Poitiers, Henry the Young King. As the third son of King Henry II, he was not expected to ascend the throne. He was also a brother of Duke Geoffrey II of Brittany, Queen Eleanor of Castile, Queen Joan of Sicily, and Count John of Mortain. Richard was the younger maternal half-brother of Countess Marie of Champagne, the eldest son of Henry II and Eleanor, William, died in 1156, before Richards birth. Richard is often depicted as having been the son of his mother. His father was Angevin-Norman and great-grandson of William the Conqueror, contemporary historian Ralph of Diceto traced his familys lineage through Matilda of Scotland to the Anglo-Saxon kings of England and Alfred the Great, and from there linked them to Noah and Woden. According to Angevin legend, there was even infernal blood in the family, while his father visited his lands from Scotland to France, Richard probably spent his childhood in England. His first recorded visit to the European continent was in May 1165 and his wet nurse was Hodierna of St Albans, whom he gave a generous pension after he became king. Little is known about Richards education, during his captivity, English prejudice against foreigners was used in a calculated way by his brother John to help destroy the authority of Richards chancellor, William Longchamp, who was a Norman. One of the charges laid against Longchamp, by Johns supporter Hugh
5.
Raymond V of Toulouse
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Raymond V was Count of Toulouse from 1148 until his death in 1194. He was the son of Alphonse I of Toulouse, when Alphonse died in the Holy Land in 1148, the county of Toulouse passed to his son Raymond, then aged 14. He permitted the first assembly of townsmen in Toulouse, the origin of the later capitouls, calling themselves Good Men, this group held beliefs similar to those of Henry of Lausanne and Peter of Bruys as well as indicating Cathar influence. They further challenged the jurisdiction of the bishop, in 1178 Raymond requested assistance from the Cistercians to combat heresy in his dominions. Wakefield suggests that being under pressure on his western border from Alfonso II of Aragon, a joint legatine and royal commission arrived in Toulouse charged with authority to preach, investigate, and condemn. In 1153/6, Raymond married Constance of France, daughter of king Louis VI of France by his second wife Adélaide de Maurienne, Constance was the widow of Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne. Because Raymond was related to her within prohibited degrees, they were separated by ecclesiastical authority in 1165, Raymond also had an illegitimate daughter, Indie, who married firstly Guilabert de Lautrec, and secondly Bernard de LIsle-Jourdain, and had issue
6.
Raymond-Roger, Count of Foix
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Raimond Roger was the fifth count of Foix from the House of Foix. He was the son and successor of Roger Bernard I and his wife Cécilia Trencavel, overcome and captured, the count of Foix and Arnaud were imprisoned from February to September 1203. King Peter II of Aragón intervened, however, wishing to spare them for his fight to conquer Languedoc, moreover, Peter II gave as a fief the castles of Trenton and Quérigut to Raimond-Roger, after having already given various other Catalan seigniories. Raimond Roger was a relative of Raymond VI of Toulouse. He was famed for his generalship, chivalry, fidelity, and he was, besides a patron of troubadours, an author of verse himself. Though not a Cathar himself, several of his relatives were and his wife, Philippa of Montcada, even became a parfaite. His sister, Esclarmonde de Foix, was also a parfaite, raimond Roger was a great orator, and attended the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 to defend Raymond of Toulouse before Innocent III and the council. He himself was accused of having murdered priests and did not deny it and he had with Philippa of Montcada, Roger Bernard who became his heir. Cécile de Foix, who married Count Bernard V of Comminges and he also had two illegitimate children. The Cathars, Dualist Heretics in Languedoc in the High Middle Ages, the Chronicle of William of Puylaurens, The Albigensian Crusade and its Aftermath
7.
Alfonso II of Aragon
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Alfonso II, called the Chaste or the Troubadour, was the King of Aragon and, as Alfons I, the Count of Barcelona from 1164 until his death. The eldest son of Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona and Queen Petronilla of Aragon and he was also Count of Provence, which he conquered from Douce II, from 1166 until 1173, when he ceded it to his brother, Ramon Berenguer III. Born at Huesca, Alfonso, called indistinctly from birth Alfonso and Ramon, ascended the throne of Aragon and Barcelona as Alfonso, in deference to the Aragonese. For most of his reign he was allied with Alfonso VIII of Castile, in his Reconquista effort Alfonso pushed as far as Teruel, conquering this important stronghold on the road to Valencia in 1171. The same year saw him capturing Caspe, apart from common interests, kings of Aragon and Castile were united by a formal bond of vassalage the former owed to the latter. Besides, on January 18,1174, in Zaragoza Alfonso married Sancha, another milestone in this alliance was the Treaty of Cazorla between the two kings in 1179, delineating zones of conquest in the south along the watershed of the rivers Júcar and Segura. Southern areas of Valencia including Denia were thus secured to Aragon, Alfonso also reached an agreement, the Treaty of Sangüesa, with Sancho VI of Navarre dividing the territory of the Taifa of Murcia between them. During his reign Aragonese influence north of the Pyrenees reached its zenith and his realms incorporated not only Provence, but also the counties of Cerdanya and Roussillon. Béarn and Bigorre paid homage to him in 1187, Alfonso II provided the first land grant to the Cistercian monks on the banks of the Ebro River in the Aragon region, which would become the site of the first Cistercian monastery in this region. He died at Perpignan in 1196 and he was a noted poet of his time and a close friend of King Richard the Lionheart. The debate had begun by Guilhem de Saint-Leidier and was taken up by Azalais de Porcairagues and Raimbaut of Orange. Wife, Sancha of Castile, daughter of king Alfonso VII of Castile, b.1155 or 1157, d.1208 Peter II, King of Aragon, constance, married firstly King Imre of Hungary and secondly Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. Alfonso II, Count of Provence, Millau and Razès, eleanor, married Count Raymond VI of Toulouse. Sancha, married Count Raymond VII of Toulouse, in March 1211 Ferdinand, cistercian monk, Abbot of Montearagón
8.
