1.
Microorganism
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A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some fungi, algae, and some such as rotifers. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages, some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all life, including microorganisms. Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon, out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons. Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earths oceans, in August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, You can find microbes everywhere — theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology, both in food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants, Robert Hooke coined the term cell after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe microorganisms in 1673, later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases, single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, so, for most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, the possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the 17th century
2.
Yeast
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Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The yeast lineage originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and 1,500 species are currently identified and they are estimated to constitute 1% of all described fungal species. Yeast sizes vary greatly, depending on species and environment, typically measuring 3–4 µm in diameter, most yeasts reproduce asexually by mitosis, and many do so by the asymmetric division process known as budding. Yeasts, with their growth habit, can be contrasted with molds. Fungal species that can take both forms are called dimorphic fungi and it is also a centrally important model organism in modern cell biology research, and is one of the most thoroughly researched eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have used it to information about the biology of the eukaryotic cell. Other species of yeasts, such as Candida albicans, are opportunistic pathogens, yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in microbial fuel cells, and produce ethanol for the biofuel industry. Yeasts do not form a taxonomic or phylogenetic grouping. The budding yeasts are classified in the order Saccharomycetales, within the phylum Ascomycota, the word yeast comes from Old English gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root yes-, meaning boil, foam, or bubble. Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms, archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeast-raised bread, as well as drawings of 4, 000-year-old bakeries and breweries. In 1680, Dutch naturalist Anton van Leeuwenhoek first microscopically observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be living organisms, researchers were doubtful whether yeasts were algae or fungi, but in 1837 Theodor Schwann recognized them as fungi. In 1857, French microbiologist Louis Pasteur proved in the paper Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst. Pasteur showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, cell growth could be increased, by the late 18th century, two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis. S. cerevisiae has been sold commercially by the Dutch for bread-making since 1780, while, around 1800, in 1825, a method was developed to remove the liquid so the yeast could be prepared as solid blocks. The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhanced by the introduction of the press in 1867. In 1872, Baron Max de Springer developed a process to create granulated yeast. Yeasts are chemoorganotrophs, as they use organic compounds as a source of energy, carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars, such as glucose and fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose. Some species can metabolize pentose sugars such as ribose, alcohols, Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods of energy production
3.
Bacteria
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Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea
4.
Redox
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Redox is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction involves both a process and a complementary oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron transfer processes. Redox reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed, in general, the chemical species from which the electron is stripped is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. It can be explained in terms, Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in state by a molecule, atom. As an example, during the combustion of wood, oxygen from the air is reduced, the reaction can occur relatively slowly, as in the case of rust, or more quickly, as in the case of fire. Redox is a portmanteau of reduction and oxidation, the word oxidation originally implied reaction with oxygen to form an oxide, since dioxygen was historically the first recognized oxidizing agent. Later, the term was expanded to encompass oxygen-like substances that accomplished parallel chemical reactions, ultimately, the meaning was generalized to include all processes involving loss of electrons. The word reduction originally referred to the loss in weight upon heating a metallic ore such as an oxide to extract the metal. In other words, ore was reduced to metal, antoine Lavoisier showed that this loss of weight was due to the loss of oxygen as a gas. Later, scientists realized that the atom gains electrons in this process. The meaning of reduction then became generalized to all processes involving gain of electrons. Even though reduction seems counter-intuitive when speaking of the gain of electrons, it help to think of reduction as the loss of oxygen. Since electrons are charged, it is also helpful to think of this as reduction in electrical charge. The electrochemist John Bockris has used the words electronation and deelectronation to describe reduction and oxidation processes respectively when they occur at electrodes and these words are analogous to protonation and deprotonation, but they have not been widely adopted by chemists. The term hydrogenation could be used instead of reduction, since hydrogen is the agent in a large number of reactions. But, unlike oxidation, which has been generalized beyond its root element, the word redox was first used in 1928. The processes of oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and cannot happen independently of one another, the oxidation alone and the reduction alone are each called a half-reaction, because two half-reactions always occur together to form a whole reaction
5.
Fat
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Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
6.
Rancidification
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Rancidification, the product of which can be described as rancidity, is the process which causes a substance to become rancid, that is, having a rank, unpleasant smell or taste. Specifically, it is the hydrolysis and/or autoxidation of fats into short-chain aldehydes and ketones which are objectionable in taste, when these processes occur in food, undesirable odors and flavors can result. In some cases, however, the flavors can be desirable, in processed meats, these flavors are collectively known as warmed-over flavor. Rancidification can also detract from the value of food. Akin to rancidification, oxidative degradation also occurs in other hydrocarbons, e. g. lubricating oils, fuels, three pathways for rancidification are recognized, Hydrolytic rancidity refers to the odor that develops when triglycerides are hydrolyzed and free fatty acids are released. This reaction of lipid with water sometimes requires a catalyst, but results in the formation of fatty acids. In particular, short-chain fatty acids, such as common butter fats, are odorous, rancidity in foods may be very slight, indicated by a loss of freshness to very severe, indicated by objectionable odors and/or flavors. Oxidative rancidity is associated with the degradation by oxygen in the air, via a free radical process, the double bonds of an unsaturated fatty acid can undergo cleavage, releasing volatile aldehydes and ketones. Oxidation primarily occurs with unsaturated fats, for example, even though meat is held under refrigeration or in a frozen state, the poly-unsaturated fat will continue to oxidize and slowly become rancid. This chemical process continues during frozen storage, though more slowly at lower temperature, the process can be suppressed by the exclusion of oxygen or by the addition of antioxidants. Thus, airtight packaging will slow rancidity development, microbial rancidity refers to a process in which microorganisms, such as bacteria or molds, use their enzymes such as lipases to break down fat. This pathway can be prevented by sterilization, consuming rancid food products is unlikely to cause immediate illness or harm. Rancidification can reduce the value of food, and some vitamins are highly sensitive to degradation. In addition, rancidification can produce toxic compounds associated with long-term harmful health effects concerning advanced aging, neurological disorders, heart disease. Antioxidants are often used as preservatives in fat-containing foods to delay the onset or slow the development of rancidity due to oxidation, natural antioxidants include polyphenols, ascorbic acid and tocopherols. Synthetic antioxidants include butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, TBHQ, propyl gallate, the natural antioxidants tend to be short-lived, so synthetic antioxidants are used when a longer shelf-life is preferred. The effectiveness of water-soluble antioxidants is limited in preventing direct oxidation within fats, a combination of water-soluble and fat-soluble antioxidants is ideal, usually in the ratio of fat to water. Antimicrobial agents can also delay or prevent rancidification by inhibiting the growth of bacteria or other micro-organisms that affect the process, oxygen scavenging technology can be used to remove oxygen from food packaging and therefore prevent oxidative rancidification
7.
