1.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
2.
El Salvador
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El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador, is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. El Salvadors capital and largest city is San Salvador, as of 2015, the country had a population of approximately 6.38 million, consisting largely of Mestizos of European and Indigenous American descent. El Salvador was for centuries inhabited by several Mesoamerican nations, especially the Cuzcatlecs, as well as the Lenca, in the early 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City. In 1821, the country achieved independence from Spain as part of the First Mexican Empire, from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers. The conflict ended with a settlement that established a multiparty constitutional republic. El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying the economy by opening up trade and financial links, the colón, the official currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the U. S. dollar in 2001. As of 2010, El Salvador ranks 12th among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index, however, the country continues to struggle with high rates of poverty, inequality, and crime. Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado named the new province for Jesus Christ – El Salvador, the full name was Provincia De Nuestro Señor Jesus Cristo, El Salvador Del Mundo, which was subsequently abbreviated to El Salvador. Tomayate is a site located on the banks of the river of the same name in the municipality of Apopa. The site has produced abundant Salvadoran megafauna fossils belonging to the Pleistocene epoch, at the same time, it is considered the richest vertebrate paleontological site in Central America and one of the largest accumulations of proboscideans in the Americas. Sophisticated civilization in El Salvador dates to its settlement by the indigenous Lenca people, theirs was the first, the Lenca were succeeded by the Olmecs, who eventually also disappeared, leaving their monumental architecture in the form of the pyramids still extant in western El Salvador. The Maya arrived and settled in place of the Olmecs, the Pipil were the last indigenous people to arrive in El Salvador. They called their territory Kuskatan, a Pipil word meaning The Place of Precious Jewels, backformed into Classical Nahuatl Cōzcatlān, the people of El Salvador today are referred to as Salvadoran, while the term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage. In pre-Columbian times, the country was inhabited by various other indigenous peoples, including the Lenca. Cuzcatlan was the domain until the Spanish conquest. Since El Salvador resided on the edge of the Maya Civilization. However, it is agreed that Mayas likely occupied the areas around Lago de Guija. Other ruins such as Tazumal, Joya de Cerén and San Andrés may have built by the Pipil or the Maya or possibly both
3.
Honduras
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Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a republic in Central America. It has at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras. Honduras was home to several important Mesoamerican cultures, most notably the Maya, the Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism and the now predominant Spanish language, along with numerous customs that have blended with the indigenous culture. Honduras has the worlds highest murder rate, Honduras spans about 112,492 km2 and has a population exceeding 8 million. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone, as reflected in the areas demographics and culture. Honduras is known for its natural resources, including minerals, coffee, tropical fruit, and sugar cane, as well as for its growing textiles industry. Honduras literally means depths in Spanish, the name could either refer to the bay of Trujillo as an anchorage, fondura in the Leonese dialect of Spanish, or to Columbuss alleged quote that Gracias a Dios que hemos salido de esas Honduras. It was not until the end of the 16th century that Honduras was used for the whole province, prior to 1580, Honduras only referred to the eastern part of the province, and Higueras referred to the western part. Another early name is Guaymuras, revived as the name for the dialogue in 2009 that took place in Honduras as opposed to Costa Rica. In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area, in the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years. The dominant state within Hondurass borders was in Copán, Copán fell with the other Lowland centres during the conflagrations of the Terminal Classic in the 9th century. The Maya of this civilization survive in western Honduras as the Chorti, remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. On 30 July 1502 Columbus sent his brother Bartholomew to explore the islands and Bartholomew encountered a Mayan trading vessel from Yucatán, carrying well-dressed Maya and a rich cargo. Bartholomews men stole whatever cargo they wanted and kidnapped the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter in what was the first recorded encounter between the Spanish and the Maya. In March 1524, Gil González Dávila became the first Spaniard to enter Honduras as a conquistador, followed by Hernán Cortés, bringing forces down from Mexico. Much of the conquest was done in the two decades, first by groups loyal to Cristóbal de Olid, and then by those loyal of Francisco Montejo. In addition to Spanish resources, the conquerors relied heavily on armed forces from Mexico—Tlaxcalans, resistance to conquest was led in particular by Lempira, and many regions in the north never fell to the Spanish, notably the Miskito Kingdom. After the Spanish conquest, Honduras became part of Spains vast empire in the New World within the Kingdom of Guatemala, Trujillo and Gracias were the first city-capitals
4.
Organization of American States
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The Organization of American States, or the OAS or OEA, is a continental organization founded on 30 April 1948, for the purposes of regional solidarity and cooperation among its member states. Headquartered in Washington, United States, the OASs members are the 35 independent states of the Americas, as of 26 May 2015, the Secretary General of OAS is Luis Almagro. Bolívars dream of American unity was meant to unify Hispanic American nations against external powers, the pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to the forefront in 1889–1890, at the First International Conference of American States. These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception to which the OAS and its General Secretariat trace their origins. At the Fourth International Conference of American States, the name of the organization was changed to the Union of American Republics, the Pan American Union Building was constructed in 1910, on Constitution Avenue, Northwest, Washington, D. C. In the mid-1930s, U. S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt organized a conference in Buenos Aires. One of the items at the conference was a League of Nations of the Americas, an idea proposed by Colombia, Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic. At the subsequent Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace,21 nations pledged to remain neutral in the event of a conflict between any two members. The experience of World War II convinced hemispheric governments that unilateral action could not ensure the integrity of the American nations in the event of external aggression. This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as it stands today, the meeting also adopted the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the worlds first general human rights instrument. The transition from the Pan American Union to OAS would have been if it had not been for the assassination of Colombian leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán. The Director General of the former, Alberto Lleras Camargo, became the Organizations first Secretary General, the current Secretary General is former Uruguayan minister of foreign affairs Luis Almagro. Significant milestones in the history of the OAS since the signing of the Charter have included the following,1959,1969, American Convention on Human Rights signed. 1970, OAS General Assembly established as the Organizations supreme decision-making body,1979, Inter-American Court of Human Rights created. 1991, Adoption of Resolution 1080, which requires the Secretary General to convene the Permanent Council within ten days of a coup détat in any member country,1994, First Summit of the Americas, which resolved to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas by 2005. 2009, OAS revokes 1962 suspension of Cuba,2009, OAS suspends Honduras due to the coup which ousted president Manuel Zelaya. 2011, OAS lifts the suspension of Honduras with the return of Manuel Zelaya from exile, article 2 then defines eight essential purposes, To strengthen the peace and security of the continent. To promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of nonintervention, to prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific settlement of disputes that may arise among the member states
5.
Nicaragua
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Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the largest country in the Central American isthmus. Nicaraguas capital, Managua, is the countrys largest city and the third-largest city in Central America, the multi-ethnic population of six million includes indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans, and Asians. Native tribes on the eastern coast speak their own languages, the Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century. Nicaragua gained independence from Spain in 1821, since its independence, Nicaragua has undergone periods of political unrest, dictatorship, and fiscal crisis—the most notable causes that led to the Nicaraguan Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicaragua is a democratic republic. The biological diversity, warm climate and active volcanoes make Nicaragua an increasingly popular tourist destination. The name Nicaragua was coined by Spanish colonists based on the name Nicarao, when Spaniard Gil González Dávila came to Nicaragua in 1521 he found in the areas between Rivas and San Jorge the first pre-Columbian natives of Nicaragua. At the time the city was called Quauhcapolca and the cacique leaders name was Macuilmiquiztli. The Pipil migrated to Nicaragua from central Mexico after 500 BC, meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly Chibcha language groups. They had coalesced in Central America and migrated also to present-day northern Colombia and they lived a life based primarily on hunting and gathering. In 1502, Christopher Columbus became the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed southeast toward the Isthmus of Panama, on his fourth voyage, Columbus explored the Miskito Coast on the Atlantic side of Nicaragua. The Spanish attempted to convert all three tribes to Christianity, Nicaragua and Nicarao and their people converted, but Dirangen, however, did not, the first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, who arrived in Panama in January 1520. The first Spanish permanent settlements were founded in 1524, conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaraguas principal towns in 1524, Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement, followed by León at a location west of Lake Managua. Córdoba soon built defenses for the cities and fought against incursions by other conquistadors, Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedro Arias Dávila. His tomb and remains were discovered in 2000 in the ruins of León Viejo, the clashes among Spanish forces did not impede their destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. The series of battles came to be known as the War of the Captains, Pedro Arias Dávila was a winner, although he had lost control of Panama, he moved to Nicaragua and successfully established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony, many indigenous people died as a result of new infectious diseases, compounded by neglect by the Spaniards, who controlled their subsistence. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital and it was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the ruins of Old León
6.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania
7.
War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare
8.