Vida (Occitan literary form)
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Vida is the usual term for a brief prose biography, written in Old Occitan, of a troubadour or trobairitz. The word vida means life in Occitan languages, they are short biographies of the troubadours. Most often, they are not based on independent sources, most of the vidas were composed in Italy, many by Uc de Saint Circ. Additionally, some poems are accompanied by razos, explanations of the circumstances in which the poem was composed. There is a collection of vidas, with French translation and commentary, by Boutière. Biographies des troubadours, edd. and trans, there is a complete collection of English translations available as part of the Garland Library of Medieval Literature, Series B, translated by Margarita Egan. The Vidas of the Troubadours, ed. and trans
9.
Cistercians
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A Cistercian is a member of the Cistercian Order (/sɪˈstɜːrʃən/, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist, a religious order of monks and nuns. They are variously called the Bernardines, after the highly influential St, the original emphasis of Cistercian life was on manual labour and self-sufficiency, and many abbeys have traditionally supported themselves through activities such as agriculture and brewing ales. Over the centuries, however, education and academic pursuits came to dominate the life of their monasteries, after that the followers of the older pattern of life became known as the Cistercians of the Original Observance. The term Cistercian, derives from Cistercium, the Latin name for the village of Cîteaux and it was in this village that a group of Benedictine monks from the monastery of Molesme founded Cîteaux Abbey in 1098, with the goal of following more closely the Rule of Saint Benedict. The best known of them were Robert of Molesme, Alberic of Cîteaux and the English monk Stephen Harding, Bernard of Clairvaux entered the monastery in the early 1110s with 30 companions and helped the rapid proliferation of the order. By the end of the 12th century, the order had spread throughout France and into England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the keynote of Cistercian life was a return to literal observance of the Rule of St Benedict. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, especially field-work, Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture. Additionally, in relation to such as agriculture, hydraulic engineering and metallurgy. The monastery church of Cluny Abbey, the largest in Europe, had become wealthy from rents, tithes, feudal rights and pilgrims who passed through Cluniac houses on the Way of St. James. On March 21,1098, Roberts small group acquired a plot of marshland just south of Dijon called Cîteaux, during the first year, the monks set about constructing lodging areas and farming the lands of Cîteaux, making use of a nearby chapel for Mass. In Roberts absence from Molesme, however, the abbey had gone into decline, and Pope Urban II, the remaining monks of Cîteaux elected Alberic as their abbot, under whose leadership the abbey would find its grounding. Robert had been the idealist of the order, and Alberic was their builder, upon assuming the role of abbot, Alberic moved the site of the fledgling community near a brook a short distance away from the original site. Alberic discontinued the use of Benedictine black garments in the abbey and he returned the community to the original Benedictine ideal of manual work and prayer, dedicated to the ideal of charity and self sustenance. Alberic also forged an alliance with the Dukes of Burgundy, working out a deal with Duke Odo of Burgundy concerning the donation of a vineyard as well as stones with which they built their church. The church was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary on November 16,1106, on January 26,1108, Alberic died and was soon succeeded by Stephen Harding, the man responsible for carrying the order into its crucial phase. The order was fortunate that Stephen was an abbot of extraordinary gifts, and he framed the original version of the Cistercian Constitution or regulations, the Carta caritatis. Although this was revised on several occasions to meet needs, from the outset it emphasised a simple life of work, love, prayer. Cistercian abbeys also refused to admit children, allowing adults to choose their religious vocation for themselves – a practice later emulated by many of the older Benedictine houses
10.
Le Thoronet Abbey
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Le Thoronet Abbey is a former Cistercian abbey built in the late twelfth and early thirteenth century, now restored as a museum. It is sited between the towns of Draguignan and Brignoles in the Var Department of Provence, in southeast France and it is one of the three Cistercian abbeys in Provence, along with the Sénanque Abbey and Silvacane, that together are known as the Three Sisters of Provence. Le Thoronet Abbey is one of the best examples of the spirit of the Cistercian order. Even the acoustics of the church imposed a certain discipline upon the monks, because of the walls, which created a long echo. 1098 - Founding of the first Cistercian monastery at Cîteaux, near Dijon, in Burgundy,1136 - A group of Cistercian monks from the Abbey of Mazan, a granddaughter of the monastery at Citeaux, found a new monastery called Notre-dame-des-Floriéges, in the Var region. 1140 - Raimond and Etienne des Baux donate land for a new monastery in a mountain valley 45 kilometers northwest of Fréjus. About 1157 The monks move from Floriéges to Le Thoronet about 1176 to 1200 Construction of the monastery 1176 - Alphonse I,1199 - the troubadour Folquet de Marseille becomes Abbot of Le Thoronet. 1785 - The Abbey is declared bankrupt and secularized,1791 A sale of Abbey property is announced -1840 Thoronet Abbey is one of the first buildings in France to be classified an historical monument. 1841 - Restoration of the monastery begins,1854 - the French Government purchases the cloister and monks quarters. 1938 - the rest of the monastery is purchased by the French Government, in 1098 Robert de Molesme founded a new monastery at Cîteaux in Burgundy, as a reaction to what he saw as the excessive luxury and decoration of Benedictine monasteries, under the direction of Cluny. Under Bernard of Clairvaux, the Cistercian Order began a rapid expansion, by the time of his death in 1154, there were 280 Cistercian monasteries in France - by the end of the 12th century, over 500. The first Cistercian community in Provence had settled at Notre-Dame de Florielle, where they had been given land by the local lords of Castellane. The first site apparently was not satisfactory for their system of agriculture, so in about 1157 they moved twenty-five kilometers south, the new site had the advantages of more fertile lands, several streams and a spring. It is not known exactly when the monastery was built, but work was underway in 1176. The entire monastery was built at once, which explain its unusual architectural unity. The church was built first, at the end of the 12th century. The first known abbot of le Thoronet was Folquet de Marseille, born about 1150 into a family of Genoese merchants, he had a remarkable career, first as a troubadour, a composer and singer of secular love songs, who was famous throughout medieval Europe. In 1195 he left his career and became a monk, then abbot, then, in 1205
11.