Food browning
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Browning is the process of food turning brown due to the chemical reactions that take place within. The process of food browning is one of the most important reactions that take place in chemistry and represents an interesting research topic regarding health, nutrition. Though there are different ways food chemically changes over time, browning in particular falls into main 2 categories. The browning process of foods may yield desirable or undesirable results, browning has many important implications on the food industry relating to nutrition, technology, and economic cost. Researchers are especially interested in studying the control of browning and the different methods that can be employed to maximize this inhibition, enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions that takes place in most fruits and vegetables as well as in seafood. These processes affect the taste, color, and value of such foods, generally, it is a chemical reaction involving polyphenol oxidase, catechol oxidase, and other enzymes that create melanins and benzoquinone from natural phenols. Enzymatic browning requires exposure to oxygen and it begins with the oxidation of Phenols by Polyphenol oxidase into Quinones, whose strong electrophilic state causes high susceptibility to a nucleophilic attack from other proteins. These Quinones are then polymerized in a series of reactions, eventually resulting in the formation of brown pigments on the surface of the food, the rate of enzymatic browning is reflected by the amount of active polyphenol oxidases present in the food. Hence most research investigating methods to inhibit enzymatic browning has focused on hindering polyphenol oxidase activity, however, not all browning of food produces negative effects. Examples of beneficial enzymatic browning, Developing color and flavor in Coffee, Cocoa beans, Developing color and flavor in dried fruit such as figs and raisins. Examples of non-beneficial enzymatic browning, Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, bananas, polyphenols oxidases is the major reaction in the formation of Melanosis in crustaceans such as shrimp. A variety of methods are used to prevent or slow down enzymatic browning of foods, the control of enzymatic browning has always been a challenge for the food industry. In addition, the use of chemicals to inhibit browning, such as sulfite have been reconsidered due to the hazards it causes along with its activity. Much research has been conducted regarding the types of control mechanisms that take place when confronted with these enzymatic process. The different types of enzymatic browning control can be classified different groups, low temperatures can also prevent enzymatic browning by reducing rate of reaction. Use of ascorbic acid in certain pHs to control browning of apples under certain conditions by changing their phenolase activity, different pH values affect phenolase activity of apples differently. The two main forms of non-enzymatic browning are caramelization and the Maillard reaction, caramelization is a process involving the pyrolysis of sugar. It is used extensively in cooking for the desired nutty flavor, as the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavor
8.
Waste hierarchy
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The evaluation of processes that protect the environment alongside resource and energy consumption to most favourable to least favourable actions. The hierarchy establishes preferred program priorities based on sustainability, to be sustainable, waste management cannot be solved only with technical end-of-pipe solutions and an integrated approach is necessary. The waste management hierarchy indicates an order of preference for action to reduce and manage waste, the hierarchy captures the progression of a material or product through successive stages of waste management, and represents the latter part of the life-cycle for each product. The aim of the hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products. The proper application of the hierarchy can have several benefits. It can help prevent emissions of gases, reduces pollutants, save energy, conserves resources, create jobs. All products and services have environmental impacts, from the extraction of raw materials for production to manufacture, distribution, use, life cycle thinking and assessment can be used to support decision-making in the area of waste management and to identify the best environmental options. It can help policy makers understand the benefits and trade-offs they have to face when making decisions on waste management strategies, life-cycle assessment provides an approach to ensure that the best outcome for the environment can be identified and put in place. It involves looking at all stages of a life to find where improvements can be made to reduce environmental impacts. A key goal is to actions that shift negative impacts from one stage to another. Life cycle thinking can be applied to the five stages of the management hierarchy. This is because a washing machine’s greatest environmental impact is during its use phase, buying an energy-efficient machine and using low- temperature detergent reduce environmental impacts. The European Union Waste Framework Directive has introduced the concept of life-cycle thinking into waste policies and this duality approach gives a broader view of all environmental aspects and ensures any action has an overall benefit compared to other options. The actions to deal with waste along the hierarchy should be compatible with other environmental initiatives, relatively new activity, introduced for the first time in 2015 by IBCSD LAB Ltd. is the systematic industrial waste prevention. The process has been named INDUSTRIAL UPCYCLING IU and it is based on 6R principles, the 6R add 3 more steps, and build strong WASTE PREVENTION tool. The 6R is abrevation for RECOGNIZE - RECONSIDER - REALIZE - REDUCE - REUSE - RECYCLE, in 1975, The European Union’s Waste Framework Directive introduced for the first time the waste hierarchy concept into European waste policy. It emphasized the importance of waste minimization, and the protection of the environment and human health, following the 1975 Directive, European Union policy and legislation adapted to the principles of the waste hierarchy. Article 4 of the directive lays down a hierarchy of waste management options which must be applied by Member States in this priority order
9.
Carbon footprint
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A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent. The total carbon footprint cannot be calculated because of the amount of data required. Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential, greenhouse gases can be emitted through transport, land clearance, and the production and consumption of food, fuels, manufactured goods, materials, wood, roads, buildings, and services. For simplicity of reporting, it is expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide, or its equivalent of other GHGs. Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U. S. household come from indirect sources and these are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in ones car or stove, commonly referred to as direct sources of the consumers carbon footprint. In 2007, carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the plan for City of Lynnwood. Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere, Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators, which also includes water footprint and land footprint. An individuals, nations, or organizations carbon footprint can be measured by undertaking a GHG emissions assessment or other calculative activities denoted as carbon accounting, the website then estimates your carbon footprint based on your answers to these questions. A systematic literature review was conducted to determine the best way to calculate individual/household carbon footprints. This review identified 13 calculation principles and subsequently used the principles to evaluate the 15 most popular online carbon footprint calculators. A recent study’s results by Carnegie Mellons Christopher Weber found that the calculation of carbon footprints for products is often filled with large uncertainties. The variables of owning electronic goods such as the production, shipment and it is important to question, and address the accuracy of Carbon Footprint techniques, especially due to its overwhelming popularity. These examples are known as Carbon Offsetting, the counteracting of carbon emissions with an equivalent reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The main influences on carbon footprints include population, economic output and these factors are the main targets of individuals and businesses in order to decrease carbon footprints. Production creates a carbon footprint, scholars suggest that decreasing the amount of energy needed for production would be one of the most effective ways to decrease a carbon footprint. This is due to the fact that Electricity is responsible for roughly 37% of Carbon Dioxide emissions, coal production has been refined to greatly reduce carbon emissions, since the 1980s, the amount of energy used to produce a ton of steel has decreased by 50%. The average U. S. household carbon footprint is about 50 tons CO2e per year, the single largest source of emissions for the typical household is from driving. Transportation as a whole is the largest overall category, followed by housing then food, the carbon footprint of U. S. households is about 5 times greater than the global average, which is approximately 10 tons CO2e per household per year
10.
Carcinogen
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A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes, several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise in both natural and synthetic substances. Carcinogens are not necessarily immediately toxic, thus their effect can be insidious, Cancer is any disease in which normal cells are damaged and do not undergo programmed cell death as fast as they divide via mitosis. Usually, severe DNA damage leads to apoptosis, but if the cell death pathway is damaged. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, certain viruses such as hepatitis B and human papilloma virus have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, other infectious organisms which cause cancer in humans include some bacteria and helminths. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, benzene, kepone, EDB, vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production. Co-carcinogens are chemicals that do not necessarily cause cancer on their own, after the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it can be removed from the body, however, in some cases, these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic carcinogen. DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them, for example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it and this is the mechanism behind the carcinogenicity of benzopyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, for example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage leading to pre-mature aging, not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Higher-energy radiation, including radiation, x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer, in Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation are not carcinogenic, in contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation. Chemicals used in processed and cured such as some brands of bacon, sausages
11.
World Health Organization
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The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
12.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
13.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
14.
Curing salt
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Curing salts are used in food preservation to prevent or slow spoilage by bacteria or fungus. Generally they are used for pickling meats as part of the process to make sausage or cured meat, many also contain red dye that makes them pink to prevent them from being confused with common table salt. Curing salts are not to be confused with Himalayan pink salt, there are many types of curing salts often specific to a country or region. One of the most common curing salts and it is also called Insta Cure #1 or Pink curing salt #1. It contains 6. 25% sodium nitrite and 93. 75% table salt and it is recommended for meats that require short cures and will be cooked and eaten relatively quickly. Sodium nitrite provides the flavor and color associated with curing. Also called Pink curing salt #2 and it contains 6. 25% sodium nitrite, 4% sodium nitrate, and 89. 75% table salt. The sodium nitrate found in Prague powder #2 gradually breaks down over time into sodium nitrite, for this reason it is recommended for meats that require long cures, like hard salami and country ham. Even so, saltpetre is still used in food applications. It should not be confused with Chile saltpetre or Peru saltpetre, which is sodium nitrate
15.