1970 FIFA World Cup qualification
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A total of 75 teams entered the 1970 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds, competing for a total of 16 spots in the final tournament. Hosts Mexico and defending champions England qualified automatically, leaving 14 spots open for competition, for the first time, the winners of both the African zone and the Asian and Oceanian zone were guaranteed a direct place in the final tournament. South America,3 places, contested by 10 teams, north, Central America and Caribbean,2 places,1 of them went to automatic qualifier Mexico, while the other 1 place was contested by 13 teams. Africa,1 place, contested by 13 teams, asia and Oceania,1 place, contested by 7 teams. A total of 68 teams played in at least one qualifying match, a total of 172 qualifying matches were played, and 542 goals were scored. Listed below are the dates and results of the qualification rounds, key, Teams highlighted in green qualified for the finals. Teams highlighted in red in the table finished level on points. FIFA rejected the entry of Albania and both Iceland and Malta withdrew before the draw, the remaining 29 teams were divided into 8 groups of 3 or 4 teams each. The teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis, the 10 teams were divided into 3 groups, two groups with 3 teams and one group with 4 teams. The teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis and this has been to date, the only time that Argentina failed to qualify. FIFA rejected the entry of Cuba, there would be three rounds of play, First Round, The remaining 12 teams were divided into 4 groups of 3 teams each. The teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis, the group winners would advance to the Semifinal Round. Semifinal Round, The 4 teams were paired up to play matches on a home-and-away basis. The winners would advance to the Final Round, Final Round, The 2 teams played against each other on a home-and-away basis. United States advanced to the Semifinal Round, Haiti advanced to the Semifinal Round. Honduras advanced to the Semifinal Round, El Salvador advanced to the Semifinal Round. Haiti advanced to the Final Round, El Salvador and Honduras finished level on points, and a play-off on neutral ground was played to decide who would advance to the Final Round. El Salvador advanced to the Final Round, additionally, these matches featured prominently in the Football War
9.
International Court of Justice
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The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial branch of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice, the Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court. The Courts workload covers a range of judicial activity. Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce Court rulings, however, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members of the Council, which the United States used in the Nicaragua case. The election process is set out in Articles 4–19 of the ICJ statute, elections are staggered, with five judges elected every three years to ensure continuity within the court. Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge in an election to complete the term. No two judges may be nationals of the same country, according to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world. Essentially, that has meant common law, civil law and socialist law, the exception was China, which did not have a judge on the Court from 1967 to 1985 because it did not put forward a candidate. Judicial independence is dealt with specifically in Articles 16–18, judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post or act as counsel. A judge can be dismissed only by a vote of the other members of the Court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned, judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions, Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ad hoc judges sit on contentious cases before the Court. The system allows any party to a case if it otherwise does not have one of that partys nationals sitting on the Court to select one additional person to sit as a judge on that case only. It is thus possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case, the system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases. Although this system does not sit well with the nature of the body. Ad hoc judges usually vote in favor of the state that appointed them, generally, the Court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years, it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26–29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually 3 or 5 judges, Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26, firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ad hoc chambers to hear particular disputes. In 1993, a chamber was established, under Article 26 of the ICJ statute
10.
United Fruit Company
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The United Fruit Company was an American corporation that traded in tropical fruit, grown on Central and South American plantations, and sold in the United States and Europe. The company was formed in 1899, from the merger of Minor C, Keiths banana-trading concerns with Andrew W. Prestons Boston Fruit Company. It flourished in the early and mid-20th century, and it came to control vast territories and transportation networks in Central America, the Caribbean coast of Colombia, Ecuador, United Fruit had a deep and long-lasting impact on the economic and political development of several Latin American countries. Critics often accused it of neocolonialism, and described it as the archetypal example of the influence of a multinational corporation on the internal politics of the banana republics. After a period of decline, United Fruit was merged with Eli M. Blacks AMK in 1970. In 1984, Carl Lindner, Jr. transformed United Brands into the present-day Chiquita Brands International. In 1871, U. S. railroad entrepreneur Henry Meiggs signed a contract with the government of Costa Rica to build a railroad connecting the city of San José to the port of Limón in the Caribbean. Meiggs was assisted in the project by his young nephew Minor C, Keith, who took over Meiggss business concerns in Costa Rica after his death in 1877. Keith began experimenting with the planting of bananas as a source of food for his workers. When the Costa Rican government defaulted on its payments in 1882, Keith had to borrow £1.2 million from London banks, the railroad was completed in 1890, but the flow of passengers proved insufficient to finance Keiths debt. On the other hand, the sale of bananas grown in his lands and transported first by train to Limón, then by ship to the United States, Keith eventually came to dominate the banana trade in Central America and along the Caribbean coast of Colombia. In 1899, Keith lost $1.5 million when Hoadley and Co. a New York City broker and he then traveled to Boston, Massachusetts, to participate in the merger of his banana trading company, Tropical Trading and Transport Company, with the rival Boston Fruit Company. Boston Fruit had been established by Lorenzo Dow Baker, a sailor who, in 1870, had bought his first bananas in Jamaica, and by Andrew W. Preston. Prestons lawyer, Bradley Palmer, had devised a scheme for the solution of the cash flow problems and was in the process of implementing it. The merger formed the United Fruit Company, based in Boston, with Preston as president, Palmer became a permanent member of the executive committee and for long periods of time the director. From a business point of view, Bradley Palmer was United Fruit, Preston brought to the partnership his plantations in the West Indies, a fleet of steamships, and his market in the U. S. Northeast. Keith brought his plantations and railroads in Central America and his market in the U. S, at its founding, United Fruit was capitalized at $11,230,000. The company at Palmers direction proceeded to buy or buy a share in 14 competitors, assuring them of 80% of the import business in the United States
11.
Tenant farmer
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A tenant farmer is one who resides on land owned by a landlord. Depending on the contract, tenants can make payments to the either of a fixed portion of the product. The rights the tenant has over the land, the form, in some systems, the tenant could be evicted at whim, in others, the landowner and tenant sign a contract for a fixed number of years. In most developed countries today, at least some restrictions are placed on the rights of landlords to evict tenants under normal circumstances, historically, rural society utilised a three tier structure of landowners, tenant farmers, and farmworkers. Originally, tenant farmers were known as peasants, many tenant farmers became affluent and socially well connected, and employed a substantial number of labourers and managed more than one farm. Tenancy could be either in perpetuity or rotated by the owners, high rates of inheritance taxes in the postwar period led to the breakup or reduction of many large estates, allowing many tenants to buy their holdings at favourable prices. The landmark 1948 Act was enacted at a time when food rationing was still in force. Succession rights were withdrawn for new tenancies in 1984 and this was consolidated in the Agricultural Holdings Act 1986. These two statutes also laid down rules for the determination of rents by the arbitration process, in addition, there was a uniform rent ascertainment scheme contained in section 12. The protection of the 1986 Act remains in respect of tenancies created prior to the existence of the 1995 Act, for all other tenancies granted on or after 1 September 1995 their regulation is within the 1995 Act framework. That Act was altered with effect from 18 October 2006 by the Regulatory Reform Order 2006 SI 2006/2805, there is for all tenancies within the scope of the Act a mandatory tenants right to remove fixtures and buildings together with compensation for improvements. The rent review provisions in Part II may be the subject of choice to a greater extent than previously. Disputes under the Act are usually, by the terms of Part IV, in the cycle of animal husbandry and land use and improvement, the long-term effect of the Farm Business Tenancy on the landscape of Britain is not yet proven. Tenant farming immigrants came to Canada not just from the British Isles but also the United States of America. Until about 1900, the majority of Ireland was held by landlords, as much as 97% in 1870, the majority of the people had no access to land. 1. 5% of the population owned 33. 7% of the nation, absenteeism was common and detrimental to the countrys progress. Tenants often sub-rented small plots on a basis from local farmers paying for them by labour service in a system known as conacre most without any lease or land rights. Irish smallholders were indistinguishable from the cottiers of England, the abuse of tenant farmers led to widespread emigration to the United States and the colonies and was a key factor within the Home Rule Movement
12.
Land reform
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Land reform involves the changing of laws, regulations or customs regarding land ownership. Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed property redistribution, such transfers of ownership may be with or without compensation, compensation may vary from token amounts to the full value of the land. The common characteristic of all reforms, however, is modification or replacement of existing institutional arrangements governing possession. Thus even small-scale land reforms and legal modifications may be subject to debate or conflict. Land reforms, which change what it means to land, therefore create tensions. Western conceptions of land have evolved over the past several centuries to place emphasis on individual land ownership. Control over land, however, may also be perceived less in terms of ownership and more in terms land use. Historically, in parts of Africa for example, land was not owned by an individual. Different people in a family or community had different rights to access land for different purposes. Such rights were often conveyed through oral history and not formally documented and these different ideas of land ownership and tenure are sometimes referred to using different terminology. For example, formal or statutory land systems refer to ideas of control more closely affiliated with individual land ownership. Informal or customary land systems refer to ideas of control more closely affiliated with land tenure. Terms dictating control over and use of land can therefore take many forms, feudal land ownership, through fiefdoms Life estate, interest in real property that ends at death. Fee tail, hereditary, non-transferable ownership of real property, under common law, this is the most complete ownership interest one can have in real property. Government collectives, such as those that might be found in communist states, Land reform is a deeply political process and therefore many arguments for and against it have emerged. These arguments vary tremendously over time and place, for example, in the twentieth century, many land reforms emerged from a particular political ideology, such as communism or socialism. Land reforms need not be as dramatic in scale as Zimbabwe, such benefits may include eradicating food insecurity and alleviating rural poverty. Arguments in support of such reforms gained momentum after the publication of The Mystery of Capital by Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto in 2000
13.