Waldensians
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The Waldensians are a Christian movement founded by Peter Waldo circa 1173. The Waldensian movement first appeared in Lyon in the late 1170s, today, the Waldensian movement is centered on Piedmont in northern Italy, while small communities are also found in southern Italy, Argentina, Brazil, Germany, the United States, and Uruguay. Waldensian teachings quickly came into conflict with the Catholic Church, in the sixteenth century, Waldensian leaders embraced the Protestant Reformation and joined various local Protestant regional entities. Modern Waldensians share core tenets with Calvinists, including the priesthood of all believers, congregational polity, and they are members of the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe and its affiliates worldwide. The main denomination within the movement was the Waldensian Evangelical Church, in 1975, it merged with the Methodist Evangelical Church to form the Union of Methodist and Waldensian Churches—a majority Waldensian church, with a minority of Methodists. Congregations continue to be active in Europe, South America, there are also the two reports written for the Inquisition by Reinerius Saccho, a former Cathar who converted to Catholicism, published together in 1254 as Summa de Catharis et Pauperibus de Lugduno. Waldensians held and preached a number of truths as they read from the Bible and they were accused, moreover, of having scoffed at the doctrine of transubstantiation, and of having spoken blasphemously of the Roman Catholic Church as the harlot of the Apocalypse. They rejected what they perceived as the idolatry of the Roman Catholic Church, the La nobla leyczon, written in the Occitan language, gives a sample of the medieval Waldensian belief. According to legend, Waldo renounced his wealth as an encumbrance to preaching, because of the shunning of the wealth of the Roman Catholic Church clergy, the movement was early known as The Poor of Lyon and The Poor of Lombardy. The Waldensian movement was characterized from the beginning by lay preaching, voluntary poverty, between 1175 and 1185, Peter Waldo either commissioned a cleric from Lyons to translate the New Testament into the vernacular—the Arpitan language—or was himself involved in this translation work. In 1179, Waldo and one of his disciples went to Rome, where Pope Alexander III, the Waldensians proceeded to disobey the Third Lateran Council and continued to preach according to their own understanding of the Scriptures. By the early 1180s, Waldo and his followers were excommunicated and forced from Lyon, the Roman Catholic Church declared them heretics, stating that the groups principal error was contempt for ecclesiastical power. Rome also accused the Waldensians of teaching innumerable errors, Waldo and his followers developed a system whereby they would go from town to town and meet secretly with small groups of Waldensians. There they would confess sins and hold service, a traveling Waldensian preacher was known as a barba. The group would shelter and house the barba and help make arrangements to move on to the town in secret. Waldo possibly died in the early 13th century, possibly in Germany, he was never captured, some historians feel their beliefs came from missionaries from the early church and their history is founded perhaps in the apostolic age. Though this idea itself stems from Baptist Successionism, an idea that was very popular among some 19th century Church historians, but has been largely discredited by modern scholars in the field. The Roman Inquisitor Reinerus Sacho writing c.1230 held the sect of the Vaudois to be of great antiquity, in the Waldensians, Sabbatati or Insabbatati, there was a more or less continuous tradition of Sabbath-keeping from the early church of the Apostles, throughout southern Europe
12.
Notre-Dame-de-Prouille Monastery
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The Monastery of Notre-Dame-de-Prouille or Prouilhe, is the cradle of the Dominicans, where the first Dominican house, a monastery of nuns, was founded in late 1206 or early 1207. It is located in a hamlet in Languedoc, France, lying between Fanjeaux and Bram, at the point where the road from Castelnaudary to Limoux crosses the road from Bram to Mirepoix. In the early 13th century, Prouille was a decayed village, Diego de Acebo, Bishop of Osma, and his canon, Dominic Gúzman, established themselves at Prouille, deep in Cathar country, in late 1206. Bishop Foulques of Toulouse allowed them to use the church, and, more important, Guillaume and Raymonde Claret of Prouille gave themselves, in 1211 Foulques gave the revenues of Prouille itself, part of his own income as bishop, to the house. The most generous donor was Simon IV de Montfort, leader of the Albigensian Crusade, about twelve women, including Raymonde Claret, were the first nuns of Prouille, living under the Rule of St. The house was governed, however, by men, initially Dominic himself — the first procurator or prior —, Dominic was succeeded as prior by Brother Noel and then by Guillaume Claret. Other men lived there too, because the purpose of Prouille was to serve as a base for the itinerant preachers who conducted the work of conversion of the Cathars begun by Diego. As such, the house is sometimes named Sacra Praedicatio, the Sacred Preaching and it has many other names, church, abbey, or the converted ladies living the religious life by the Church of Sainte-Marie of Prouille. Dominic himself placed an importance on the enclosure of women, yet it was not until 1294, many years after his death. From that date onwards its nuns are described in documents as sorores inclusae, the monastery was so thoroughly razed during the French Revolution that only one arch keystone remains. Dominic, inspired by a vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Prouille and our Lady of the Rosary is the title received by the reported Marian apparition to Saint Dominic in 1208 in the Church of Prouille, in which the Virgin Mary gave the rosary to him. Cartulaire de Notre-Dame de Prouille ed, vicaire, Saint Dominic and his times, translated by Kathleen Pond. London, Darton, Longman and Todd,1964, vicaire, La naissance de Sainte-Marie de Prouille in Pierre Mandonnet, Saint Dominique, lidée, lhomme et loeuvre vol.1 pp. 99–114
13.