Curing (food preservation)
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Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the way of preserving meat. Nitrates and nitrites, in conjunction with salt, are one of the most common agents in curing meat because they inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. They also contribute to the pink color. For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in ensuring the viability of meat production, transport, untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling, if kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change colour and exude a foul odour, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism, in such circumstances the usefulness of preserving foods containing nutritional value for transport and storage is obvious. Curing is able to extend the life of meat before it spoils. A survival technique since prehistory, the conservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat. Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world, diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat, the ancient Greeks prepared tarichos, which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a technique involving œnogaros. A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe, in Polybiuss time, the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts, rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometime smoked and these goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgians were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs and their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large income from their hams
16.
Food drying
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Food drying is a method of food preservation in which food is dried. Drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold through the removal of water, dehydration has been used widely for this purpose since ancient times, the earliest known practice is 12,000 B. C. by inhabitants of the modern Middle East and Asia regions. Water is traditionally removed through evaporation, although today electric food dehydrators or freeze-drying can be used to speed the drying process, many different foods can be prepared by dehydration. Meat has held a significant role. For centuries, much of the European diet depended on dried cod—known as salt cod, bacalhau and it formed the main protein source for the slaves on the West Indian plantations, and was a major economic force within the triangular trade. Dried shark meat, known as Hákarl, is a delicacy in Iceland, currently popular dried meats include prosciutto, bresaola, biltong and beef jerky. Dried fruits have been consumed historically due to their sugar content and sweet taste. Fruits are often observed differently when dried, the plum becomes a prune, the grape a raisin. Figs and dates are also transformed into new, different products that can either be eaten as they are, used in recipes, freeze-dried vegetables are often found in food for backpackers, hunters, and the military. Garlic and onion are often dried, edible mushrooms, as well as other fungi, are also sometimes dried for preservation purposes or to be used as seasonings. Home drying of vegetables, fruit and meat can be carried out with electrical dehydrators or by sun-drying or by wind, preservatives such as potassium metabisulfite, BHA, or BHT may be used, but are not required. However, dried products without these preservatives may require refrigeration or freezing to ensure safe storage for a long time, industrial food dehydration is often accomplished by freeze-drying. In this case food is flash frozen and put into a system which causes the water to sublimate directly from the solid to the gaseous phase. Industrial hot air dryers are simple and easy to design, construct, more so, it is very affordable and has been reported to retain most of the nutritional properties of food if dry using appropriate drying conditions. There are many different methods for drying, each with their own advantages for particular applications, these include, National Center for Home Food Preservation, drying section
17.
Smoking (cooking)
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Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to make such as whisky, smoked beer. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is often used now. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods, such as apple, cherry, other biomass besides wood can also be employed, sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients. Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice, sugar, and tea, some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs. Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley used to make whisky. In New Zealand, sawdust from the native manuka is commonly used for hot smoking fish, in Iceland, dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish, lamb, mutton and whale. Historically, farms in the Western world included a building termed the smokehouse. This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the danger and because of the smoke emanations. The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the smoking of food dates back to the time of primitive cavemen. As caves or simple huts lacked chimneys, these dwellings could become very smoky, until the modern era, smoking was of a more heavy duty nature as the main goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the process and smoking times were quite long. The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products long distances. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to preserve food, in 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers, smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 to 30 °C. In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, cold smoking does not cook foods. Meats should be cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as an enhancer for items such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops
18.
Salting (food)
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Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. It is related to pickling in general and more specifically to brining and is one form of curing and it is one of the oldest methods of preserving food, and two historically significant salt-cured foods are salted fish and salt-cured meat. Vegetables such as beans and cabbage are also often preserved in this manner. Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a highly salty environment. Any living cell in such an environment will become dehydrated through osmosis and it was discovered in the 19th century that salt mixed with nitrites would color meats red, rather than grey, and consumers at that time then strongly preferred the red-colored meat. The food hence preserved stays healthy and fresh for days avoiding bacterial decay, jewish and Muslim dietary laws require the removal of blood from freshly slaughtered meat. Salt and brine are used for the purpose in both traditions, but salting is more common in Kosher Shechita than in Halal Dhabiha, curing Food preservation Food storage List of dried foods Food portal
19.
Phenol
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Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group and it is mildly acidic and requires careful handling due to its propensity to cause chemical burns. Phenol was first extracted from tar, but today is produced on a large scale from petroleum. It is an important industrial commodity as a precursor to many materials and it is primarily used to synthesize plastics and related materials. Phenol and its derivatives are essential for production of polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, nylon, detergents, herbicides such as phenoxy herbicides. Phenol is appreciably soluble in water, with about 84.2 g dissolving in 1000 mL, homogeneous mixtures of phenol and water at phenol to water mass ratios of ~2.6 and higher are possible. The sodium salt of phenol, sodium phenoxide, is far more water-soluble and it reacts completely with aqueous NaOH to lose H+, whereas most alcohols react only partially. One explanation for the increased acidity over alcohols is resonance stabilization of the anion by the aromatic ring. In this way, the charge on oxygen is delocalized on to the ortho. In another explanation, increased acidity is the result of orbital overlap between the lone pairs and the aromatic system. The pKa of the enol of acetone is 10.9, the acidities of phenol and acetone enol diverge in the gas phase owing to the effects of solvation. About 1⁄3 of the acidity of phenol is attributable to inductive effects. Phenolate esters are more stable toward hydrolysis than acid anhydrides and acyl halides but are sufficiently reactive under mild conditions to facilitate the formation of amide bonds, Phenol exhibits keto-enol tautomerism with its unstable keto tautomer cyclohexadienone, but only a tiny fraction of phenol exists as the keto form. The equilibrium constant for enolisation is approximately 10−13, meaning only one in every ten trillion molecules is in the keto form at any moment. The small amount of stabilisation gained by exchanging a C=C bond for a C=O bond is more than offset by the large destabilisation resulting from the loss of aromaticity, Phenol therefore exists essentially entirely in the enol form. Phenoxides are enolates stabilised by aromaticity, under normal circumstances, phenoxide is more reactive at the oxygen position, but the oxygen position is a hard nucleophile whereas the alpha-carbon positions tend to be soft. Phenol is highly reactive toward electrophilic aromatic substitution as the oxygen atoms pi electrons donate electron density into the ring, by this general approach, many groups can be appended to the ring, via halogenation, acylation, sulfonation, and other processes
20.
Syringol
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Syringol is a naturally occurring aromatic organic compound. It is an ether of pyrogallol. Together with guaiacol, syringol and its derivates are characteristic products of pyrolysis of lignin, as such, syringol is an important component of wood smoke. In preparation of food by smoking, syringol is the chemical responsible for the smoky aroma. Artificial liquid or solid smoke flavorings also contain the chemical, on average composing 13. 73% and 13. 42% of those products by mass respectively. Pyrolysis oil, a derived from woody biomass, can be optimized to yield syringol as a byproduct. For instance, studies indicate that syringol can serve as a feedstock for phenol formaldehyde resin
21.