Honduras national football team
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The Honduras national football team, nicknamed Los Catrachos, La Bicolor or La H, is the national team of Honduras and is controlled by the Federación Nacional Autónoma de Fútbol de Honduras. To date, the team has qualified three times for the FIFA World Cup, in 1982,2010 and 2014 but has not won a single match. The national team made its debut in the Independence Centenary Games held in Guatemala City in September 1921, during their first appearance at the Central American and Caribbean Games in 1930, Honduras posted a record of two wins and three losses. Their only wins came against Jamaica and El Salvador, while they lost two games to Cuba and Costa Rica, Honduras won the 1981, and 1982 CONCACAF Championship and qualified for the World Cup for the first time in 1982. They finished second in the 1985 CONCACAF Championship losing their final match 2 to 1 against Canada and their next major accomplishment was being runners-up at the 1991 CONCACAF Gold Cup losing against host nation, United States. For the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Jamaicas merits left Honduras out of the round of qualification. Despite Honduras overwhelming victory 11 to 3 against St. Vincent & the Grenadines, the scoreless draw from Jamaicas visit to Honduras ultimately allowed the Reggae Boys to advance to the next round. Hopes changed for 2002 as Honduras advanced to the hexagonal round, despite Honduras effort, they were left at the edge of the 2002 FIFA World Cup losing at home against Trinidad & Tobago, and at the Azteca against Mexico, in their final two games of the qualifiers. The match against Trinidad saw Honduras hit the goal post seven times, the second World Cup appearance was in the 2010 FIFA World Cup when Honduras strikingly qualified by their victory away at El Salvador and Costa Ricas tie against the USA. Their third and most recent World Cup appearance was the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Honduras has won the UNCAF Nations Cup three times in 1993,1995 and 2011. Prior to the stages leading up to the 1970 World Cup in Mexico, Honduras. This nickname was given to the situation after a game was played between the two countries which ended in a draw. The end of this important soccer game coincided with a crisis involving both countries. This crisis eventually turned into a war which lasted approximately 100 hours, the Honduran Mens National team qualified for the second round after defeating the national teams of the countries of Costa Rica and Jamaica. Against the Jamaican squad the Honduran team easily won both games by a score of 5,1. Both games were played in Honduras, the Honduran team defeated Costa Rica in the first game 1,0 which was played in Tegucigalpa. The second game resulted in a 1,1 tie meaning that Honduras would emerge victorious, El Salvador on the other hand eliminated the teams of Guyana and that of the Netherland Antilles. This set up a match up between Honduras and El Salvador
14.
El Salvador national football team
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El Salvadors national football team represents El Salvador in international football and is controlled by the Salvadoran Football Federation. In 1899, two teams from Santa Ana and San Salvador met for the first known game in El Salvador. The national teams first match was played in September 1921, when they were invited to participate in a tournament to celebrate 100 years of Central American Independence. El Salvador has made two FIFA World Cup appearances, first in 1970 and again in 1982, but have never progressed beyond the first stage of a finals tournament and they were the 1943 CCCF champions, and finished in second-place in the 1941 and 1961 championships. They have competed in the CONCACAF regional tournaments fourteen times, finishing as runners-up in 1963 and 1981, La Selecta also competes in the biennial UNCAF Nations Cup, the Pan American Games, the Olympics, and have achieved two gold medals in the Central American and Caribbean Games. The Estadio Cuscatlán, also known as El Coloso de Montserrat, since 2008, the national team has had a kit sponsorship contract with England-based supplier Mitre. Raúl Díaz Arce is the all-time top-scorer for the team, with 39 goals, while Alfredo Pacheco has the most caps. Salvadoran football had its origins in the city of Santa Ana and this was the first time a football game was hosted in El Salvador. That first game took place on July 26,1899 among players from Santa Ana, both teams had several foreign players from England who are credited with introducing football to El Salvador. The home team won the game 2–0, in September 1921, El Salvador were invited to Guatemala to take part in the Independence Centenary Games, to celebrate 100 years of Central American Independence. The tournament was between Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, and El Salvador, the Guatemalans and Costa Ricans had more experience with football than the Salvadorans and Hondurans. It was a tournament with Guatemala playing Honduras and El Salvador playing Costa Rica. Alcaine, Guillermo Sandoval and Enrique Lindo, by halftime Costa Rica was up 3–0, and at the final whistle after 80 minutes won 7–0. Despite the loss, this tournament was the point of the official El Salvador national team. Other than the tournament, El Salvador only played international friendlies for the rest of the 1920s, El Salvador lost their first friendly 3–0 against Costa Rica, while the second and third ended in a 1–0 loss and 0–0 draw against Honduras. On 7 December 1928, El Salvador recorded its first ever win, a 5–0 victory over Honduras, the team that would become their traditional rivals. The game was played at Campo Marte, San Salvador, and was not only El Salvadors first ever recorded win, gustavo Taviche Marroquín scored every goal, becoming the first ever Salvadoran player to score five goals in a single game for the El Salvador national football team. In the early 1930s, El Salvador appointed its first official coach, American Mark Scott Thompson, in preparation for the 1930 Central American and Caribbean Games in Havana
15.
Tegucigalpa
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Tegucigalpa, commonly referred to as Téguz, is the capital of Honduras and seat of government of the Republic, along with its twin sister Comayagüela. Claimed on September 29,1578 by the Spaniards, Tegucigalpa became the capital on October 30,1880 under President Marco Aurelio Soto. After a failed attempt to create a Central American republic in 1821, on January 30,1937, Article 179 of the 1936 Honduran Constitution was changed under Decree 53 to establish Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela as a Central District. Tegucigalpa is located in the highland region known as the department of Francisco Morazán of which it is also the departmental capital. It is situated in a valley, surrounded by mountains, Tegucigalpa and Comayagüela, being sister cities, are physically separated by the Choluteca River. The Central District is the largest of the 28 municipalities in the Francisco Morazán department, Tegucigalpa is Honduras largest and most populous city as well as the nations political and administrative center. Tegucigalpa is host to 25 foreign embassies and 16 consulates and it is the home base of several state-owned entities such as ENEE and Hondutel, the national energy and telecommunications companies, respectively. The city is home to the countrys most important public university. The capitals international airport, Toncontín, is known for its short runway. The Central District Mayors Office is the governing body, headed by a mayor and 10 aldermen forming the Municipal Corporation. Being the departments seat as well, the office of Francisco Morazán is also located in the capital. In 2008, the city operated on a budget of 1.555 billion lempiras. In 2009, the city government reported a revenue of 1.955 billion lempiras, Tegucigalpas infrastructure has not kept up with its population growth. Deficient urban planning, densely condensed urbanization, and poverty are ongoing problems, heavily congested roadways where current road infrastructure is unable to efficiently handle over 400,000 vehicles create havoc on a daily basis. Both current national and local governments have taken steps to improve, most sources indicate the origin and meaning of the word Tegucigalpa is derived from the Nahuatl language. Another source suggests that Tegucigalpa derives from another language in which it means painted rocks, other theories indicate it may derive from the term Togogalpa which refers to tototi and Toncontín, a small town near Tegucigalpa. In Mexico, it is believed the word Tegucigalpa is from the Nahuatl word Tecuztlicallipan, meaning place of residence of the noble or Tecuhtzincalpan, meaning place on the home of the beloved master. Tegucigalpa was founded by Spanish settlers as Real de Minas de San Miguel de Tegucigalpa on September 29,1578 on the site of a native settlement of the Pech, Tolupans
16.