Saint Dominic
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Saint Dominic, also known as Dominic of Osma and Dominic of Caleruega, often called Dominic de Guzmán and Domingo Félix de Guzmán, was a Castilian priest and founder of the Dominican Order. Dominic is the saint of astronomers. Dominic was born in Caleruega, halfway between Osma and Aranda de Duero in Old Castile, Spain and he was named after Saint Dominic of Silos, who is said to be the patron saint of hopeful mothers. The Benedictine abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos lies a few north of Caleruega. In the earliest narrative source, by Jordan of Saxony, Dominics parents are named Felix Guzman and Juanna of Aza. This story drew resonance from the fact that his order became known, after his name, as the Dominican order, Dominicanus in Latin which a play on words interpreted as Domini canis, Dog of the Lord. Jordan adds that Dominic was brought up by his parents and an uncle who was an archbishop. The failure to name his parents is not unusual, since Jordan wrote a history of the Orders early years, a later source, still of the 13th century, also gives their names as Juana and Felix. Nearly a century after Dominics birth, a local author asserted that Dominics father was vir venerabilis et dives in populo suo. The travel narrative of Pero Tafur, written circa 1439, states that Dominics father belonged to the family de Guzmán, Dominics mother, Jane of Aza, was beatified by Pope Leo XII in 1828. Dominic was educated in the schools of Palencia where he devoted six years to the arts, in 1191, when Spain was desolated by famine, young Dominic gave away his money and sold his clothes, furniture and even precious manuscripts to feed the hungry. Dominic reportedly told his fellow students, Would you have me study off these dead skins. In 1194, around age twenty-five, Dominic joined the Canons Regular in the canonry in the Cathedral of Osma, following the rule of Saint Augustine. In 1203 or 1204 he accompanied Diego de Acebo, the Bishop of Osma, on a mission for Alfonso VIII, King of Castile. The envoys traveled to Denmark via Aragon and the south of France, the marriage negotiations ended successfully, but the princess died before leaving for Castile. However, even Dominic managed only a few converts among the Cathari, in 1215, Dominic established himself, with six followers, in a house given by Peter Seila, a rich resident of Toulouse. He subjected himself and his companions to the rules of prayer and penance. In the same year, the year of the Fourth Lateran Council, Dominic and Foulques went to Rome to secure the approval of the Pope, Innocent III
14.
Dominican Order
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Members of the order, who are referred to as Dominicans, generally carry the letters O. P. after their names, standing for Ordinis Praedicatorum, meaning of the Order of Preachers. Membership in the order includes friars, nuns, active sisters, the order is famed for its intellectual tradition, having produced many leading theologians and philosophers. The Dominican Order is headed by the Master of the Order, in the year 2000, there were 5,171 Dominican friars in solemn vows,917 student brothers, and 237 novices. By the year 2013 there were 6,058 Dominican friars, a number of other names have been used to refer to both the order and its members. In England and other countries the Dominican friars are referred to as Black Friars because of the black cappa or cloak they wear over their white habits, Dominicans were Blackfriars, as opposed to Whitefriars or Greyfriars. They are also distinct from the Augustinian Friars who wear a similar habit and their identification as Dominicans gave rise to the pun that they were the Domini canes, or Hounds of the Lord. The Dominican Order came into being in the Middle Ages at a time when religion began to be contemplated in a new way, men of God were no longer expected to stay behind the walls of a cloister. Instead, they travelled among the people, taking as their examples the apostles of the primitive Church. Out of this emerged two orders of mendicant friars, one, the Friars Minor, was led by Francis of Assisi, the other. Dominics new order was to be an order, trained to preach in the vernacular languages. Rather than earning their living on vast farms as the monasteries had done, at the same time, Dominic inspired the members of his order to develop a mixed spirituality. They were both active in preaching, and contemplative in study, prayer and meditation, the brethren of the Dominican Order were urban and learned, as well as contemplative and mystical in their spirituality. While these traits affected the women of the order, the nuns especially absorbed the latter characteristics, in England, the Dominican nuns blended these elements with the defining characteristics of English Dominican spirituality and created a spirituality and collective personality that set them apart. The orders origins in battling heterodoxy influenced its development and reputation. Many later Dominicans battled heresy as part of their apostolate, indeed, many years after St. Dominic reacted to the Cathars, the first Grand Inquistor of Spain, Tomás de Torquemada, would be drawn from the Dominican Order. As an adolescent, he had a love of theology. During his studies in Palencia, Spain, he experienced a famine, prompting Dominic to sell all of his beloved books. At the age of twenty-four or twenty-five, he was ordained to the priesthood, at that time the south of France was the stronghold of the Cathar or Albigensian heresy, named after the Duke of Albi, a Cathar sympathiser and opponent to the subsequent Albigensian Crusade
15.
Manuscript
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A manuscript is any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some automated way. More recently, it is understood to be a written, typed, or word-processed copy of a work. Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts, manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in form, scrolls or in codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately embossed initial letters or full-page illustrations. The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts, while the forms MS. ms or ms. for singular, and MSS. mss or mss. for plural are also accepted. The second s is not simply the plural, by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means pages. Before the invention of printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls or books, manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchment, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived, in India, the palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, when Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud. Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Roman library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are virtually all lost. Originally, all books were in manuscript form, in China, and later other parts of East Asia, woodblock printing was used for books from about the 7th century. The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868, in the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive, private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late 19th century. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900AD, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus and this type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the document in the hot
16.
Folio
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The term folio, from the Latin folium, has three interconnected but distinct meanings in the world of books and printing. It is firstly a term for a method of arranging sheets of paper into book form, folding the sheet only once. Secondly, it is a term for a sheet, leaf or page in manuscripts and old books, and thirdly, an approximate term for the size of a book. Each leaf of a folio book thus is one half the size of the original sheet, ordinarily, additional printed folio sheets would be inserted inside one another to form a group or gathering of leaves prior to binding the book. Means the first side of the 26th leaf in a book, other common book formats are quarto and octavo, which are both also printing formats, involving two and three folds in the sheet respectively. Famous folios include the Gutenberg Bible, printed in about 1455, each leaf of a folio book thus is one half the size of the original sheet. This contrasts with a quarto, folding each sheet twice, and octavo, there are variations in how folios are produced. For example, bibliographers call a book printed as a folio, but bound in gatherings of 8 leaves each, a folio in 8s. The Gutenberg Bible was printed in about 1455 as a folio, in four pages of text were printed on each sheet of paper. The page size is 12 x 17.5 inches, a folio size. Several such folded conjugate pairs of leaves were inserted inside one another to produce the sections or gatherings, Shakespeares First Folio edition is printed as a folio and has a page height of 12.5 inches, making it a rather small folio size. Folios were a common format of books printed in the period, although the earliest printed book. In the discussion of manuscripts, a means a leaf with two pages, the recto being the first the reader encounters, and the verso the second. When this page is turned over f1 v. is on the left and f2 r. on the right of the opening, in the discussion of two-columned manuscripts, a/b/c/d can denote the left and right-hand columns of recto and verso pages. In the discussion of three-columned manuscripts, notation may make use of folio number + recto/verso + column a/b/c. The actual size of a folio book depends on the size of the sheet of paper on which it was printed. Historically, printers used a range of such as, Double Elephant Folio, Atlas Folio, Elephant Folio, Royal Folio, Medium Folio. From the mid-nineteenth century, technology permitted the manufacture of large sheets or rolls of paper on which books were printed, as a result, it may be impossible to determine the actual format
17.
Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse
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Raymond VI was Count of Toulouse and Marquis of Provence from 1194 to 1222. He was also Count of Melgueil from 1173 to 1190, born at Saint-Gilles, Gard, he was a son of Raymond V and Constance of France. His maternal grandparents were Louis VI of France and his second wife Adélaide de Maurienne and his maternal uncles included Louis VII of France. In 1194 he succeeded his father as count of Toulouse and he immediately re-established peace with both Alfonso II of Aragon and with the Trencavel family. He was married five times,1 and his first wife, Ermessende, Countess of Melgueil, whom he married in 1172, died in 1176 without issue. His second wife was Beatrice of Béziers, sister of Roger II Trencavel, they divorced in 1189 and she was said to have become a Cathar parfaite after the divorce. Raymond and Beatrice had one daughter, Constance of Toulouse, who was married firstly to King Sancho VII of Navarre, in October 1196 at Rouen he married Joan Plantagenet. They had two surviving children, Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse and Joan of Toulouse, second wife of Bernard II de la Tour and his fourth wife was the daughter of Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus. They divorced probably in late 1202, January 1204, in Perpignan, he married his last wife, Eleanor of Aragon, daughter of King Alfonso II of Aragon and Sancha of Castile. Raymond VI held vast territories but his control of them was problematic, aside from theoretically owing allegiance to the King of France, Raymond held Provence as a vassal of the Emperor. Henry II of England controlled neighboring Aquitaine through his wife Eleanor, Alfonso II of Aragon was involved in the affairs of Languedoc, stimulating emigration from the north to colonize newly reconquered lands in Aragon. In Toulouse, Raymond maintained the communal freedoms, extended exemptions from taxation, a poet and a man of culture, he hated war but did not lack energy. At first Innocent III tried to deal with the Cathars by peaceful conversion, the legates sent from Rome and France received little support as they were considered foreign reformers. Papal legate Pierre de Castelnau was sent to address Raymonds tolerance for the practice of the Cathars, pierres assassination on January 15,1208 led to Raymonds excommunication. The excommunication was lifted after Raymond humbled himself before the Pope, more of a diplomat than a soldier, he was unable to stop the advance of Simon de Montfort, who conquered Toulouse. Raymond was exiled to England under his former brother-in-law John Plantagenet, in November 1215 Raymond and his son were in Rome with Raymond-Roger, Count of Foix on the occasion of the Fourth Lateran Council to vindicate themselves and dispute the loss of their territories. Raymonds son-in-law, Pierre-Bermond II of Sauve, was there to lay claim to the county of Toulouse. Raymond and his son went from Rome to Genoa and thence to Marseille in February 1216, Raymonds son set out from Marseille to regain the family territories in Provence, in May 1216 he besieged Beaucaire and captured it on August 24
18.
Lavaur, Tarn
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Lavaur is a commune in the Tarn department in southern France. It lies 37 km southeast of Montauban by rail, lavaur was taken in 1211 by Simon de Montfort during the wars of the Albigenses, a monument marking the site where Dame Giraude de Laurac was killed, being thrown down a well and stoned to death. The town was taken several times during the religious wars of the 16th century. Lavaur stands on the bank of the Agout, which is here crossed by a railway-bridge. A second, smaller square tower contains a jaquemart of the 16th century, in the bishops garden is the statue of Emmanuel, comte de Las Cases, one of the companions of Napoleon at Saint Helena. The town carries on distilling and flour-milling and the manufacture of brushes, plaster, Pierre Fabre, founder of Laboratoires Pierre Fabre There is a subprefecture and a tribunal of first instance. Communes of the Tarn department INSEE
19.
Crusades
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The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, the response to Urbans preaching by people of many different classes across Western Europe established the precedent for later Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the church. Some were hoping for apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God for all their sins, others participated to satisfy feudal obligations, gain glory and honour, or find opportunities for economic and political gain. Many modern Historians have polarised opinions of the Crusaders behaviour under Papal sanction, to some it was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the Crusades, to the extent that on occasions that the Pope excommunicated Crusaders. Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders retained control of captured territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines. During the Peoples Crusade thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres, Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible. These tales consequently galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature, but the Crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. Crusade is not a term, instead the terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the century was specific terminology developed. The Middle English equivalents were derived from old French, croiserie in the 13th–15th centuries, croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to be the leading form till c1760. By convention historians adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095, the Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. Usage of the term Crusade may differ depending on the author, pluralists use the term Crusade of any campaign explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope. This reflects the view of the Roman Catholic Church that every military campaign given Papal sanction is equally valid as a Crusade, regardless of its cause, justification, generalists see Crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence of their faith. Popularists limit the Crusades to only those that were characterised by popular groundswells of religious fervour – that is, only the First Crusade, Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars. The term used in modern Arabic, ḥamalāt ṣalībiyya حملات صليبية, campaigns of the cross, is a loan translation of the term Crusade as used in Western historiography. The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, the resulting unified polity in the seventh and eighth centuries led to a rapid expansion of Arab power. This influence stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and waned
20.