Guaiacol
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Guaiacol is a naturally occurring organic compound with the formula C6H4, first isolated by Otto Unverdorben in 1826. Although it is biosynthesized by a variety of organisms, this yellowish aromatic oil is derived from guaiacum or wood creosote. Samples darken upon exposure to air and light, Guaiacol is present in wood smoke, resulting from the pyrolysis of lignin. The compound contributes to the flavor of many compounds, e. g. roasted coffee. Guaiacol is produced by methylation of catechol, e. g. using potash and dimethyl sulfate, 2-Aminoanisole, derived in two steps from anisole, can be hydrolyzed via its diazonium derivative. Guaiacol can be synthesized by the dimethylation of catechol followed by selective mono-demethylation, C6H42 + C2H5SNa → C6H4 + C2H5SCH3 Guaiacol is a precursor to various flavorants, such as eugenol and vanillin. An estimated 85% of the supply of vanillin comes from guaiacol. The route entails condensation of glyoxylic acid with guaiacol to give mandelic acid and this acid undergoes a decarboxylation to afford vanillin. In basic solution, it is oxidized, giving yellowish brown. Its derivatives are used medicinally as an expectorant, antiseptic, Guaiacol carbonate is known as duotal, the phosphate as phosphatol, the phosphite as guaiaco-phosphal. The valerianic ester of guaiacol is known as geosote, the benzoic as benzosol, the related derivative, dimethoxybenzene or veratrole, is also useful. In preparation of food by smoking, guaiacol is the chemical responsible for the smoky taste. Methoxyphenols are potential biomarkers of biomass smoke exposure, e. g. from inhalation of woodsmoke, dietary sources of methoxyphenols overwhelm the contribution from inhalational exposures to woodsmoke. Guaiacol is produced in the gut of locusts, Schistocerca gregaria. This process is undertaken by the gut bacterium Pantoea agglomeransa and it is one of the main components of the pheromones that cause locust swarming
22.
Catechol
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Catechol, also known as pyrocatechol or 1, 2-dihydroxybenzene, is an organic compound with the molecular formula C6H42. It is the isomer of the three isomeric benzenediols. This colorless compound occurs naturally in trace amounts and it was first discovered by destructive distillation of the plant extract catechin. About 20 million kg are now produced annually as a commodity organic chemical, mainly as a precursor to pesticides, flavors. Catechol occurs as white crystals that are very rapidly soluble in water. Upon heating catechin above its point, a substance that Reinsch first named Brenz-Katechusäure sublimated as a white efflorescence. This was a thermal decomposition product of the flavanols in catechin, in 1841, both Wackenroder and Zwenger independently rediscovered catechol, in reporting on their findings, Philosophical Magazine coined the name pyrocatechin. In 1879, the Journal of the Chemical Society recommended that catechol be called catechol, Catechol has since been shown to occur in free-form naturally in kino and in beechwood tar. Its sulfonic acid has been detected in the urine of horses, Catechol is produced industrially by the hydroxylation of phenol using hydrogen peroxide. Its methyl ether derivative, guaiacol, converts to catechol via hydrolysis of the CH3-O bond as promoted by hydriodic acid, like other difunctional benzene derivatives, catechol readily condenses to form heterocyclic compounds. Catechol is the acid of a chelating agent used widely in coordination chemistry. Basic solutions of catechol react with iron to give the red 3−, ferric chloride gives a green coloration with the aqueous solution, while the alkaline solution rapidly changes to a green and finally to a black color on exposure to the air. Iron-containing dioxygenase enzymes catalyze the cleavage of catechol, Catechol is produced by a reversible two-electron, two-proton reduction of 1, 2-benzoquinone. The redox series catecholate dianion, monoanionic semiquinonate, and benzoquinone are collectively called dioxolenes, small amounts of catechol occur naturally in fruits and vegetables, along with the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. Upon mixing the enzyme with the substrate and exposure to oxygen, the enzyme is inactivated by adding an acid, such as lemon juice. Excluding oxygen also prevents the browning reaction, however, the activity of the enzyme increases in cooler temperatures. Benzoquinone is said to be antimicrobial, which slows the spoilage of wounded fruits and it is one of the main natural phenols in argan oil. Pyrocatechol is also found in Agaricus bisporus and it is also a component of castoreum, a substance from the castor gland of beavers, used in perfumery
23.
Osmosis
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It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves across a semipermeable membrane separating two solutions of different concentrations. Osmosis can be made to do work, osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure is a property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute. Osmosis is a process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size, water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer via aquaporins. Osmosis provides the means by which water is transported into. The turgor pressure of a cell is maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment. Jean-Antoine Nollet first documented observation of osmosis in 1748, the word osmosis descends from the words endosmose and exosmose, which were coined by French physician René Joachim Henri Dutrochet from the Greek words ἔνδον, ἔξω, and ὠσμός. Osmosis is the movement of a solvent across a membrane toward a higher concentration of solute. In biological systems, the solvent is water, but osmosis can occur in other liquids, supercritical liquids. When a cell is submerged in water, the water pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell, when the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane, the mechanism responsible for driving osmosis has commonly been represented in biology and chemistry texts as either the dilution of water by solute or by a solutes attraction to water. Both of these notions have been conclusively refuted, the diffusion model of osmosis is rendered untenable by the fact that osmosis can drive water across a membrane toward a higher concentration of water. The bound water model is refuted by the fact that osmosis is independent of the size of the solute molecules—a colligative property—or how hydrophilic they are, one fact to take note of is that heat from the surroundings is able to be converted into mechanical energy. Osmotic pressure is the cause of support in many plants. The osmotic entry of water raises the pressure exerted against the cell wall, until it equals the osmotic pressure
24.
Nitrite
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The nitrite ion, which has the chemical formula NO−2, is a symmetric anion with equal N–O bond lengths. Upon protonation, the weak acid nitrous acid is produced. Nitrite can be oxidized or reduced, with the product somewhat dependent on the oxidizing/reducing agent, the nitrite ion is an ambidentate ligand, and is known to bond to metal centers in at least five different ways. Nitrite is also important in biochemistry as a source of the potent vasodilator nitric oxide, in organic chemistry the –NO2 group is present in nitrous acid esters and nitro compounds. Nitrites are also used in the production industry for curing meat. Sodium nitrite is made industrially by passing nitrous fumes into aqueous sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate solution, alkali metal nitrites are thermally stable up to and beyond their melting point. Ammonium nitrite can be made from dinitrogen trioxide, N2O3, which is formally the anhydride of nitrous acid,2 NH3 + H2O + N2O3 →2 NH4NO2 This compound may decompose explosively on heating, in organic chemistry nitrites are used in diazotization reactions. The nitrite ion has a structure, with both N–O bonds having equal length. In valence bond theory, it is described as a hybrid with equal contributions from two canonical forms that are mirror images of each other. The negative charge of the ion is equally distributed on the two oxygen atoms, both nitrogen and oxygen atoms carry a lone pair of electrons. Therefore, the ion is a Lewis base. Moreover, it can act as an ambidentate ligand towards a metal ion, donating a pair of electrons from either nitrogen or oxygen atoms. In aqueous solution, nitrous acid is an acid, HNO2 ⇌ H+ + NO−2. In solution, it is unstable with respect to the disproportionation reaction, addition of acid to a solution of a nitrite in the presence of a reducing agent, such as iron, is a way to make nitric oxide in the laboratory. The formal oxidation state of the atom in a nitrite is +3. This means that it can be oxidized to oxidation states +4 and +5. Standard reduction potentials for reactions directly involving nitrous acid are shown in the table below, The data can be extended to include products in lower oxidation states. For example, H2N2O2 +2 H+ +2 e− ⇌ N2 +2 H2O, E0 = +2.65 V Oxidation reactions usually result in the formation of the nitrate ion, with nitrogen in oxidation state +5
25.
Refrigeration
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Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is driven by mechanical work. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units. Refrigeration has had a impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman, however, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. Settlements were also developing in parts of the country, filled with new natural resources. These new settlement patterns sparked the building of cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas and Las Vegas. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, the increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have begun earlier than 1000 B. C. A Chinese collection of lyrics from this period known as the Shih king. However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was used for. ”Historians have interpreted this to mean that the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass, chaff, like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. Slaves would moisten the outside of the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water, the ancient people of India used this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use storage to preserve food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where the weather could be hot and dry and this consisted of a room with hessian curtains hanging from the ceiling soaked in water. The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air circulating in the room and this would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat. Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes, as these two things became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses
26.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
27.