San Salvador
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San Salvador is the capital and largest city of El Salvador and its eponymous department. It is the political, cultural, educational and financial center. As a gamma global city, San Salvador is also an important financial hub of Central America, San Salvador is located in the Salvadoran highlands, surrounded by volcanoes and prone to earthquakes. The city is home to the Catholic Archdiocese, as well as many Protestant branches of Christianity, including Evangelicals, Latter-day Saints, Baptists. San Salvador has the second largest Jewish community in Central America, San Salvador has been the host city for various regional and international sporting, political, and social events. It hosted the Central American and Caribbean Games in 1935 and 2002, San Salvador was also the host city of the 18th Ibero-American Summit, held October 29–31,2008, the most important sociopolitical event in the Spanish and Portuguese sphere. The Central American Integration System has its headquarters in San Salvador, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration also has its headquarters in San Salvador. Before the Spanish conquest, the Pipil people established their capital, Cuzcatlan, not much is known about Cuzcatlan, as it was abandoned by its inhabitants in an effort to avoid Spanish rule. Under the orders of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, his associates Gonzalo de Alvarado and Diego de Holguín occupied the empty settlement, Diego de Holguín became the first mayor of San Salvador after the town was founded on April 1,1525. The town changed location twice, in 1528 and 1545, the new site was chosen because it had more space and more fertile land, thanks to the Acelhuate River. The population of the city remained relatively small until the early 20th century, in January 1885, during the presidency of Dr. Rafael Zaldivar, a group of businessmen and the presidents family contributed funds for building the Sara Zaldivar Asylum for Indigents and the Elderly. In 1902, the Hospital Rosales was built, named after its benefactor, Dr. Jose Rosales, the hospitals construction was begun by president Carlos Ezeta and finished during the presidency of Tomás Regalado. In 1905 president Pedro José Escalón initiated construction of the National Palace, the Monumento a los Próceres de 1811, located in the Plaza Libertad, and the Teatro Nacional were built in 1911 during Dr. Manuel Enrique Araujos presidency. In 1917, an earthquake during an eruption of the nearby San Salvador volcano damaged the city, on December 2,1931, president Arturo Araujo was ousted by a military coup détat and replaced by a military directorate. The directorate named vice-president Maximiliano Hernández Martínez as president and Araujo went into exile, the Martínez regime lasted from December 4,1931 to May 6,1944. In 1964, the Christian Democratic Party candidate, José Napoleon Duarte, during his term he ordered construction of the Pancho Lara park in the Vista Hermosa neighborhood, renewed the electrical grid, and set up a system of schools for adult education. The 1960s to the 1980s were the age of San Salvador in all aspects of security, quality of life. Today the tallest building in the country has 28 floors and is 110 meters high, with the commencement of the Salvadoran Civil War in the 1980s, many modernization projects were halted
17.
Mexico City
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Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
18.
Air Force of El Salvador
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The Salvadoran Air Force is the air force of the Armed Forces of El Salvador, and is independent from the army and navy. The Salvadoran Army Air Force was formed on 20 March 1923 during a period of heavy interest in aviation in El Salvador. In 1947, after signing the treaty of Rio, El Salvador with a US air mission, the Salvadoran Air Force first saw action in the 1969 Football war against Honduras equipped with F4U Corsairs and P-51 Mustangs. From the late 1970s, isolated guerilla actions rapidly developed into a civil war, US aid to El Savador in 1980 consisted of six UH-1Hs and four in 1981, they were used as gunships. Other deliveries brought that number of UH-1Hs in service up to 40, in February 1982 onwards the United States delivered eight A-37B Dragonflies,12 UH-1Hs, four O-2As and three C-123Ks. On 6 May 2013, in celebration of the 189th anniversary of the Armed Forces of El Salvador, a four-engined Douglas DC-6B provided long-range logistical capability between 1975 and its retirement in 1998. It was used on flights to and from the United States. In December 1984, two AC-47s were delivered to be in service with the other three C-47s in use, the civil war ended in mutual exhaustion in 1990 and the Air Force was geared for internal security
19.
Honduran Air Force
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The Honduras Air Force is the air force of Honduras. As such it is the air arm of the Honduras Armed Forces. The forerunner of the air force, the Escuela Nacional de Aviación, or National Aviation School. In 1938 it was renamed the Escuela Militar de Aviación y Fuerza Aérea Hondureña or Military Aviation School and Honduras Air Force, during World War II it fought against the Axis powers, between 1942 and 1944 performing anti-submarine patrols along its Caribbean coastline. In 1969 Honduras fought the one week long Football War with El Salvador, the HAF managed to successfully bomb the Salvadorean fuel supplies at Acajutla and Cutuco and fight the enemys air force out of the sky. Later it provided air support to the Honduras Army. After the cease fire, both countries tried unsuccessfully to acquire their first jets to replace their old propeller-driven aircraft, the HAF was also reorganized, several new air bases were created and its name changed to Fuerza Aérea Hondureña only. These airplanes were used during the 1980s confrontation with the Sandinista government of Nicaragua and they are supported with five ex-USAF Lockheed C-130A Hercules transports, five armed MD500D and 10 new Bell 412SP utility helicopters, which are all in use to this day. In October 2014 Honduras received an Embraer Legacy 600, 16-seat VIP transport aircraft and this aircraft arrived at Toncontín airport on 15 October and was donated to the Honduras Air Force by Taiwan. The VIP aircraft would also be available for evacuation in case of an emergency. Plans to buy two new Brazilian Embraer EMB-314 Super Tucano light fighters were announced by the Honduran Foreign Ministry. The FAH operates from 4 air bases at Tegucigalpa, Comayagua, San Pedro Sula, additionally,3 air stations located at Catacamas, Alto Aguán and Puerto Lempira airstrips serve as forward operations locations-FOL. Also a radar station operates at La Mole peak, with the exception of Soto Cano Air Base, all other bases operates as dual civil and military aviation facilities. Official Honduras Air Force pages Official Honduras Air Force Academy page Honduras Air Arms - Scramble. nl Aeroflight - Honduran Air Force
20.
Salvadoran Army
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The Salvadoran Army is the land branch and largest of the Armed Forces of El Salvador. In 2006 the government of El Salvador approached the Israeli ambassador to El Salvador seeking assistance in modernising its army, the Football War was a term coined by Polish reporter Ryszard Kapuściński to describe a brief conflict between El Salvador and neighbouring Honduras. He argued that the war began after the rival nations traded wins during the round for the 1970 FIFA World Cup. But this event was not the cause of the war, tensions had been mounting between both nations for several years because of immigration and economic problems, resulting on the war in 1969. The soccer matches incidents just one of several events happened during that time. Longstanding tensions between the countries were heightened by reports on both sides, each accusing the other of hooliganism and violence toward their own football fans. On June 26,1969, El Salvador dissolved all ties with Honduras, on July 14 Salvadoran forces began moving rapidly into Honduras following a series of border clashes. Their progress halted after the Organization of American States and the United States brought heavy diplomatic pressure to bear on both governments in an effort to effect a cease-fire, the government responded by assassinating thousands of political opponents and massacring students and protestors on several occasions. The heavy handed response of the government signaled to those identifying with the movement that peaceful solutions were futile. On 15 October 1979, the government was deposed by a joint military-civilian government calling itself the Revolutionary Government Junta of El Salvador or JRG. The JRGs policies were met with opposition from the military and economic elites and government repression increased and this led to the formation of the FMLN, which brought on a twelve year civil war. Up to 380 Salvadoran troops, mostly paratroopers, were deployed as part of the Coalition Forces in Iraq between August 2003 and January 2009. They operated alongside the elite Spanish Legion in Najaf and were regarded by the U. S. Army, U. S. Marines, British Army. While in Iraq, the Salvadoran contingent suffered 5 dead, and 20 wounded,1 female soldiers battalion on the artillery brigade. Defenselink. mil nationsencyclopedia. com EL SALVADOR, STANDING TALL
21.
Santa Ana Department
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Santa Ana is a department of El Salvador in the northwest of the country. The capital is Santa Ana, one of the largest cities in El Salvador and it has 2,023 km² and a population of over 572,000. The Santa Ana Volcano is in this department and this department was created on February 8,1855. During Pre-Columbian times, the area now composing Santa Ana was inhabited by Mayan peoples, among the departments major Mayan archaeological sites are Tazumal, many of the regions inhabitants were members of the Poqomam or Chorti Mayan subgroups. Between 1200 and 1400 the department of Santa Ana under Lempa River was conquered by the Pipiles, between 1528 and 1540 the department of Santa Ana was conquered and pacified by the Spaniards. It belonged to the Greater Mayorship of San Salvador and later to the Intendance of San Salvador, being divided in the parties or districts of Santa Ana, from 1824 it belonged to the department of Sonsonate. The department was created in 1855, along with the present department of Ahuachapán, the football club has won 17 national titles, more than any other team, and one CONCACAF Champions Cup. The department of Santa Ana is at an altitude between 500 m and 3000 m, the most important volcanoes are the Ilamatepec or Santa Ana Volcano and the Chingo. Other notable mountains are Green Hill and the Montecristo massif, the main rivers of the department are the Lempa and the Guajoyo rivers. The most important lakes in the department are Lake Güija on the border with Guatemala near Metapán, Santa Ana is divided into 13 municipalities, Directorio Municipal de la Fundación Dr. Guillermo Manuel Ungo El Salvador at GeoHive
22.
Chalatenango Department
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Chalatenango is a department of El Salvador, located in the northwest of the country. The capital is the city of Chalatenango, the Chalatenango Department encompasses 2,017 km² and contains more than 204,000 inhabitants. Las Matras Archaeological Ruins contains the relics of prehistoric populations and caves in which rock writing is found, the 5 de Noviembre Hydroelectric Dam is found in Chalatenango Department, near the border with Cabañas. The highest point in the country, El Pital with an elevation of 2730.06 m, is located in Chalatenango Department. The most cultivated agricultural products are the grains, henequen, coffee, fruits, orchard plants, and vegetables, horses and cattle. Moreover, plaster, gold, lime, clay lead, silver, around 1790, Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet, Governor of El Salvador, found that the local indigenous population working in Chaletenangos indigo industry had declined greatly. Carondolet responded by bringing poor Spaniards to settle, with the result that many blonde, Chalatenango was made a department on February 14,1855. During the 1980s, the department was the stronghold of the Farabundo Martí Popular Forces of Liberation, atlas Geográfico Universal y de El Salvador. Edición 1995 ISBN 84-494-0135-6 Sitio web del departamento de Chalatenango
23.