Vaux-de-Cernay Abbey
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Vaux-de-Cernay Abbey was a Cistercian monastery in northern France, situated in Cernay-la-Ville, in the Diocese of Versailles, Yvelines. Vital, Abbot of Savigny, accepted their offer, and sent a group of monks under the direction of Arnaud, besides the founders, others of the nobility came to the aid of the new Savigniac community. As soon as the abbey was established, many postulants were admitted. In 1148 Vaux-de-Cernay, together with the entire Congregation of Savigny, entered the Order of Cîteaux, from this time on they prospered, building a church in the simple Cistercian style. Over time, additional buildings were constructed, as well as a mill, many of its abbots became well known. Andrew, the fourth, died as Bishop of Arras, guy of Vaux-de-Cernay, the sixth, was delegated by the General Chapter to accompany the Fourth Crusade in 1203. Three years later he was one of the figures in the Albigensian Crusade. In recognition of his service he was made Bishop of Carcassonne and is commemorated in the Cistercian Menology and his nephew Peter of Vaux-de-Cernay, also a monk of the abbey, accompanied him on this crusade, and left a chronicle of the Cathars and the war against them. It was under Thomas, Peters successor, that Porrois Abbey, the ninth abbot, Thibault de Marley, a descendant of the Montmorency family, was canonized. Towards the end of the century the monastery began losing its fervour. After the introduction of commendatory abbots in 1542 there was left of the monastic community beyond the name. In the seventeenth century the community was restored in spirit by embracing the Reform of the Strict Observance as promoted by Denis Largentier, during this time the commendatory abbot was John Casimir, King of Poland. The monastery was suppressed in 1791 during the French Revolution and its members were dispersed, today the buildings are used as a hotel with a capacity for 1,200 persons, complete with restaurant and heliport, but still using the nearby spring as the monks did centuries before. Abbé Adam Gallia Christiana, VII, Caspar Jongelinus, Notitia Abbatiarum, O. Cisterciensis, Bertrand Tissier, Bibliotheca Patrum Cisterciensium, VII, Merlet and Moutier, Cartulaire de lAbbaye de N. D. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
21.
Peter II of Aragon
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Peter II the Catholic was the King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona from 1196 to 1213. He was born in Huesca, the son of Alfonso II of Aragon, in 1205 he acknowledged the feudal supremacy of the papacy and was crowned in Rome by Pope Innocent III, swearing to defend the Catholic faith. He was the first king of Aragon to be crowned by the pope, in the first decade of the thirteenth century he commissioned the Liber feudorum Ceritaniae, an illustrated codex cartulary for the counties of Cerdagne, Conflent, and Roussillon. On June 15,1204 he married Marie of Montpellier, daughter and she gave him a son, James, but Peter soon repudiated her. Marie was popularly venerated as a saint for her piety and marital suffering, Marie also perhaps bore Peter II a daughter, Sancha, at Collioure in October,1205 according to Christian Nique. Sancha was betrothed to Raymond VII the son Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, not long after her birth, according to Nique, however the childs younger brother James makes no mention of her and Sancha was apparently dead before the New Year, according to Niques information. He participated in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 which marked the point of Muslim domination in the Iberian peninsula. The Crown of Aragon was widespread in the area that is now southernwestern France, the Cathars or Albigenses rejected the authority and the teachings of the Catholic Church. Innocent called upon Philip Augustus of France to suppress the Albigenses, under the leadership of Simon of Montfort a campaign was launched. The Albigensian Crusade, begun in 1209, led to the slaughter of approximately 20,000 men, women and children, Cathar and he was accompanied by Raymond of Toulouse, who tried to persuade Peter to avoid battle and instead starve out Montforts forces. The Battle of Muret began on September 12,1213, the Aragonese forces were disorganized and disintegrated under the assault of Montforts squadrons. Peter himself was caught in the thick of fighting, and died as a result of an act of bravado. He was thrown to the ground and killed, the Aragonese forces broke in panic when their king was slain and Montforts crusaders won a crushing victory. The nobility of Toulouse, vassals of the Crown of Aragon, were defeated, the conflict culminated in the Treaty of Meaux-Paris in 1229, in which the integration of the Occitan territory into the French crown was agreed upon. Upon Peters death, the passed to his only son by Marie of Montpellier. Martín Alvira-Cabrer,12 de Septiembre de 1213, El Jueves de Muret, la batalla decisiva de la Cruzada contra los Cátaros, Ariel, Barcelona,2008 and 2013. Martín Alvira-Cabrer, Pedro el Católico, Rey de Aragón y Conde de Barcelona, documentos, Testimonios y Memoria Histórica,6 vols. Zaragoza, Institución Fernando el Católico,2010, Nique, Christian, Les deux visages de Marie de Montpellier, Montpellier, Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier
22.
Battle of Muret
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At the Battle of Muret on 12 September 1213 the Crusader army of Simon IV de Montfort defeated the Catharist, Aragonese and Catalan forces of Peter II of Aragon, at Muret near Toulouse. Simon IV de Montfort was the leader of the Albigensian Crusade to destroy the Cathar heresy and he invaded Toulouse and exiled its count, Raymond VI. Count Raymond sought assistance from his brother-in-law, King Peter II of Aragon and he decided to cross the Pyrenees and deal with Montfort at Muret. On 10 September, Peters army arrived at Muret, and was joined by a Toulousain militia and he chose to position his army so their right flank was protected by the Saudrune River, and the left protected by a marsh. He left the Toulousain militia to assault the walls of the city, Simon de Montfort led an army of 1,600 French Crusaders, along with a small contingent of knights brought by his ally, the viscount of Corbeil. Simon de Montforts 900 cavalry included 270 knights, making the small Crusader force of exceptional quality, King Peter of Aragon had brought 800 to 1,000 Aragonese cavalry, joined by a militia from Toulouse and armies brought by the counts of Comminges and Foix. King Peter of Aragons combined forces possibly numbered 4000 cavalry, with 30,000 to 40,000 infantry, Montfort divided his army into three squadrons, and then led them across the Garonne to meet the Aragonese forces. Peters ally and brother-in-law, Count Raymond, advised a defensive posture in order to weaken the enemy with bowshot. Peter rejected this suggestion as unknightly and dishonorable, King Peter rode to the front line, forsaking his royal armour for the plain armour of a common soldier. His army was disorderly and confused, when Montforts first squadron charged the field, the Aragonese cavalry was crushed and Peter himself was unhorsed. He cried out, I am the king, with the realization that their king had been killed, the Aragonese forces broke in panic and fled, pursued by Montforts Crusaders. Montfort then returned to the besieged Muret, the militia from Toulouse renewed their assault on the city. When they saw the Crusader horsemen returning and learned that King Peter of Aragon was killed they broke and they were slaughtered in the rout. This would be the last major battle of the Albigensian crusade, during the battle, St. Dominic prayed the rosary. The victors credited their success to divine intervention, Martín Alvira-Cabrer, El Jueves de Muret. 12 de Septiembre de 1213, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona,2002, ISBN 84-477-0796-2 Martín Alvira-Cabrer, Muret 1213. La batalla decisiva de la Cruzada contra los Cátaros, Ariel, the Albigensian Crusade,2000 William of Puylaurens, Chronica, trans. W. A. Sibly and M. D. Sibly,2003
23.