Root cellar
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A root cellar is a structure, usually underground or partially underground, used for storage of vegetables, fruits, nuts, or other foods. Root cellaring has been important in various eras and places for winter food supply. Root cellars are for keeping food supplies at controlled temperatures and steady humidity, a few crops even keep better in low humidity. Root cellars keep food from freezing during the winter and keep cool during the summer to prevent spoilage. Typically, a variety of vegetables are placed in the cellar in the autumn. A secondary use for the cellar is as a place to store wine, beer. Vegetables stored in the root cellar primarily consist of potatoes, turnips, other food supplies placed in the root cellar over the winter months include beets, onions, jarred preserves and jams, salt meat, salt turbot, salt herring, winter squash, and cabbage. A potato cellar is sometimes called a potato barn or potato house, separate cellars are occasionally used for storing fruits, such as apples. Water, bread, butter, milk, and cream are sometimes stored in the cellar also. In addition, items such as greens, fresh meat. The ability of some vegetables and fruit to keep for months in favorable cellar conditions stems in part from the fact that they are not entirely inanimate even after picking. Although they may no longer qualify as living, the plant cells continue to respire in some impaired but nonzero way, the analogy is not exact, but the high humidity that supports many cellared crops is involved in this residual respiration. In some cases plants are transplanted from the field to the floor of a cellar in autumn. This is a form of extension in which the growing season is not extended. Closets, crawlspaces, garages, sheds, and attics have all used successfully for storage of at least some kinds of crops. Even the space under a bed can store some crops for several weeks, common construction methods are, Digging down into the ground and erecting a shed or house over the cellar. Digging into the side of a hill, building a structure at ground level and piling rocks, earth, and/or sod around and over it. This may be easier to build on rocky terrain where excavation is difficult, most root cellars were built using stone, wood, mortar, and sod
28.
Icebox
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An icebox is a compact non-mechanical refrigerator which was a common early-twentieth century kitchen appliance before the development of safe powered refrigeration devices. Iceboxes had hollow walls that were lined with tin or zinc and packed with various insulating materials such as cork, sawdust, a large block of ice was held in a tray or compartment near the top of the box. Cold air circulated down and around storage compartments in the lower section, some finer models had spigots for draining ice water from a catch pan or holding tank. In cheaper models a drip pan was placed under the box and had to be emptied at least daily, the user had to replenish the melted ice, normally by obtaining new ice from an iceman. Commonly iceboxes were made of wood, most probably for ease of construction, insulation, iceboxes date back to the days of ice harvesting, which had hit an industrial high that ran from the mid-19th century to the 1930s, when the refrigerator was introduced into the home. Most municipally consumed ice was harvested in winter from snow-packed areas or frozen lakes, stored in ice houses, and delivered domestically as iceboxes became more common. In 1907 survey of expenditures of New York City inhabitants, 81% of the surveyed were found to possess refrigerators either in the form of ice stored in a tub or iceboxes. The widespread use of iceboxes was partially credited with reduction of US infant mortality in summer months, with metropolitan growth, many sources of natural ice became contaminated from industrial pollution or sewer runoff. As early mechanical refrigerators became available, they were installed as large industrial plants producing ice for home delivery, able to produce clean, sanitary ice year-round, their product gradually replaced ice harvested from ponds. With widespread electrification and safer refrigerants, mechanical refrigeration in the home became possible, with the development of the chlorofluorocarbons, that came to replace the use of toxic ammonia gas, the refrigerator replaced the icebox. However, because of the prevalence of the icebox in recent human history, the horse-drawn ice wagon and the daily occupation of the iceman, who made regular door-to-door deliveries of block ice, was as much a social institution as the milk man. Apartment buildings had doors that opened to the ice box from the back porch. The ice man would bring the block of ice and insert it into the ice box through this door, Ice was delivered on a regular basis to these buildings and the people would pay for the ice. Children would go on the ice wagon and take chips of ice as treats during the summer. Travel cooler Coolgardie safe Pot-in-pot refrigerator Jonathan Rees, Refrigeration Nation, A History of Ice, Appliances, baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press,2013. Historical Highlights from the DeForest Area Historical Society, DeForest, Wisconsin
29.
Ice cutting
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Ice cutting is a winter task of collecting surface ice from lakes and rivers for storage in ice houses and use or sale as a cooling method. Rare today, it was common before the era of mechanical refrigeration. The work was done as a chore by many farmers. Kept insulated, the ice was preserved for cold food storage during warm weather, either on the farm or for delivery to residential and commercial customers with ice boxes, a large ice trade existed in the 19th and early 20th centuries, until mechanical refrigeration displaced it. Ice harvesting generally involved waiting until approximately a foot of ice had built up on the surface in the winter. The ice would then be cut either a handsaw or a powered saw blade into long continuous strips. Because snow on top of the ice slows freezing, it could be scraped off, alternatively, if the temperature is cold enough, a snowy surface could be flooded to produce a thicker layer of ice. A large operation would have a crew of 75 and cut 1500 tons daily, Ice cutting is still in use today for ice and snow sculpture events. A swing saw is used to get ice out of a river for the Harbin International Ice, a swing saw is also used to cut ice out from the frozen surface of the Songhua River, China. Many ice sculptures are made from the ice harvested this way, in some countries at high latitudes, even ice hotels and ice palaces are made. Ice trade Frederic Tudor Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth The Ice Industry, from 1795-1895, pudsandlosers. blogspot. com, Ice Palace 2 - Cutting Ice, Saturday, January 31,2009
30.
Ice trade
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Ice was cut from the surface of ponds and streams, then stored in ice houses, before being sent on by ship, barge or railroad to its final destination around the world. Networks of ice wagons were used to distribute the product to the final domestic. The ice trade revolutionized the U. S. meat, vegetable and fruit industries, enabled significant growth in the fishing industry, the trade was started by the New England businessman Frederic Tudor in 1806. Tudor shipped ice to the Caribbean island of Martinique, hoping to sell it to members of the European elite there. Over the coming years the trade widened to Cuba and Southern United States, during the 1830s and 1840s the ice trade expanded further, with shipments reaching England, India, South America, China and Australia. Tudor made a fortune from the Indian trade, while brand names such as Wenham Ice became famous in London. Increasingly, however, the ice began to focus on supplying the growing cities on the east coast of the U. S. The citizens of New York City and Philadelphia became huge consumers of ice during their long, hot summers, chilled refrigerator cars and ships created a national industry in vegetables and fruit that could previously only have been consumed locally. American and British fishermen began to preserve their catches in ice, allowing longer voyages and bigger catches, as U. S. ice exports diminished after 1870, Norway became a major player in the international market, shipping large quantities of ice to England and Germany. At its peak at the end of the 19th century, the U. S, competition had slowly been growing, however, in the form of artificially produced plant ice and mechanically chilled facilities. S. Each year than naturally harvested ice, despite a temporary increase in production in the U. S. during the war, the inter-war years saw the total collapse of the ice trade around the world. Today, ice is occasionally harvested for ice carving and ice festivals, but little remains of the 19th-century industrial network of ice houses and transport facilities. Prior to the emergence of the ice trade of the 19th century, snow and ice had collected and stored to use in the summer months in various parts of the world. Similar trading practices had grown up in Mexico during the colonial period, the Russians collected ice along the Neva River during the winter months for consumption in Saint Petersburg for many years. Some techniques were invented to produce ice or chilled drinks through more artificial means. Saltpeter and water were mixed together in India to cool drinks, in Europe, various chemical means for cooling drinks were created by the 19th century, these typically used sulphuric acid to chill the liquid, but were not capable of producing actual ice. The ice trade began in 1806 as the result of the efforts of Frederic Tudor, in New England, ice was an expensive product, consumed only by the wealthy who could afford their own ice houses. Some ships occasionally transported ice from New York and Philadelphia for sale to the southern U. S. states, in particular Charleston in South Carolina, laying it down as ballast on the trip
31.