Armoured fighting vehicle
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An armoured fighting vehicle is a combat vehicle, protected by strong armour and generally armed with weapons, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive, and defensive capabilities. AFVs can be wheeled or tracked and it is not uncommon for AFVs to be simply referred to as armour. Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their role on the battlefield. This classification is not absolute, at different times different countries will classify the vehicle in different roles. For example, armoured carriers were generally replaced by infantry fighting vehicles in a similar role. Modern armoured fighting vehicles are the realization of an ancient concept, War machines with rudimentary armour have been used in battle for millennia. These designs historically struggled between the paradox of exposed-mobility, effective-firepower and cumbersome-protection, Siege engines, such as battering rams and trebuchets, would often be armoured in order to protect the crews from the defenders. Very large movable siege towers, helepolis were developed by Polyidus of Thessaly, the idea of a vehicle with a tortoise like cover has been known since antiquity. Frequently cited is Leonardo da Vincis 15th century sketch of a mobile, protected gun platform, the machine was to be mounted on four wheels which would be turned by the crew through a system of hand cranks and cage gears. Leonardo quoted I will build armored wagons which will be safe, there will be no obstacle which it cannot overcome. Modern replicas have demonstrated that the crew would have been able to move it over only short distances. The war wagon were medieval weapon-platforms developmed during the Hussite Wars around 1420 by Hussite forces rebelling in Bohemia. These heavy wagon were given protective sides with firing slits and heavy firepower from either a cannon or a force of hand-gunners and crossbowmen, supported by infantry using pikes, heavy arquebuses mounted on wagons were called arquebus à croc. These carried a ball of about 3.5 ounces, the first modern AFVs were armed cars, dating back virtually to the invention of the motor car. The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F. R. Simms in 1898 and it was the first armed petrol engine powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar, an iron shield offered some protection for the driver from the front, but it lacked all-around protective armour. The armoured car was the first modern fully armoured fighting vehicle, the first of these was the Simms Motor War Car, designed by Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim in 1899. The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3. 3-litre 16 hp Cannstatt Daimler engine giving it a speed of around 9 miles per hour
24.
M3 Stuart
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The M3 Stuart, formally Light Tank M3, is an American light tank of World War II. It was supplied to British and Commonwealth forces under lend-lease prior to the entry of the U. S. into the war, thereafter, it was used by U. S. and Allied forces until the end of the war. The name General Stuart or Stuart given by the British comes from the American Civil War Confederate General J. E. B, Stuart and was used for both the M3 and the derivative M5 Light Tank. In British service, it also had the nickname of Honey after a tank driver remarked Shes a honey. To the United States Army, the tanks were known only as Light Tank M3. Stuarts were the first American-crewed tanks in World War II to engage the enemy in tank versus tank combat, observing events in Europe, American tank designers realized that the Light Tank M2 was becoming obsolete and set about improving it. The upgraded design, with armor, modified suspension and new gun recoil system was called Light Tank M3. Production of the started in March 1941 and continued until October 1943. Later, the gun was replaced with the slightly longer M6, for a light tank, the Stuart was fairly heavily armored. Internally, the engine was at the rear and the transmission at the front. The prop shaft connecting the two ran through the middle of the fighting compartment, the radial engine, having its crankshaft high off the hull bottom, contributed to the tanks high silhouette. When a revolving turret floor was introduced in the M3 hybrid and M3A1, in contrast to the M2A4, all M3/M5 series tanks had a trailing rear idler wheel for increased ground contact). This variation was quieter, cooler and roomier, owing to its automatic transmission, it also simplified crew training. The new model featured a redesigned hull with sloped glacis plate. Although the main criticism from the using it was that the Stuarts lacked firepower. The M5 gradually replaced the M3 in production from 1942 and, the British Army was the first to use the Light Tank M3 as the General Stuart in combat. From mid-November 1941 to the end of the year, about 170 Stuarts took part in Operation Crusader during the North Africa Campaign and this is despite the fact that the M3 was superior or comparable in most regards to most of the tanks used by the Axis forces. The most numerous German tank, the Panzer III Ausf G, had nearly identical armor and speed to the M3, mentioned in the British complaints were the 37 mm M5 gun and poor internal layout
25.
M101 howitzer
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The 105 mm M2A1 howitzer was a howitzer developed and used by the United States. It was the standard U. S. light field howitzer in World War II, entering production in 1941, it quickly gained a reputation for accuracy and a powerful punch. The M101A1 fired 105-millimetre high explosive semi-fixed ammunition and had a range of 11,270 metres, all of these qualities of the weapon, along with its widespread production, led to its adoption by many countries after the war. Its ammunition type also became the standard for foreign countries later models. During the Second World War, U. S. artillery regiments consisted of an HQ detachment, one 155mm artillery battalion, both the 155mm and 105mm battalions had twelve guns each, divided into three batteries of four guns. That gave each regiment a total of twelve 155mm howitzers, with an HE M1 shell fired at 9000 meters, the probable error in range was 41 meters, while the probable error in line was 10 meters. The U. S. military artillery designation system was changed in 1962, the gun continued to see service in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Though a similar model, the M102 howitzer, shared the roles in battle. Today, the M101A1 has been retired by the U. S. military, though it continues to see service with many other countries. By the end of the Second World War,8,536 105mm towed howitzers had been built and post-war production continued at Rock Island Arsenal until 1953, by which time 10,202 had been built. The Canadian Forces continued to use the M2A1 as the C2 Howitzer until 1997, the changes include a longer barrel, a muzzle brake, reinforced trails and the removal of shield flaps. It remains the standard light howitzer of Canadian Forces Reserve units, the C3 is used by Reserve units in Glacier National Park in British Columbia as a means of avalanche control. In addition, the M101 has found a use in the U. S. as an avalanche control gun. Today upgraded M2A1 howitzers are still being used by the Peoples Army of Vietnam and it continues to remain as the primary tactical field-howitzer of the VPA. M2 Howitzers are still in limited service in the Australian Army Reserve, in regular service they were replaced by the 105mm L119 Hamel gun and the 155-millimetre M198 howitzers. Two M2 howitzers are employed in providing the gun salute at Kristiansten Fortress, in Trondheim. M101/M2 is one of three approved salute guns in the Norwegian armed forces, and have reduced to a caliber of 75 millimetres for this purpose. They are used for gun salute also at Rena and Setermoen, M2 - minor changes to the chamber to allow use of fixed ammunition
26.
Military of Honduras
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This article deals with the armed forces of Honduras. During the twentieth century, Honduran military leaders became presidents. General Tiburcio Carías Andino was elected in 1932, he later on called a constituent assembly that allowed him to be reelected, during the following decades, the military of Honduras carried out several coups détat, starting in October 1955. General Oswaldo López Arellano carried out the coup in October 1963. The military unit Battalion 316 carried out assassinations and the torture of suspected political opponents of the government during this same period. Amnesty International estimated that at least 184 people disappeared from 1980 to 1992 in Honduras, the resolution of the civil wars in El Salvador and Nicaragua, and across-the-board budget cuts made in all ministries, has brought reduced funding for the Honduran armed forces. The abolition of the draft has created staffing gaps in the now all-volunteer armed forces, the military is now far below its authorized strength, and further reductions are expected. In January 1999, the Constitution was amended to abolish the position of military commander-in-chief of the armed forces, since 2002, soldiers have been involved in crime prevention and law enforcement, patrolling the streets of the major cities alongside the national police. See the article 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis regarding claims regarding legitimacy and illegitimacy of the event, the militarys chief lawyer, Colonel Herberth Bayardo Inestroza Membreño, made public statements regarding the removal of Zelaya. On June 30, he showed an order, apparently signed June 26 by a Supreme Court judge. Colonel Inestroza later stated that deporting Zelaya did not comply with the order, In the moment that we took him out of the country, in the way that he was taken out. Because of the circumstances of the moment this crime occurred, there is going to be a justification and he said the decision was taken by the military leadership in order to avoid bloodshed. With the exception of Soto Cano Air Base, all air bases operate as dual civil. Additionally,3 air stations located at, Catacamas Alto Aguán Puerto Lempira airstrips serve as forward operations locations-FOL, also a radar station operates at, La Mole peak. The navy is a small force dealing with coastal and riverine security, the navy has 31 patrol boats and landing craft. Inestroza stated, It would be difficult for us, with our training, the current head of the armed forces is Carlos Antonio Cuéllar, graduate of the General Francisco Morazan Military Academy and the School of the Americas. In January 2011, the General Rene Arnoldo Osorio Canales former head of the Presidential Honor Guard, was appointed Commander, as of 2012 the Honduran Military has the highest military expenditures of all Central America. M2 Machine gun Stoner 63 120x Carl Gustav recoilless rifle 80x M40 recoilless rifle M72 LAW M203 RPG-2 RPG-7 60mm mortar 400x 81mm M1\M29 Mortar Honduran presidential plane Official website
27.