Papal legate
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A papal legate or Apostolic legate is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters, the legate is appointed directly by the pope. The term legation is applied both to a mandate and to the territory concerned. In the High Middle Ages, papal legates were often used to strengthen the links between Rome and the parts of Christendom. More often than not, legates were learned men and skilled diplomats who were not from the country they were accredited to. The Italian-born Guala Bicchieri served as legate to England in the early 13th century. Papal legates often summoned legatine councils, which dealt with church government, during the Middle Ages, a legatine council was the usual means that a papal legate imposed his directives. There are several ranks of papal legates in diplomacy, some of which are no longer used, a nuncio performs the same functions as an ambassador and has the same diplomatic privileges. Under the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, to which the Holy See is a party and this highest rank is normally awarded to a priest of cardinal rank. It is an investiture and can either be focused or broad in scope. The legate a latere is the ego of the Pope. The legatus natus would act as the representative in his province. Although limited in their jurisdiction compared to legati a latere, a legatus natus were not subordinate to them, literally sent legate, possessing limited powers for the purpose of completing a specific mission. This commission is normally focused in scope and of short duration, some administrative provinces of the Papal states in Italy were governed by a Papal Legate. This has been the case in Benevento, in Pontecorvo and in Viterbo, in four cases, including Bologna, this post was awarded exclusively to Cardinals, the Velletri post was created for Bartolommeo Pacca. The title could be changed to Apostolic Delegate, as happened in Frosinone in 1827, Papal diplomacy Nuncio – an envoy whose diplomatic status is recognized by the receiving state – usually a titular archbishop. Papal apocrisiarius List of papal legates to England Other Pontifical legate Catholic Encyclopedia, Legate WorldStatesmen - Italy to 1860 - Papal State Maseri, de Legatis et Nunciis Apostolicis Iudiciis Ecclesiasticis Civilibus et Criminalibus Oneribusque Civitatum Cameralibus et Communitativis. Commentatio Canoncia de Legatis et Nuntiis Pontificum, die englische Legation des Cardinals Guido Fulcodi, des spaeteren P. Clemens IV
24.
Philip II of France
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Philip II, known as Philip Augustus, was King of France from 1180 to 1223, a member of the House of Capet. Philips predecessors had been known as kings of the Franks, but from 1190 onward, Philip became the first French monarch to style himself king of France. The son of King Louis VII and his wife, Adèle of Champagne, he was originally nicknamed Dieudonné God-given because he was the first son of Louis VII. Philip was given the nickname Augustus by the chronicler Rigord for having extended the Crown lands of France so remarkably, the military actions surrounding the Albigensian Crusade helped prepare the expansion of France southward. Philip did not participate directly in these actions, but he allowed his vassals, Philip transformed France from a small feudal state into the most prosperous and powerful country in Europe. He checked the power of the nobles and helped the towns to free themselves from seigniorial authority and he built a great wall around Paris, re-organized the French government and brought financial stability to his country. Philip was born in Gonesse on 21 August 1165 and he spent much of the following night attempting to find his way out, but to no avail. Exhausted by cold, hunger and fatigue, he was discovered by a peasant carrying a charcoal burner. His father went on pilgrimage to the Shrine of Thomas Becket to pray for Philips recovery and was told that his son had indeed recovered, however, on his way back to Paris, he suffered a stroke. In declining health, Louis VII had his 14-year-old son crowned and anointed as king at Rheims on 1 November 1179 by the Archbishop Guillaume aux Blanches Mains. He was married on 28 April 1180 to Isabelle of Hainaut, the daughter of Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut, and Margaret I, Countess of Flanders, who brought the County of Artois as her dowry. From the time of his coronation, all power was transferred to Philip. Eventually, Louis died on 18 September 1180, while the royal demesne had increased under Philip I and Louis VI, it had diminished slightly under Louis VII. In April 1182, partially to enrich the French crown, Philip expelled all Jews from the demesne, Philips eldest son Louis was born on 5 September 1187 and inherited the County of Artois in 1190, when his mother Isabelle died. The main source of funding for Philips army was from the royal demesne, in times of conflict, he could immediately call up 250 knights,250 horse sergeants,100 mounted crossbowmen,133 crossbowmen on foot,2,000 foot sergeants, and 300 mercenaries. Towards the end of his reign, the king could muster some 3,000 knights,9,000 sergeants,6,000 urban militiamen, using his increased revenues, Philip was the first Capetian king to build a French navy actively. By 1215, his fleet could carry a total of 7,000 men, within two years, his fleet included 10 large ships and many smaller ones. In 1181, Philip began a war with Philip, Count of Flanders, over the Vermandois, which King Philip claimed as his wifes dowry, finally the Count of Flanders invaded France, ravaging the whole district between the Somme and the Oise before penetrating as far as Dammartin
25.
Sens
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Sens is a commune in the Yonne department in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté in north-central France,120 km from Paris. Sens is a sub-prefecture and the city of the department. It is crossed by the Yonne and the Vanne, which empties into the Yonne here, the city is supposed to have been one of the oppida of the Senones, one of the oldest Celtic tribes living in Gaul. It is mentioned as Agedincum by Julius Caesar several times in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, the Roman city was built during the first century BC and surrounded by walls during the third. It still retains today the skeleton of its Roman street plan, during the Middle Ages its archbishops held the prestigious role of primates of Gaul and Germany. The Hôtel de Sens in Paris was their residence in that city. The Archdiocese of Sens ruled over the dioceses of Chartres, Auxerre, Meaux, Paris, Orléans, Nevers, starting from 1135, the cathedral of Sens, dedicated to Saint Stephen, was rebuilt as one of the first Gothic cathedrals. There, in 1234, Louis IX of France celebrated his wedding to Marguerite of Provence, Sens witnessed the trial of Peter Abelard. Pope Alexander III sojourned for some time in the city, the Archdiocese of Sens hosted a number of church councils. Sens experienced troublesome times during the Wars of Religion, the city declined after Paris was elevated to archdiocese in 1622. He lived, probably in Sens, in the thirteenth century, samo, Frankish merchant and later king of the 7th century Slavic state known as Samos Empire. In 1164, he took refuge in Sens, where Pope Alexander III was sheltered, Louis Jacques Thénard, French chemist, educated at the academy of Sens. Samson ben Abraham, 12th century rabbi and notable Tosafist. Victor Scipion Charles Auguste de La Garde de Chambonas, mayor of Sens, brigadier general and it is the presumed birthplace of the 12th-century architect William of Sens. Édouard Charton, an eminent French literary figure. Tourist Office Official website City council website Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites,1976, Agedincum, Yonne, France
26.