Local food
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The term has also been extended to include not only the geographic location of supplier and consumer but can also be defined in terms of social and supply chain characteristics. For example, local food initiatives often promote sustainable and organic farming practices, local food represents an alternative to the global food model, a model which often sees food travelling long distances before it reaches the consumer. We can trace back the seeds of the food movement to the creation of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933. The contemporary American movement associated with the term can be traced back to proposed resolutions to the Society for Nutrition Educations 1981 guidelines and these largely unsuccessful resolutions encouraged increased local production to slow farmland loss. The program described sustainable diets - a term new to the American public. At the time, the resolutions were met with criticism from pro-business institutions. No single definition of local or local food systems exists, the geographic distances between production and consumption varies within the movement. However, the public recognizes that local describes the marketing arrangement. There are a number of different definitions for local have been used or recorded by researchers assessing local food systems most informed by political or geographic boundaries, among the more widely circulated and popular defining parameters is the concept of food miles, which has been suggested for policy recommendations. In 2008 Congress passed H. R.2419, which amended the Consolidated Farm, in May 2010 the USDA acknowledged this definition in an informational leaflet. Similar to watersheds, food sheds follow the process of food comes from. It is the responsibility to conclude how local the food is. + The USDA included statistics about the growing local food market in the leaflet released in May 2010. The statistics are as follows, Direct-to-consumer marketing amounted to $1.2 billion in current dollar sales in 2007, according to the 2007 Census of Agriculture, compared with $551 million in 1997. Direct-to-consumer sales accounted for 0.4 percent of agricultural sales in 2007. If non-edible products are excluded from total agricultural sales, direct-to-consumer sales accounted for 0.8 percent of sales in 2007. The number of markets rose to 5,274 in 2009, up from 2,756 in 1998 and 1,755 in 1994. In early 2010, estimates exceeded 1,400, but the number could be much larger, in the 2016 Index, the three top-ranking states were Vermont, Maine and Oregon, while the three lowest-ranking states were Nevada, Texas and Florida. Networks of local farmers and producers are now collaborating in the UK, Canada and this technological change enables more consumers to participate in farmers markets
32.
Heirloom plant
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These may have been commonly grown during earlier periods in human history, but are not used in modern large-scale agriculture. In some parts of the world, notably the European Union, however, seed banks alone have not been able to provide sufficient insurance against catastrophic loss. In some jurisdictions, laws have been proposed that would make seed saving itself illegal, many heirloom vegetables have kept their traits through open pollination, while fruit varieties such as apples have been propagated over the centuries through grafts and cuttings. The trend of growing plants in gardens has been returning in popularity in North America. Before the industrialization of agriculture, a wider variety of plant foods were grown for human consumption. During the 19th and early 20th centuries the diversity was huge, old nursery catalogues were filled with plums, peaches, pears and apples of numerous varieties. In modern agriculture in the world, most food crops are now grown in large. In order to maximize consistency, few varieties of type of crop are grown. These varieties are often selected for their productivity, their ability to withstand mechanical picking and cross-country shipping, Heirloom gardening is a reaction against this trend. In the Global South, heirloom plants are widely grown, for example, in the home gardens of South. Before World War II, the majority of produce grown in the United States were heirlooms, the definition and use of the word heirloom to describe plants is fiercely debated. One school of thought places an age or date point on the cultivars, many gardeners consider 1951 to be the latest year a plant could have originated and still be called an heirloom, since that year marked the widespread introduction of the first hybrid varieties. It was in the 1970s that hybrid seeds began to proliferate in the seed trade. Some heirloom varieties are much older, some are apparently pre-historic, another way of defining heirloom cultivars is to use the definition of the word heirloom in its truest sense. Under this interpretation, an heirloom is a cultivar that has been nurtured, selected. Additionally, many old commercial releases have actually been family heirlooms that a seed company obtained and introduced, regardless of a persons specific interpretation, most authorities agree that heirlooms, by definition, must be open-pollinated. They may also be open-pollinated varieties that were bred and stabilized using classic breeding practices, while there are no genetically modified tomatoes available for commercial or home use, it is generally agreed that no genetically modified organisms can be considered heirloom cultivars. Another important point of discussion is that without the ongoing growing and storage of heirloom plants, the seed companies and the government will control all seed distribution
33.
Family farm
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A family farm is generally understood to be a farm owned and/or operated by a family, it is sometimes considered to be an estate passed down by inheritance. It contrasts with farms operated as collectives, trusts, non-family corporations or in other institutionalised forms, the concept or definition does not easily translate across languages or cultures, as there are substantial differences in the agricultural traditions and histories between countries. Thus, in the United States, a farm can be of any size, while in Brazil. At least 500 million of the worlds 570 million farms are managed by families, the disparity of definitions reflects national and geographical differences in cultures, rural land tenure, and rural economies, as well as the different purposes for which definitions are coined. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines a farm as one that relies primarily on family members for labour. In some usages, family farm implies that the remains within the ownership of a family over a number of generations. Being special-purpose definitions, the found in laws or regulations may differ substantially from commonly understood meanings of family farm. The complete definition can be found in the US Code of Federal Regulations 7 CFR1943.4. The basis of the latifundia in Spain and Sicily was the ager publicus that fell to the dispensation of the state through Romes policy of war in the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. In the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the largely self-sufficient villa-system of the latifundia remained among the few centres of a fragmented Europe. Manorialism died slowly and piecemeal, along with its most vivid feature in the landscape and it outlasted serfdom as it outlasted feudalism, primarily an economic organization, it could maintain a warrior, but it could equally well maintain a capitalist landlord. It could be self-sufficient, yield produce for the market, or it could yield a money rent, the last feudal dues in France were abolished at the French Revolution. In parts of eastern Germany, the Rittergut manors of Junkers remained until World War II, the common law of the leasehold estate relation evolved in medieval England. That law still retains many archaic terms and principles pertinent to a social order. Under the tenant system, a farm may be worked by the family over many generations. In much of Europe, serfdom was abolished only in the period, in Western Europe after the French Revolution. In the inheritance system known as Salic patrimony refers to this clan-based possession of real estate property, terra salica could not be sold or otherwise disposed, it was not alienable. Historical prevalence of the Germanic system of independent estates or Höfe resulted in dispersed settlement structure, the estate as a whole is referred to by the collective Gehöft, the corresponding Slavic concept being Khutor
34.