Ilopango International Airport
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Currently, Ilopango is used for military, air taxi, and charter aviation only. It also holds the annual Ilopango Air Show, the airport is also home to the National Aviation Museum of San Salvador, which is housed in the old terminal building. Ilopango was one of the largest and busiest airports in Central America, during the civil war, due to its location, it was a perfect target for bombs from the guerrillas. It ended its international service in January 1980, with the building of the bigger. Currently, there is a plan that involves the modernization and enlargement of the airport to accommodate modern aircraft, in 2001, the administration of the airport passed from the military to the Comisión Ejecutiva Portuaria Autónoma, which is in charge of planning the modernization project. Ilopango has the problem that many airports in Central America have and its hangars will be relocated and modernized to serve as a modern commercial airport. CEPA has announced that they will begin rehabilitating the airport in late 2013 to allow short domestic flights within Central America. Ilopango Airport has new signage on the runway, and a revamped passenger room. In January 2016, CEPA has begun building a new passenger terminal due to the demands of TAG Airlines. The new passenger terminal will increase the capacity while providing a dedicated Salvadorean immigration, the new MSSS Ilopango Airport terminal is expected to be completed in mid-2016. The El Salvador Civil Aviation Authority has its headquarters on the airport property, aviateca Lacsa TACA Copa Airlines SAM Iberia Pan Am Sahsa Museo Nacional de Aviación
28.
Acajutla
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Acajutla is a seaport and municipality in Sonsonate Department, El Salvador. As a municipality, Acajutla is one of seventeen districts in Sonsonate. As of 1992, the population of the town was 18,008, spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, under the command of Hernán Cortés, had conquered Mexico and Guatemala before coming to the vicinity of Acajutla. There he met resistance, but defeated the indigenous people in 1524. Following the complete independence of El Salvador in 1838, the economy of the nation became increasinging dependent on the export of coffee, during the twelve-year Salvadoran civil war, the oil refinery at Acajutla, was a target for anti-government rebels. The port of Acajutla was built in its initial phase at a cost of 25 million colones, the wave breaker of 338 meters inaugurated its operations in August 1961, and is managed by the Executive Commission of Autonomous Port. As with all the Pacific Coast of Central America, the climate at Acajutla is continuously hot, daytime high temperatures are usually in the 32°C - 34°C range. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is Aw, acajutlas deepwater harbor is the principal port, and for some types of shipping, there are two operational ports in El Salvador. Its port cargo loading facilities allow the shipment of a large portion of its major exports of coffee, sugar. Its oil refinery is the nations largest and it mainly refines petroleum imported from Venezuela and they celebrate their traditional parties between the last days of May and 2 June as the main day. One of the most important celebration is made between March and April when they celebrate the passion of Christ. On 24 October they make celebrations of the fishermen, in honor of San Rafael Arcangel, new York Times,29 January 1858. Meislin, Richard J.5 Key Leaders of the Opposition Reported Kidnapped in Salvador, trade with Central America and with the States of the South Pacific, via Isthmus of Panama
29.
Anastasio Somoza Debayle
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Anastasio Tachito Somoza DeBayle was a Nicaraguan politician and officially the 73rd and 76th President of Nicaragua from 1 May 1967 to 1 May 1972 and from 1 December 1974 to 17 July 1979. As head of the National Guard, he was de facto ruler of the country from 1967 to 1979 and he was the last member of the Somoza family to be President, ending a dynasty that had been in power since 1936. After being overthrown in an insurrection led by the FSLN, he fled Nicaragua and he was eventually assassinated while in exile in Paraguay. As is customary in most Spanish-speaking countries, he was both his parents last names, Somoza being his fathers last name and DeBayle being his mothers last name. Anastasio Somoza DeBayle, nicknamed Tachito by his father, was the child of Anastasio Somoza García. At the age of seven, he was enrolled at the Instituto Pedagógico La Salle, one of his classmates was Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal, who would grow up to become one of the most prominent opponents of the Somoza dynasty. From the age of ten, Tachito was educated in the United States and he and older brother Luis Somoza Debayle, both attended St. Leo College Prep and La Salle Military Academy. He passed the examination for West Point, entered the United States Military Academy on July 3,1943, two years after his return from West Point, he fathered a daughter, Patricia, who was later sent to a series of schools abroad. Also after his return, he was appointed chief of staff of the National Guard, by his father, as commander of the Guard, Somoza was head of the nations armed forces, effectively the second most powerful man in Nicaragua. On 10 December 1950, he and Hope Portocarrero, an American citizen, over 4,000 guests attended the ceremony. The reception was given by Somozas father, President Anastasio Somoza García, in the luxurious, Anastasio had a large hand in the government during this time, and saw to it that the presidency was held by politicians loyal to his family from 1963 to 1967. On 1 May 1967, shortly before the death of his brother, while Luis had ruled more gently than his father had, Anastasio would not tolerate opposition of any sort, and his regime soon resembled his fathers in all significant respects. With regard to educating the workforce, Somoza famously replied, “I don’t want an educated population, I want oxen. ”His term in office was due to end in May 1972, due to a law which disallowed immediate re-election. Somoza and his triumvirate drew up a new constitution that was ratified by the triumvirate and he then stepped down as president on May 1,1972. However, as head of the National Guard, he remained the de facto ruler of the country, on 23 December 1972, an earthquake struck the nations capital, Managua, killing about 5,000 people and virtually destroying the city. Martial law was declared, making Somoza the countrys ruler in name as well as in fact once again and he then took over effective control as head of the National Emergency Committee. He reportedly embezzled many of the funds sent from across the world to help rebuild Managua, some parts of Managua have still never been rebuilt or restored, including the National Cathedral. Somoza also allegedly exported freshly imported emergency blood plasma abroad, at the time of the earthquake, Somoza was re-elected president in the 1974 election
30.
Vought F4U Corsair
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The Vought F4U Corsair is an American fighter aircraft that saw service primarily in World War II and the Korean War. The Corsair thus came to and retained prominence in its area of greatest deployment, the Corsair served to a lesser degree in the U. S. Navy. In addition to its use by the U. S. and British, the Corsair was also used by the Royal New Zealand Air Force, the French Navy Aéronavale and other, smaller, air forces until the 1960s. Some Japanese pilots regarded it as the most formidable American fighter of World War II, after the carrier landing issues had been tackled, it quickly became the most capable carrier-based fighter-bomber of World War II. The Corsair served almost exclusively as a fighter-bomber throughout the Korean War and during the French colonial wars in Indochina, in February 1938 the U. S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics published two requests for proposal for twin-engined and single-engined fighters. For the single-engined fighter the Navy requested the maximum speed. A range of 1,000 miles was specified, the fighter had to carry four guns, or three with increased ammunition. Provision had to be made for anti-aircraft bombs to be carried in the wing and these small bombs would, according to thinking in the 1930s, be dropped on enemy aircraft formations. In June 1938, the U. S. Navy signed a contract with Vought for a prototype bearing the factory designation V-166B, the Corsair design team was headed up by Rex Beisel. When the prototype was completed it had the biggest and most powerful engine, largest propeller, the first flight of the XF4U-1 was made on 29 May 1940, with Lyman A. Bullard, Jr. at the controls. The maiden flight proceeded normally until a landing was made when the elevator trim tabs failed because of flutter. The USAACs twin-engine Lockheed P-38 Lightning had flown over 400 mph in January–February 1939, the XF4U-1 also had an excellent rate of climb but testing revealed that some requirements would have to be rewritten. In full-power dive tests, speeds of up to 550 miles per hour were achieved but not without damage to the surfaces and access panels and, in one case. The spin recovery standards also had to be relaxed as recovery from the required two-turn spin proved impossible without resorting to an anti-spin chute, the problems clearly meant delays in getting the design into production. Reports coming back from the war in Europe indicated that an armament of two.30 in synchronized engine cowling-mount machine guns, and two.50 in machine guns was insufficient, the U. S. Navys November 1940 production proposals specified heavier armament. The increased armament consisted of three.50 caliber machine guns mounted in each wing panel and this improvement greatly increased the ability of the Corsair to effectively shoot down enemy aircraft. Formal U. S. Navy acceptance trials for the XF4U-1 began in February 1941, the first production F4U-1 performed its initial flight a year later, on 24 June 1942. It was an achievement for Vought, compared to land-based counterparts, carrier aircraft are overbuilt and heavier
31.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
32.