University of Toulouse
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The University of Toulouse was established by papal bull in 1229, making it one of the earliest universities to emerge in Europe. Since its original founding, there have been a number of successor universities holding the same name, the formation of lUniversité de Toulouse was imposed on Count Raymond VII as a part of the Treaty of Paris in 1229 ending the crusade against the Albigensians. As he was suspected of sympathizing with the heretics, Raymond VII had to finance the teaching of theology, bishop Foulques de Toulouse was among the founders of the University. Among its first lecturers were Jean de Garlande and Roland of Cremona, initially, the University was located in the center of the city, together with the ancestors of student residences, the colleges. In 1969, lUniversité de Toulouse split into three separate universities and numerous specialised institutions of higher education, the present-day Université de Toulouse was founded on 27 March 2007. It no longer represents a place where students can attend classes but it is now the entity which federates the universities. With more than 100,000 students, Midi-Pyrénées is the fifth-largest university area in France, thomas Pesquet, European Space Agency astronaut Marcel Dassault was a French aircraft industrialist. He founded the company Dassault Aviation, henry de Puyjalon, a French/Canadian pioneer in biology and ecology Sport Jean Bouilhou, is a rugby player, played with the French national team. Thomas Castaignède, is a player, played with the French national team. Romain Mesnil is a French Pole vaulter, david Skrela, is a rugby player, played with the French national team
27.
Grandselve Abbey
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Grandselve Abbey was a Cistercian monastery in south-west France, at Bouillac, Tarn-et-Garonne. It was one of the most important Cistercian abbeys in the south of France, initially, in 1114, it was a Benedictine foundation set up by Gerald of Sales. It joined the Cistercian movement as a house of Clairvaux Abbey in 1144 or 1145. The abbey was suppressed during the French Revolution, william VII of Montpellier Folquet de Marselha Labbaye Cistercienne de Grandselve List of abbots
28.
Jacques de Vitry
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Jacques de Vitry, C. R. S. A. was a French canon regular who was a noted theologian and chronicler of his era. He was elected bishop in 1214 and made cardinal in 1229, from 1211 to 1213 he preached the Albigensian Crusade, touring France and Germany with William, the archdeacon of Paris, and recruiting many Crusaders. In 1214 Jacques was elected Bishop of Acre and he received episcopal consecration and arrived at his see in 1216. He was subsequently involved in the Fifth Crusade, participating in the siege of Damietta from 1218 to 1220. In 1219 he began to write the Historia Hierosolymitana, a history of the Holy Land from the advent of Islam until the crusades of his own day and he returned to Europe in 1225. Between 16 April and 29 July 1229, Pope Gregory IX elevated Jacques to the College of Cardinals, with the exception of a short legation to Emperor Frederick II in 1232, he spent his last years working in the papal court. He subscribed the papal bulls between 29 July 1229 and 23 June 1239 and he died at Rome as Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals. His remains were transferred to Oignies and buried there in 1241, aside from the Historia, his works include hundreds of sermons, and letters to Pope Honorius III. Jacques de Vitry was fascinated by the powers held by the beguines, such that they were paralleled with the priests of the time, yet functioned outside the church proper. Further Reading Medieval Sourcebook, Jacques de Vitry, Life of the Students at Paris http, Sermones vulgares vel ad status I, éd. J. Longère, Turnhout, Brepols Publishers,2013 Lettres de Jacques de Vitry ed. R. B. C. The exempla or illustrative stories from the Sermones Vulgares of Jacques de Vitry ed. T. F. Crane. The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, consistory of December 1228 Agostino Paravicini Bagliani, Cardinali di curia e familiae cardinalizie dal 1227 al 1254, Padova 1972, pt. I, p. 99-112 Palestine Pilgrims Text Society, History of Jerusalem, by Jacques de Vitry, A. D.1180
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Song of the Albigensian Crusade
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The Song of the Albigensian Crusade is an Old Occitan epic poem narrating events of the Albigensian Crusade from March 1208 to June 1219. Modelled on the Old French chanson de geste, it was composed in two parts, William of Tudela wrote the first towards 1213, and an anonymous continuator finished the account. However, recent studies have proposed the troubadour Gui de Cavalhon as the author of the second part and it is one of three major contemporary narratives of the Albigensian Crusade, the Historia Albigensis of Pierre des Vaux-de-Cernay and the Chronica of William of Puylaurens being the others. There is a surviving manuscript of the whole Song, written in or around Toulouse about 1275. The original title is Cansó de la crozada, the first critical edition was published with a French translation—Chanson de la croisade contre les albigeois—by Paul Meyer in two volumes. Eugène Martin-Chabot published another multi-volume French translation under the title Chanson de la croisade albigeoise, henri Gougaud used the same title in his single-volume edition of 1992. The Song was finally translated into English by Janet Shirley in 1996, the first was written by William of Tudela, probably in 1213. It comprises the first 2749 lines, in 130 laisses, and it is strongly partisan, in favour of the Crusaders and against their opponents, the Cathars and southerners in general. The second part comprises the remaining 6811 lines of the poem, the authors identity is not certain, although the name of Gui de Cavalhon has been recently proposed. This second part covers events from 1213 onwards and takes the point of view, critical of the Crusaders. The author was apparently a man, displaying some knowledge of theology and law. Michel Zink suggests that he was with Raymond VII of Toulouse in Rome, saverio Guida has proposed that Gui de Cavalhon may be the author. Gui, besides being a troubadour, was also a noble, Chanson de la croisade contre les albigeois. La chanson de la croisade albigeoise, the Song of the Cathar Wars, A History of the Albigensian Crusade
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