Organic farming
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Organic farming is an alternative agricultural system which originated early in the 20th century in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices. Organic agriculture continues to be developed by various organic agriculture organizations today and it relies on fertilizers of organic origin such as compost, manure, green manure, and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting. Biological pest control, mixed cropping and the fostering of insect predators are encouraged, in general, organic standards are designed to allow the use of naturally occurring substances while prohibiting or strictly limiting synthetic substances. For instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as pyrethrin and rotenone are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers, synthetic substances that are allowed include, for example, copper sulfate, elemental sulfur and Ivermectin. Genetically modified organisms, nanomaterials, human sewage sludge, plant growth regulators, hormones, since 1990 the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $63 billion worldwide in 2012. This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland that grew from 2001 to 2011 at a rate of 8. 9% per annum. As of 2011, approximately 37,000,000 hectares worldwide were farmed organically, Agriculture was practiced for thousands of years without the use of artificial chemicals. Artificial fertilizers were first created during the mid-19th century and these early fertilizers were cheap, powerful, and easy to transport in bulk. Similar advances occurred in chemical pesticides in the 1940s, leading to the decade being referred to as the pesticide era, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, soil biology scientists began to seek ways to remedy these side effects while still maintaining higher production. Biodynamic agriculture was the first modern system of agriculture to focus exclusively on organic methods and its development began in 1924 with a series of eight lectures on agriculture given by Rudolf Steiner. The one hundred eleven attendees, less than half of whom were farmers, came from six countries, primarily Germany, the lectures were published in November 1924, the first English translation appeared in 1928 as The Agriculture Course. In 1921, Albert Howard and his wife Gabrielle Howard, accomplished botanists, stimulated by these experiences of traditional farming, when Albert Howard returned to Britain in the early 1930s he began to promulgate a system of natural agriculture. One of the purposes of the conference was to bring together the proponents of various approaches to organic agriculture in order that they might cooperate within a larger movement. Howard attended the conference, where he met Pfeiffer, in the following year, Northbourne published his manifesto of organic farming, Look to the Land, in which he coined the term organic farming. The Betteshanger conference has been described as the link between biodynamic agriculture and other forms of organic farming. In 1940 Howard published his An Agricultural Testament, in this book he adopted Northbournes terminology of organic farming. Howards work spread widely, and he became known as the father of organic farming for his work in applying scientific knowledge and these became important influences on the spread of organic agriculture. Further work was done by Lady Eve Balfour in the United Kingdom, increasing environmental awareness in the general population in modern times has transformed the originally supply-driven organic movement to a demand-driven one
35.
Frozen food
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Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved their grains, freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes, mechanical and cryogenic, the freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure, cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature −196 °C. Preserving food in domestic kitchens during the 20th and 21st centuries is achieved using household freezers, accepted advice to householders was to freeze food on the day of purchase. An initiative by a group in 2012 promotes advising the freezing of food as soon as possible up to the products use by date. The Food Standards Agency was reported as supporting the change, providing the food had been stored correctly up to that time. Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below −9.5 °C, long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose, a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product. Natural food freezing had been in use by tribes in cold climates for centuries, by 1885 a small number of chicken and geese were being shipped from Russia to London in insulated cases using this technique. This trade in food was enabled by the introduction of Linde cold air freezing plants in three Russian depots and the London warehouse. The Shadwell warehouse stored the goods until they were shipped to markets in London, Birmingham, Liverpool. The techniques were expanded into the meat packing industry. From 1929, Clarence Birdseye introduced flash freezing to the American public, Birdseye first became interested in food freezing during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use natural freezing to preserve foods. More advanced attempts include food frozen for Eleanor Roosevelt on her trip to Russia, other experiments, involving orange juice, ice cream and vegetables were conducted by the military near the end of World War II. The freezing technique itself, just like the food market, is developing to become faster, more efficient. Mechanical freezers were the first to be used in the industry and are used in the vast majority of freezing / refrigerating lines. They function by circulating a refrigerant, normally ammonia, around the system and this heat is then transferred to a condenser and dissipated into air or water
36.
Freezing
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Freezing, or solidification, is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. For most substances, the melting and freezing points are the temperature, however. For example, agar displays a hysteresis in its melting point and it melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 32 °C to 40 °C. Most liquids freeze by crystallization, formation of crystalline solid from the uniform liquid, because of the latent heat of fusion, the freezing is greatly slowed down and the temperature will not drop anymore once the freezing starts but will continue dropping once it finishes. Crystallization consists of two events, nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation is the step wherein the molecules start to gather into clusters, on the scale, arranging in a defined. The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size, in spite of the second law of thermodynamics, crystallization of pure liquids usually begins at a lower temperature than the melting point, due to high activation energy of homogeneous nucleation. The creation of a nucleus implies the formation of an interface at the boundaries of the new phase, some energy is expended to form this interface, based on the surface energy of each phase. If a hypothetical nucleus is too small, the energy that would be released by forming its volume is not enough to create its surface, Freezing does not start until the temperature is low enough to provide enough energy to form stable nuclei. Under high pressure water will super cool to as low as −70 °C before freezing, Freezing is almost always an exothermic process, meaning that as liquid changes into solid, heat and pressure is released. This is often seen as counter-intuitive, since the temperature of the material does not rise during freezing, but this can be understood, since heat must be continually removed from the freezing liquid or the freezing process will stop. The energy released upon freezing is a latent heat, and is known as the enthalpy of fusion and is exactly the same as the required to melt the same amount of the solid. Low-temperature helium is the only exception to the general rule. Helium-3 has an enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K. Helium-4 also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below 0.8 K. This means that, at appropriate constant pressures, heat must be added to these substances in order to freeze them, certain materials, such as glass and glycerol, may harden without crystallizing, these are called amorphous solids. Amorphous materials as well as some polymers do not have a freezing point, instead, there is a gradual change in their viscoelastic properties over a range of temperatures. Such materials are characterized by a transition that occurs at a glass transition temperature. Because vitrification is a process, it does not qualify as freezing
37.
Boiling
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Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F, boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. Clostridium spores can survive this treatment, but as the infection caused by this microbe is not water-borne, boiling is also used in cooking. Foods suitable for boiling vegetables, starchy foods such as rice, noodles and potatoes, eggs, meats, sauces, stocks. As a cooking method it is simple and suitable for large scale cookery, tough meats or poultry can be given a long, slow cooking and a nutritious stock is produced. Disadvantages include loss of water-soluble vitamins and minerals, commercially prepared foodstuffs are sometimes packed in polythene sachets and sold as boil-in-the-bag products. Nucleate boiling is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface, in general, the number of nucleation sites are increased by an increasing surface temperature. An irregular surface of the vessel or additives to the fluid can create additional nucleation sites, while an exceptionally smooth surface, such as plastic. Under these conditions, a liquid may show boiling delay. As the boiling surface is heated above a temperature, a film of vapor forms on the surface. Since this vapor film is less capable of carrying heat away from the surface. The point at which this occurs is dependent on the characteristics of boiling fluid, transition boiling may be defined as the unstable boiling, which occurs at surface temperatures between the maximum attainable in nucleate and the minimum attainable in film boiling. If a surface heating the liquid is significantly hotter than the liquid then film boiling will occur, where a layer of vapor. This condition of a vapor film insulating the surface from the liquid characterizes film boiling, in distillation, boiling is used in separating mixtures. This is possible because the rising from a boiling fluid generally has a ratio of components different from that in the liquid. The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first-order kinetics—at high temperatures it is achieved in time and at lower temperatures. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms, the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at 100 °C but are not water-borne or intestine affecting, thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process, boiling is the method of cooking food in boiling water, or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk
38.
Perpetual stew
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A perpetual stew, also known as hunters pot or hunters stew, is a pot into which whatever one can find is placed and cooked. The pot is never or rarely emptied all the way, and ingredients, the concept is often a common element in descriptions of medieval inns. Foods prepared in a perpetual stew have been described as being due to the manner in which the foodstuffs blend together. Medieval cooking, bread, water or ale, and a companaticum from the cauldron, – Tannahill Pepperpot is commonly eaten in Guyana and parts of the Caribbean. It uses Cassareep as a flavouring and preservative, in 2015, a New York restaurant had been serving the same perpetual stew for four months. Various ingredients can be used in a stew, such as root vegetables and tubers and various meats
39.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
40.