North American P-51 Mustang
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The North American Aviation P-51 Mustang is an American long-range, single-seat fighter and fighter-bomber used during World War II, the Korean War and other conflicts. The Mustang was designed in 1940 by North American Aviation in response to a requirement of the British Purchasing Commission, the Purchasing Commission approached North American Aviation to build Curtiss P-40 fighters under license for the Royal Air Force. Rather than build an old design from another company, North American Aviation proposed the design, the prototype NA-73X airframe was rolled out on 9 September 1940,102 days after the contract was signed, and first flew on 26 October. The Mustang was originally designed to use the Allison V-1710 engine and it was first flown operationally by the RAF as a tactical-reconnaissance aircraft and fighter-bomber. The addition of the Rolls-Royce Merlin to the P-51B/C model transformed the Mustangs performance at altitudes above 15,000 ft, the P-51 was also used by Allied air forces in the North African, Mediterranean, Italian and Pacific theaters. During World War II, Mustang pilots claimed to have destroyed 4,950 enemy aircraft, despite the advent of jet fighters, the Mustang remained in service with some air forces until the early 1980s. After the Korean War, Mustangs became popular civilian warbird and air racing aircraft, in April 1940 the British government established a purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Self was given responsibility for Royal Air Force production and research and development, and also served with Sir Wilfrid Freeman. Self also sat on the British Air Council Sub-committee on Supply and one of his tasks was to organize the manufacturing and supply of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time, the choice was limited, as no U. S. aircraft then in production or flying met European standards. The Curtiss-Wright plant was running at capacity, so P-40s were in short supply, North American Aviation was already supplying its Harvard trainer to the RAF, but was otherwise underutilized. NAA President Dutch Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture the Tomahawk under license from Curtiss. Kindelberger said NAA could have an aircraft with the same engine in the air sooner than establishing a production line for the P-40. In March 1940,320 aircraft were ordered by Sir Wilfred Freeman who had become the head of the Ministry of Aircraft Production. The NA-73X, which was designed by a led by lead engineer Edgar Schmued, followed the best conventional practice of the era. One was a wing designed using laminar flow airfoils which were developed co-operatively by North American Aviation and these airfoils generated very low drag at high speeds. The results of this test showed the superiority of the wing designed with the NAA/NACA 45–100 airfoils, the other feature was a new cooling arrangement that reduced the cooling drag. It was later discovered that, after lot of development, the assembly could take advantage of the Meredith Effect
33.
North American T-28 Trojan
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The North American Aviation T-28 Trojan is a piston-engined military trainer aircraft used by the United States Air Force and United States Navy beginning in the 1950s. Besides its use as a trainer, the T-28 was successfully employed as a counter-insurgency aircraft and it has continued in civilian use as an aerobatics and Warbird performer. On September 24,1949, the XT-28 was flown for the first time, found satisfactory, a contract was issued and between 1950 and 1957, a total of 1,948 were built. Following the T-28s withdrawal from U. S. military service, the first refurbished machines, designated T-28R-1 were similar to the standard T-28s they were adapted from, and were supplied to the Brazilian Navy. Later, an ambitious conversion was undertaken as the T-28R-2. The largest single concentration of aircraft was employed by the U. S. Navy at Naval Air Station Whiting Field in Milton, Florida. The T-28s service career in the U. S. military ended with the completion of the phase-in of the T-34C turboprop trainer. The last U. S. Navy training squadron to fly the T-28 was VT-27 “Boomers”, based at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas, flying the last T-28 training flight in early 1984. The last T-28 in the Training Command, BuNo 137796, departed for Naval District Washington on 14 March 1984 to be displayed permanently at Naval Support Facility Anacostia, D. C. In 1963, a Royal Lao Air Force T-28 piloted by Lieutenant Chert Saibory, Saibory was immediately imprisoned and his aircraft was impounded. Within six months the T-28 was refurbished and commissioned into the North Vietnamese Air Force as its first fighter aircraft. T-28s were supplied to the South Vietnamese Air Force in support of ARVN ground operations, seeing service during the Vietnam War in VNAF hands. A T-28 Trojan was the first US fixed wing aircraft lost in South Vietnam. Capt. Robert L. Simpson, USAF, Detachment 2A, lst Air Commando Group, the USAF lost 23 T-28s to all causes during the war, with the last two losses occurring in 1968. T-28s were used by the CIA in the former Belgian Congo during the 1960s, frances Armée de lAir used locally re-manufactured Trojans for close support missions in Algeria. The Philippines utilized T-28s during the 1989 Philippine coup attempt, the aircraft were often deployed as dive bombers by rebel forces. SDSM&T is currently planning to replace it with another modified, but more modern, former military aircraft, many retired T-28s were subsequently sold to private civil operators, and due to their reasonable operating costs are often found flying or displayed as warbirds today. The Trojan Phlyers are a two ship formation flying team from the Dallas, Texas area using T-28 Trojan aircraft and they have been performing at air shows since 1995 and the aircraft bear the markings of the US Air Force and the US Marine Corps
34.
North American T-6 Texan
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Designed by North American Aviation, the T-6 is known by a variety of designations depending on the model and operating air force. Starting in 1948, the new United States Air Force designated it the T-6 and it remains a popular warbird aircraft used for airshow demonstrations and static displays. It has also used many times to simulate various Japanese aircraft. The Texan originated from the North American NA-16 prototype which, modified as the NA-26, was submitted as an entry for a USAAC Basic Combat aircraft competition in March,1937. The first model went into production and 180 were supplied to the USAAC as the BC-1 and 400 to the RAF as the Harvard I, the US Navy received 16 modified aircraft, designated the SNJ-1, and a further 61 as the SNJ-2 with a different engine. Three BC-2 aircraft were built before the shift to the advanced trainer designation, AT-6, the differences between the AT-6 and the BC-1 were new outer wing panels with a swept-forward trailing edge, squared-off wingtips, and a triangular rudder, producing the canonical Texan silhouette. Next came the AT-6A which was based on the NA-77 design and was powered by the Pratt & Whitney R-1340-49 Wasp radial engine, the USAAF received 1,549 and the US Navy 270. The AT-6B was built for training and could mount a.30 in machine gun on the forward fuselage. It used the R-1340-AN-1 engine, which was to become the standard for the remaining T-6 production, in late 1937, Mitsubushi purchased two NA-16s as technology demonstrators and possibly a licence to build more. However, the aircraft developed by Watanabe/Kyushu as the K10W1 bore no more than a superficial resemblance to the North American design and it was used in very small numbers by the Imperial Japanese Navy from 1942 onwards. After the war, the Japanese Air Self Defense Force operated Texans, the NA-88 design resulted in 2,970 AT-6C Texans and 2,400 as the SNJ-4. The RAF received 726 of the AT-6C as the Harvard IIA, modifications to the electrical system produced the AT-6D and SNJ-5. The AT-6D, redesignated the Harvard III, was supplied to the RAF, the AT-6G involved major advancements including a full-time hydraulic system and a steerable tailwheel and persisted into the 1950s as the USAF advanced trainer. Subsequently, the NA-121 design with a completely clear rearmost section on the canopy, gave rise to 25 AT-6F Texans for the USAAF and 931, as the SNJ-6 for the US Navy. The ultimate version, the Harvard 4, was produced by Canada Car and Foundry during the 1950s, a total of 15,495 T-6s of all variants were built. They also engaged in combat on a number of occasions. The Israeli Air Force bought 17 Harvards, and operated nine of them in the stages of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, against the Egyptian ground forces. In the Sinai Campaign, IAF Harvards attacked Egyptian ground forces in Sinai Peninsula with two losses, communist guerillas called these aircraft O Galatas, because they saw them flying very early in the morning
35.
Douglas C-47 Skytrain
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The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport aircraft developed from the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II, the specialized C-53 Skytrooper troop transport started production in October 1941 at Douglas Aircrafts Santa Monica, California plant. It lacked the cargo door, hoist attachment and reinforced floor of the C-47, only a total of 380 aircraft were produced in all because the C-47 was found to be more versatile. During World War II, the forces of many countries used the C-47 and modified DC-3s for the transport of troops, cargo. The U. S. Naval designation was R4D, more than 10,000 aircraft were produced in Long Beach and Santa Monica, California and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Between March 1943 and August 1945 the Oklahoma City plant produced 5,354 C-47s, additionally, C-47s were used to airlift supplies to the embattled American forces during the Battle of Bastogne. Possibly its most influential role in aviation, however, was flying The Hump from India into China. The expertise gained flying The Hump was later be used in the Berlin Airlift, in which the C-47 played a major role, until the aircraft were replaced by Douglas C-54 Skymasters. A C-47 flown by the China National Airways Corporation pilot Moon Chin, Moon Chin was tasked with flying from Chungking to Myitkyina, a military base in Burma. His aircraft was jumped by Japanese fighters and, after landing at a small airstrip to wait for his pursuers to give up the game. When Chins DC-3 arrived at Myitkyina, he found that the base had, indeed, been severely bombed by the Japanese, eventually, Chin would carry sixty-eight passengers and a crew of four on the final leg to India. After arriving in India, the tattered American approached Captain Chin, believe me, Chin, he began, if I had had any idea that you were going to jam that many people into this old crate I would have gone home the way I came. Chin inquired as to how that might have been and the American replied I flew in, the short, balding, bedraggled American was none other than Lt Col Jimmy Doolittle returning from the historic raid on Tokyo. In Europe, the C-47 and a specialised paratroop variant, the C-53 Skytrooper, were used in vast numbers in the stages of the war, particularly to tow gliders. During the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, C-47s dropped 4,381 Allied paratroops, more than 50,000 paratroops were dropped by C-47s during the first few days of the invasion of Normandy, France, in June 1944. In the Pacific War, with use of the island landing strips of the Pacific Ocean. About 2,000 C-47s in British and Commonwealth service took the name Dakota, the C-47 also earned the informal nickname gooney bird in the European theatre of operations. The United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command had Skytrains in service from 1946 through 1967, the US Air Forces 6th Special Operations Squadron was flying the C-47 until 2008
36.