Preservative
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In general, preservation is implemented in two modes, chemical and physical. Chemical preservation entails adding chemical compounds to the product, physical preservation entails processes such as refrigeration or drying. Preservative food additives reduce the risk of infections, decrease microbial spoilage. Some physical techniques for preservation include dehydration, UV-C radiation, freeze-drying. Chemical preservation and physical preservation techniques are sometimes combined, antimicrobial preservatives prevent degradation by bacteria. This method is the most traditional and ancient type of preserving—ancient methods such as pickling and adding honey prevent microorganism growth by modifying the pH level, the most commonly used antimicrobial preservative is lactic acid. Common antimicrobial preservatives are presented in the table, nitrates and nitrites are also antimicrobial. The detailed mechanism of chemical compounds range from inhibiting growth of the bacteria to the inhibition of specific enzymes. The oxidation process spoils most food, especially those with a fat content. Fats quickly turn rancid when exposed to oxygen, antioxidants prevent or inhibit the oxidation process. The most common antioxidant additives are ascorbic acid and ascorbates, thus, antioxidants are commonly added to oils, cheese, and chips. Other antioxidants include the phenol derivatives BHA, BHT, TBHQ and these agents suppress the formation of hydroperoxides. Other preservatives include ethanol and methylchloroisothiazolinone, a variety of agents are added to sequester metal ions that otherwise catalyze the oxidation of fats. Common sequestering agents are disodium EDTA, citric acid, tartaric acid, citric and ascorbic acids target enzymes that degrade fruits and vegetables, e. g. phenolase which turns surfaces of cut apples and potatoes brown. Ascorbic acid and tocopherol, which are vitamins, are common preservatives, smoking entails exposing food to a variety of phenols, which are antioxidants. Natural preservatives include rosemary extract, hops, salt, sugar, vinegar, alcohol, diatomaceous earth, traditional preservatives, such as sodium benzoate have raised health concerns in the past. Benzoate was shown in a study to cause hypersensitivity in some asthma sufferers and this has caused reexamination of natural preservatives which occur in vegetables. Preservatives have been used since prehistoric times, smoked meat for example has phenols and other chemicals that retard spoilage
41.
Fruit
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In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
42.
Honey
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Honey /ˈhʌni/ is a sugary food substance produced and stored by certain social hymenopteran insects. It is produced from the secretions of plants or insects, such as floral nectar or aphid honeydew, through regurgitation, enzymatic activity. The variety of honey produced by bees is the most well-known, due to its worldwide commercial production. Honey gets its sweetness from the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, and has about the relative sweetness as granulated sugar. It has attractive properties for baking and a distinctive flavor that leads some people to prefer it to sugar. Most microorganisms do not grow in honey, so sealed honey does not spoil, however, honey sometimes contains dormant endospores of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which can be dangerous to babies, as it may result in botulism. People who have an immune system should not eat honey because of the risk of bacterial or fungal infection. Although some evidence indicates honey may be effective in treating diseases and other conditions, such as wounds and burns. Providing 64 calories in a serving of one tablespoon equivalent to 1272 kj per 100 g. Honey is generally safe, but may have various, potential adverse effects or interactions with excessive consumption, existing disease conditions, or drugs. Honey use and production have a long and varied history as an ancient activity, depicted in Valencia, in cold weather or when other food sources are scarce, adult and larval bees use stored honey as food. By contriving for bee swarms to nest in man-made hives, people have been able to semidomesticate the insects, Bee digestive enzymes - invertase, amylase, and diastase - and gastric acid hydrolyze sucrose to a mixture of glucose and fructose. The bees work together as a group with the regurgitation and digestion for as long as 20 minutes until the product reaches storage quality. It is then placed in honeycomb cells left unsealed while still high in content and natural yeasts. The bees then cap the cells with wax to seal them, as removed from the hive by a beekeeper, honey has a long shelf life and will not ferment if properly sealed. Another source of honey is from a number of species, such as the wasps Brachygastra lecheguana and Brachygastra mellifica. These species are known to feed on nectar and produce honey, Honey is collected from wild bee colonies, or from domesticated beehives. The honey is stored in honeycombs, wild bee nests are sometimes located by following a honeyguide bird
43.
Sugarcane
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It has stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in the sugar sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. The plant is two to six meters tall, all sugar cane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids. Sugarcane belongs to the grass family Poaceae, an important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum. Sucrose, extracted and purified in specialized factories, is used as raw material in the food industry or is fermented to produce ethanol. Ethanol is produced on a large scale by the Brazilian sugarcane industry, sugarcane is the worlds largest crop by production quantity. In 2012, The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates it was cultivated on about 26×106 hectares, in more than 90 countries, Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, the world demand for sugar is the primary driver of sugarcane agriculture. Cane accounts for 80% of sugar produced, most of the rest is made from sugar beets, sugarcane predominantly grows in the tropical and subtropical regions. Other than sugar, products derived from sugarcane include falernum, molasses, rum, cachaça, bagasse, in some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded inflorescence of tebu telor is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the famous reeds that produce honey without bees in India between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture, merchants began to trade in sugar from India, which was considered a luxury and an expensive spice. Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, the stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, the average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation, sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea. It is theorized that sugarcane was first domesticated as a crop in New Guinea around 6000 BC, New Guinean farmers and other early cultivators of sugarcane chewed the plant for its sweet juice. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear, the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
44.
Fruit preserves
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Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams, some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit, which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English speaking world, the two terms are more differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is jam. The singular preserve or conserve is used as a noun for high fruit content jam. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the variant of English being used. A chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices, mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar. Savory confits, such as made with garlic or fennel, may call for a savory oil, such as virgin olive oil. A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a jam made of fruit stewed in sugar, in Romania they are known as dulceata. As a result of minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits, because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and as such, conserves will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams. An alternative definition holds that conserves are preserves made from a mixture of fruits and/or vegetables, Conserves may also include dried fruit or nuts. Fruit butter, in context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process. Fruit butters are generally made from fruits, such as apples, plums. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency, add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring. … The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Neither should there be any free liquid. —Berolzheimer R et al, fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth
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Antimicrobial
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An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms or stop their growth. Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they act primarily against, for example, antibiotics are used against bacteria and antifungals are used against fungi. They can also be classified according to their function, agents that kill microbes are called microbicidal, while those that merely inhibit their growth are called biostatic. The use of medicines to treat infection is known as antimicrobial chemotherapy. The main classes of agents are disinfectants, which kill a wide range of microbes on non-living surfaces to prevent the spread of illness, antiseptics. The term antibiotic originally described only those formulations derived from living organisms but is now applied to synthetic antimicrobials, such as the sulphonamides. The term also used to be restricted to antibacterials, but its context has broadened to include all antimicrobials, antibacterial agents can be further subdivided into bactericidal agents, which kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents, which slow down or stall bacterial growth. In response, further advancements in technologies have resulted in solutions that can go beyond simply inhibiting microbial growth. Instead, certain types of media have been developed to kill microbes on contact. Use of substances with antimicrobial properties is known to have been common practice for at least 2000 years, ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks used specific molds and plant extracts to treat infection. More recently, microbiologists such as Louis Pasteur and Jules Francois Joubert observed antagonism between some bacteria and discussed the merits of controlling these interactions in medicine, in 1928, Alexander Fleming became the first to discover a natural antimicrobial fungus known as Penicillium rubens. The substance extracted from the fungus he named penicillin and in 1942 it was used to treat a Streptococcus infection. Penicillin also proved successful in the treatment of other infectious diseases such as gonorrhea, strep throat and pneumonia. Many antimicrobial agents exist, for use against a range of infectious diseases. Antibacterials are used to treat bacterial infections, the toxicity to humans and other animals from antibacterials is generally considered low. However, prolonged use of certain antibacterials can decrease the number of gut flora, after prolonged antibacterial use consumption of probiotics and reasonable eating can help to replace destroyed gut flora. Stool transplants may be considered for patients who are having difficulty recovering from prolonged antibiotic treatment, the discovery, development and clinical use of antibacterials during the 20th century has substantially reduced mortality from bacterial infections. However, since 1980 the introduction of new agents for clinical use has declined
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