Central American Integration System
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The Central American Integration System is the economic and political organization of Central American states since February 1,1993. On December 13,1991, the ODECA countries signed the Protocol of Tegucigalpa, extending earlier cooperation for peace, political freedom, democracy. SICAs General Secretariat is in El Salvador, in 1991, SICAs institutional framework included Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. Belize joined in 2000 as a member, while the Dominican Republic became an associated state in 2004. Mexico, Chile and Brazil became part of the organization as regional observers, SICA has a standing invitation to participate as observers in sessions of the United Nations General Assembly, and maintains offices at UN Headquarters. Belize, Costa Rica, Panama and the Dominican Republic join the CA-4 for economic integration, SICA was supported by the United Nations General Assembly in its resolution A/48L of December 10,1993. Under the Tegucigalpa Protocol, SICA is affiliated with the UN, the five nations, all former Spanish colonies, had previously tried to form a political alliance. Their first attempt was the Federal Republic of Central America, the participants concluded the conference with an agreement creating the Central American Court of Justice. The court would remain in effect for ten years from the final ratification and it was composed of five judges, one from each member state. The court heard ten cases, five of which were brought by private individuals, the court operated until April 1918 from its headquarters in Costa Rica, despite efforts beginning in March 1917, it then dissolved. Reasons for the agreements include, No effective system of judicial procedure Judges were not independent of their respective governments. Jurisdiction was too broad to satisfy its member states, at the end of World War II, interest in integrating the Central American governments began. The following year, ODECAs charter was amended to create a new Central American Court of Justice without the limit of its previous incarnation. The Charter of San Salvador was ratified by all Central American governments, all nations ratified the membership treaties the following year. Costa Rica joined the CACM in 1963, but Panama has not yet joined, the organization froze during the 1969 war between Honduras and El Salvador, in 1973 ODECA was suspended, and progress toward regional integration ground to a halt. In 1991 the integration agenda advanced with the creation of the SICA, SICA includes seven Central America nations and the Dominican Republic, which is part of the Caribbean. Central America has several institutions, such as the Central American Parliament, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration. The Central America trade bloc is governed by the General Treaty for Economical Integration, the CACM has removed duties on most products throughout the member countries, and has unified external tariffs and increased trade within its members
37.
Cuban Revolution
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The Cuban Revolution was an armed revolt conducted by Fidel Castros 26th of July Movement and its allies against the right-wing authoritarian government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. The revolution began in July 1953, and continued sporadically until the rebels finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, the 26th of July Movement later reformed along communist lines, becoming the Communist Party in October 1965. Castro’s organized attack set up on the end of Santiago de Cuba against the military barracks ended in despair. The Cuban Revolution had powerful domestic and international repercussions, in particular, it transformed Cubas relationship with the United States. Efforts to improve diplomatic relations have gained momentum in recent years, in the immediate aftermath of the revolution, Castros government began a program of nationalization and political consolidation that transformed Cubas economy and civil society. The revolution also heralded an era of Cuban intervention in military conflicts, including the Angolan Civil War. Although Batista had been relatively progressive during his first term, in the 1950s he proved far more dictatorial, Batista developed a powerful security infrastructure to silence political opponents. In the months following the March 1952 coup, Fidel Castro, then a lawyer and activist, petitioned for the overthrow of Batista. However, Castros constitutional arguments were rejected by the Cuban courts, after deciding that the Cuban regime could not be replaced through legal means, Castro resolved to launch an armed revolution. Striking their first blow against the Batista government, Fidel and Raúl Castro gathered 123 Movement fighters, on 26 July 1953, the rebels attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago and the barracks in Bayamo, only to be decisively defeated by government soldiers. The staged attack was in hope to spark a revolt against Batista’s government. He had around 150 factory and farm workers, after an hour of fighting the rebel leader fled to the mountains. Due to the large number of men, Hunt revised the number to be around 60 members taking at the opportunity to flee to the mountains along with Castro. Among the dead was Abel Santamaría, Castros second-in-command, who was imprisoned, tortured, numerous key Movement revolutionaries, including the Castro brothers, were captured shortly afterwards. In a highly political trial, Fidel spoke for four hours in his defense, ending with the words Condemn me. Through Castro’s defense he used nationalism, the representation and beneficial programs for the non-elite Cubans, Fidel was sentenced to 15 years in the Presidio Modelo prison, located on Isla de Pinos, while Raúl was sentenced to 13 years. However, in 1955, under political pressure, the Batista government freed all political prisoners in Cuba. Fidels Jesuit childhood teachers succeeded in persuading Batista to include Fidel, soon, the Castro brothers joined with other exiles in Mexico to prepare for the overthrow of Batista, receiving training from Alberto Bayo, a leader of Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War
38.
National Coalition Party (El Salvador)
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The National Coalition Party is a conservative political party in El Salvador. Until 2011 it was known as the National Conciliation Party and it was the most powerful political party in the country during the 1960s and 1970s, and was closely associated with the Salvadoran military. Julio Adalberto Rivera Carballo, a candidate of the National Conciliation Party, was elected president in 1962, after the 1979 revolution the party declined in influence but continued to exist. Today, it is considered relatively minor as compared with the two organizations, ARENA and the FMLN. At the legislative elections, held on 16 March 2003, the party won 13. 0% of the vote and 16 out of 84 seats in the Legislative Assembly. Its candidate in the election of 21 March 2004, José Rafael Machuca Zelaya. At the January 18,2009 legislative elections the party won 11 seats, with no party holding a majority, it can be seen as holding the balance of power. However, it usually sides with the conservative ARENA party, the party was de facto re-established, registering with the Supreme Electoral Tribunal as the National Coalition in September 2011. After one year, it added the word Partido to its full name, since 2015, the party has 6 out of 84 congressmen and 20 out of 262 mayorship offices. Julio Adalberto Rivera Fidel Sanchez Hernandez Arturo Armando Molina Carlos Humberto Romero Website of the party
39.
Salvadoran Civil War
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By January 1980 the left-wing political organizations united to form the Coordinated Revolutionaries of the Masses. A few months later the armed groups united to form the Unified Revolutionary Directorate. It was renamed the FMLN following its merger with the Communist Party in October 1980, the full-fledged civil war lasted for more than 12 years and saw extreme violence from both sides. It also included the deliberate terrorizing and targeting of civilians by death squads, recruitment of soldiers and other violations of human rights. An unknown number of disappeared during the conflict, and the UN reports that more than 75,000 were killed. The United States contributed to the conflict by providing large amounts of aid to the government of El Salvador during the Carter. In 1990 the UN began peace negotiations and on January 16,1992, El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America after Belize. As in many nations of Latin America, the history of El Salvador has been characterized by marked socioeconomic inequality, in the late 19th century coffee became a major cash crop for El Salvador, bringing in approximately 95% of the countrys income. However, this income was restricted to only 2% of the population, socioeconomic tension grew through the 1920s and were compounded by a drop in coffee prices following the stock-market crash of 1929. In 1932 the Central American Socialist Party was formed and led an uprising of peasants, the government brutally suppressed it in what became known as the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre or simply La Matanza, with the military murdering between 10, 000-40,000 indigenous people. Farabundo Martí, the leader of the uprising, was arrested and put to death. La Matanza also served to reinforce feelings of strong distrust and animosity among the populace towards the government, the military, on July 14,1969, an armed conflict erupted between El Salvador and Honduras over immigration disputes caused by Honduran land reform laws. The conflict lasted only four days, but had major long-term effects for Salvadoran society, Trade was disrupted between El Salvador and Honduras, causing tremendous economic damage to both nations. An estimated 300,000 Salvadorans were displaced due to battle, many of whom were exiled from Honduras, in many cases, the Football War also strengthened the power of the military in El Salvador, leading to heightened corruption. The 1973 oil crisis led to rising prices and decreased agricultural output. This worsened the existent socioeconomic inequality in the country, leading to increased unrest, in response, President Arturo Armando Molina enacted a series of land reform measures, calling for large landholdings to be redistributed among the peasant population. The reforms failed, thanks to opposition from the landed elite, the period between the election and the formal inauguration of President Romero on 1 July 1977 was characterized by massive protests from the popular movement, which were met by state repression. On 28 February 1977 a crowd of demonstrators gathered in downtown San Salvador to protest the electoral fraud
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua