1.
Sneakers
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Sneakers are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise. Sneakers have evolved to be used for everyday activities. The term generally describes a type of footwear with a sole made of rubber or synthetic material. Examples of such shoes include athletic footwear such as, basketball shoes, tennis shoes, cross trainers, the term sneakers is most commonly used in the Northeastern United States and Southern Florida. It is also used in North Carolina and Canada, the British English equivalent of sneaker in its modern form is trainer. In some urban areas in the United States, the slang for sneakers is kicks, plimsolls are low tech athletic shoes, and are also called sneakers in American English and daps in Welsh English. The word sneaker is often attributed to American Henry Nelson McKinney who was an agent for N. W. Ayer & Son. In 1917, he used the term because the sole made the shoe stealthy. The word was already in use at least as early as 1887, the name sneakers originally referred to how quiet the rubber soles were on the ground, in contrast to noisy standard hard leather sole dress shoes. Someone wearing sneakers could sneak up on someone while someone wearing standards could not, earlier the name sneaks had been used by prison inmates to refer to warders because of the rubber-soled shoes they wore. Alternatively, just like the Plimsoll line on a ship, if water got above the line of the rubber sole, plimsolls were widely worn by vacationers and also began to be worn by sportsmen on the tennis and croquet courts for their comfort. Special soles with engraved patterns to increase the grip of the shoe were developed. Athletic shoes were used for leisure and outdoor activities at the turn of the 20th century - plimsolls were even found with the ill-fated Scott Antarctic expedition of 1911. Plimsolls were made compulsory in schools physical education lessons in the UK, British company J. W. Foster and Sons designed and produced the first shoes designed for running in 1895, the shoes were spiked to allow for greater traction and speed. This style of footwear also became prominent in America at the turn of the 20th century, in 1892, the U. S. Rubber Company introduced the first rubber-soled shoes in the country, sparking a surge in demand and production. The first basketball shoes were designed by Spalding as early as 1907, the market for sneakers grew after World War I, when sports and athletics increasingly became a way to demonstrate moral fiber and patriotism. The U. S. market for sneakers grew steadily as young boys lined up to buy sneakers endorsed by football player Jim Thorpe, during the interwar period, athletic shoes began to be marketed for different sports, and differentiated designs were made available for men and women. Athletic shoes were used by competing athletes at the Olympics, helping to popularise athletic shoes among the general public, in 1936, a French brand, Spring Court, marketed the first canvas tennis shoe featuring signature eight ventilation channels on a vulcanised natural rubber sole
2.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
3.
Personal protective equipment
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Personal protective equipment refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearers body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks. PPE is needed there are hazards present. PPE has the limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at source. Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment and this can create additional strains on the wearer, impair their ability to carry out their work and create significant levels of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly, therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, death. Good ergonomic design can help to minimise these barriers and can help to ensure safe. Practices of occupational safety and health can use hazard controls and interventions to mitigate workplace hazards, the hierarchy of hazard controls provides a policy framework which ranks the types of hazard controls in terms of absolute risk reduction. At the top of the hierarchy are elimination and substitution, which remove the hazard entirely or replace the hazard with a safer alternative. If elimination or substitution measures cannot apply, engineering controls and administrative controls, Personal protective equipment ranks last on the hierarchy of controls, as the workers are regularly exposed to the hazard, with a barrier of protection. The hierarchy of controls is important in acknowledging that, while personal protective equipment has tremendous utility, Personal protective equipment can be categorized by the area of the body protected, by the types of hazard, and by the type of garment or accessory. The protective attributes of each piece of equipment must be compared with the expected to be found in the workplace. More breathable types of protective equipment may not lead to more contamination. Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, there are two main types of respirators. One type functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, the filtration may be either passive or active. Gas masks and particulate respirators are examples of type of respirator. A second type protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source and this type includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus
4.
Shoe
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A shoe is an item of footwear intended to protect and comfort the human foot while the wearer is doing various activities. Shoes are also used as an item of decoration and fashion, the design of shoes has varied enormously through time and from culture to culture, with appearance originally being tied to function. Additionally, fashion has often dictated many design elements, such as whether shoes have very high heels or flat ones, contemporary footwear in the 2010s varies widely in style, complexity and cost. Basic sandals may consist of only a sole and simple strap. High fashion shoes made by famous designers may be made of materials, use complex construction. Some shoes are designed for specific purposes, such as boots designed specifically for mountaineering or skiing, traditionally, shoes have been made from leather, wood or canvas, but in the 2010s, they are increasingly made from rubber, plastics, and other petrochemical-derived materials. Though the human foot is adapted to varied terrain and climate conditions, it is vulnerable to environmental hazards such as sharp rocks and hot ground. Some shoes are worn as safety equipment, such as steel-soled boots which are required on construction sites, the earliest known shoes are sandals dating from approximately 7000 or 8000 BC, found in the Fort Rock Cave in the US state of Oregon in 1938. Ötzi the Icemans shoes, dating to 3300 BC, featured brown bearskin bases, deerskin side panels, and a bark-string net, the Jotunheimen shoe was discovered in August 2006. Archaeologists estimate that the shoe was made between 1800 and 1100 BC, making it the oldest article of clothing discovered in Scandinavia. It is thought that shoes may have used long before this. By studying the bones of the toes, it was observed that their thickness decreased approximately 40,000 to 26,000 years ago. This led archaeologists to deduce that wearing shoes resulted in less bone growth and these earliest designs were very simple in design, often mere foot bags of leather to protect the feet from rocks, debris, and cold. They were more commonly found in colder climates, many early natives in North America wore a similar type of footwear, known as the moccasin. These are tight-fitting, soft-soled shoes typically made out of leather or bison hides, many moccasins were also decorated with various beads and other adornments. Moccasins were not designed to be waterproof, and in wet weather and warm summer months, as civilizations began to develop, thong sandals were worn. This practice dates back to pictures of them in ancient Egyptian murals from 4000 BC, One pair found in Europe was made of papyrus leaves and dated to be approximately 1,500 years old. They were also worn in Jerusalem during the first century of the Common Era, thong sandals were worn by many civilizations and made from a wide variety of materials
5.
Fashion
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Fashion is a popular style or practice, especially in clothing, footwear, accessories, makeup, body, or furniture. Fashion is a distinctive and often constant trend in the style in which a person dresses and it is the prevailing styles in behaviour and the newest creations of textile designers. Although aspects of fashion can be feminine or masculine, some trends are androgynous, early Western travelers, traveling whether to Persia, Turkey, India, or China, would frequently remark on the absence of change in fashion in the respective places. The Japanese Shoguns secretary bragged to a Spanish visitor in 1609 that Japanese clothing had not changed in over a thousand years, however, there is considerable evidence in Ming China of rapidly changing fashions in Chinese clothing. Changes in costume took place at times of economic or social change, as occurred in ancient Rome. In 8th-century Moorish Spain, the musician Ziryab introduced to Córdoba sophisticated clothing-styles based on seasonal and daily fashions from his native Baghdad, modified by his own inspiration. Similar changes in fashion occurred in the 11th century in the Middle East following the arrival of the Turks, who introduced clothing styles from Central Asia, the beginning in Europe of continual and increasingly rapid change in clothing styles can be fairly reliably dated. This created the distinctive Western outline of a tailored top worn over leggings or trousers, the pace of change accelerated considerably in the following century, and women and mens fashion, especially in the dressing and adorning of the hair, became equally complex. Art historians are able to use fashion with confidence and precision to date images, often to within five years. These national styles remained very different until a counter-movement in the 17th to 18th centuries imposed similar styles once again, in the 16th century, national differences were at their most pronounced. Ten 16th century portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats, albrecht Dürer illustrated the differences in his actual contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the 15th century. Though textile colors and patterns changed from year to year, the cut of a gentlemans coat, by 1800, all Western Europeans were dressing alike, local variation became first a sign of provincial culture and later a badge of the conservative peasant. The Haute house was the established by government for the fashion houses that met the standards of industry. Since then, the idea of the designer as a celebrity in his or her own right has become increasingly dominant. The impact of unisex expands more broadly to various themes in fashion including androgyny, mass-market retail. Fashion weeks are held in cities, where designers exhibit their new clothing collections to audiences. Modern Westerners have a number of choices available in the selection of their clothes. What a person chooses to wear can reflect his or her personality or interests, when people who have high cultural status start to wear new or different clothes, a fashion trend may start
6.
Adornment
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An adornment is generally an accessory or ornament worn to enhance the beauty or status of the wearer. They are often worn to embellish, enhance, or distinguish the wearer, when worn to show economic status, the items are often either rare or prohibitively expensive to others. Adornments are usually colourful, and worn to attract attention and they have a long history, around the world, from feathers or bone, to modern accessories, such as jewellery. Items of adornment are also used by warriors, and by members of the military to show rank or achievement. These include cosmetics, jewellery, clothing accessories, facial hair, fingernail modification, piercing, lip plates, tattooing, braiding, groups who practice adornment include the Yakuza, military, religious institutions, tribal groups, and the punk culture. Items of adornment can tell us about a persons rank, social status, gender role, area of origin, an example would be the beaded jewelry worn by the Maasai tribe, which is very specific to them and some related tribes. N. White, Carolyn L. Beeson, Marianne S. Dimensions of dress and adornment, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Examples of African adornment Adornment at DMOZ
7.
Social structure
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In the social sciences, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of the individuals. On the macro scale, social structure is the system of stratification, social institutions, or. On the meso scale, it is the structure of social ties between individuals or organizations. On the micro scale, it can be the way norms shape the behavior of individuals within the social system, Social norms influence social structure through relations between the majority and the minority. These scales are not always kept separate, for example, recent scholarship by John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of micro-scale cultural institutions. Likewise, another recent study, in ethnography, describes how indigenous social structure in the Republic of Panama changed macro social structures and impeded a planned Panama Canal expansion. Since the 1920s, the term has been in use in social science. This approach has been important in the literature with the rise of various forms of structuralism. It is important in the study of organizations, because an organizations structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change. Therefore, structure is an important issue for management, Social structure may be seen to influence important social systems including the economic system, legal system, political system, cultural system, and others. Family, religion, law, economy, and class are all social structures, the social system is the parent system of those various systems that are embedded in it. The early study of structures has informed the study of institutions, culture and agency, social interaction. Weber investigated and analyzed the institutions of society, market, bureaucracy. One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, Marx argued that the economic base substantially determined the cultural and political superstructure of a society. In this context, Durkheim distinguished two forms of structural relationship, mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity, the former describes structures that unite similar parts through a shared culture, the latter describes differentiated parts united through social exchange and material interdependence. Some follow Marx in trying to identify the dimensions of society that explain the other dimensions. Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures, the notion of social structure is intimately related to a variety of central topics in social science, including the relation of structure and agency. The most influential attempts to combine the concept of structure with agency are Anthony Giddens theory of structuration
8.
Sock
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A sock is an item of clothing worn on the feet and often covering the ankle or some part of the calf. Some type of shoe or boot is typically worn over socks, in ancient times, socks were made from leather or matted animal hair. In the late 16th century, machine-knit socks were first produced, until 1800 both hand knitting and machine knitting were used to produce socks, but after 1800, machine knitting became the predominant method. One of the roles of socks is absorbing perspiration, in cold environments, socks made from wool insulate the foot and decrease the risk of frostbite. Socks are worn with shoes and dress shoes. In addition to the numerous practical roles played by socks, they are also a fashion item, the modern English word sock is derived from the Old English word socc, meaning light slipper. This comes from the Latin soccus, a term to describe a light, low-heeled shoe worn by Roman comic actors, Socks have evolved over the centuries from the earliest models, which were made from animal skins gathered up and tied around the ankles. In the 8th century BC, the Ancient Greeks wore socks from matted animal hair for warmth, the Romans also wrapped their feet with leather or woven fabrics. By the 5th century AD, socks called puttees were worn by people in Europe to symbolize purity. By 1000 AD, socks became a symbol of wealth among the nobility, from the 16th century onwards, an ornamental design on the ankle or side of a sock has been called a clock. The invention of a machine in 1589 meant that socks could be knitted six times faster than by hand. Nonetheless, knitting machines and hand knitters worked side by side until 1800, the next revolution in sock production was the introduction of nylon in 1938. Until then socks were made from silk, cotton and wool. Nylon was the start of blending two or more yarns in the production of socks, a process still continues. Socks can be created from a variety of materials such as, cotton, wool, nylon, acrylic, polyester, olefins. To get an increased level of other materials that might be used during the process can be silk, bamboo, linen, cashmere. The color variety of choices can be any color that the designers intend to make the sock upon its creation. Sock coloring can come in a range of colors
9.
Hosiery
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Hosiery, also referred to as legwear, describes garments worn directly on the feet and legs. The term originated as the term for products of which a maker or seller is termed a hosier. The term is used for all types of knitted fabric. Lower denier measurements of 5 to 15 describe a hose which may be sheer in appearance, whereas styles of 40 and above are dense, with little to no light able to come through on 100 denier items. The first references to hosiery can be found in works of Hesiod, even the Egyptians are speculated to have used hosiery as socks have been found in certain tombs. Most hosiery garments are made by knitting methods, modern hosiery is usually tight-fitting by virtue of stretchy fabrics and meshes. Older forms include binding to achieve a tight fit, due to its close fit, most hosiery can be worn as an undergarment, but it is more commonly worn as a combined under/outer garment. Hosiery garments are the product of hosiery fabric produced from hosiery yarn, unlike the yarn used for making woven fabric, hosiery yarn comes from a separate spinning process, and is used with circular knitting machines to form fabric. One or more hosiery yarn is used to make knitted or hosiery fabric, and garments produced out of this are generally referred to as hosiery garments
10.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
11.
Chalcolithic
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The Copper Age was originally defined as a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The archaeological site of Belovode on the Rudnik mountain in Serbia contains the worlds oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BCE, the multiple names result from multiple recognitions of the period. Originally, the term Bronze Age meant that either copper or bronze was being used as the hard substance for the manufacture of tools. In 1881, John Evans, recognizing that the use of copper often preceded the use of bronze and he did not include the transitional period in the tripartite system of Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age but placed it at the beginning outside of it. He did not, however, present it as a fourth age, in 1884, Gaetano Chierici, perhaps following the lead of Evans, renamed it in Italian as the Eneo-litica, or Bronze-stone transition. The phrase was never intended to mean that the period was the one in which both bronze and stone were used. The Copper Age features the use of copper, excluding bronze, moreover, litica simply names the Stone Age as the point from which the transition began and is not another -lithic age. Subsequently, British scholars used either Evanss Copper Age or the term Eneolithic, around 1900, many writers began to substitute Chalcolithic for Eneolithic, to avoid the false segmentation. It was then that the misunderstanding began among those who did not know Italian, the -lithic was seen as a new -lithic age, a part of the Stone Age in which copper was used, which may appear paradoxical. Today Copper Age, Eneolithic and Chalcolithic are used synonymously to mean Evanss original definition of Copper Age, there was an independent invention of copper and bronze smelting first by Andean civilizations in South America extended later by sea commerce to the Mesoamerican civilization in West Mexico. The literature of European archaeology, in general, avoids the use of Chalcolithic, the Copper Age in the Middle East and the Caucasus began in the late 5th millennium BCE and lasted for about a millennium before it gave rise to the Early Bronze Age. The transition from the European Copper Age to Bronze Age Europe occurs about the same time, an archaeological site in Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of coppermaking from 7,500 years ago. In Serbia, an axe was found at Prokuplje, which indicates that humans were using metals in Europe by 7,500 years ago. Knowledge of the use of copper was far more widespread than the metal itself, the European Battle Axe culture used stone axes modeled on copper axes, even with imitation mold marks carved in the stone. Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991, examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on the Iberian Peninsula. Pottery of the Beaker people has found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have copper and bronze technologies in Europe. The term Chalcolithic is not generally used by British prehistorians, who disagree whether it applies in the British context, in Bhirrana, the earliest Indus civilization site, copper bangles and arrowheads were found
12.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
13.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
14.
Barefoot
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Barefoot is the most common term for the state of not wearing any footwear. Wearing shoes and keeping the feet protected against the environment has been the state in urbanized civilizations since early antiquity. This is particularly the case in urban surroundings, where going barefoot is rather unusual and these implications are frequently used for religious purposes, where they are deliberately sought out, but also translate to secular situations. Nowadays going barefoot normally happens by ones own choice while there are certain situations where it can be involuntary. Presently this can be the case in situations of imprisonment and formerly also enslavement and this is mostly done to put captives at a physical disadvantage against their keepers, to display their situational inferiority and also to humble or intimidate them. In the situations mentioned going barefoot is not optional and usually a permanent fixture the unfree person cannot dismiss or change on his or her own. While the forcibly barefooted individual is rendered much more vulnerable and susceptible to outside influences, this often results in varying degrees of physical and psychological discomfort. As a result, the person usually is constantly aware of being restricted in his or her freedom of action, in cases of captivity or imprisonment being barefooted is at this typically and entirely involuntary. It can therefore even involve a degree of reluctance against this circumstance. Wearing footwear is a human characteristic, however some animals held by humans are also issued with footwear, such as horses, more rarely dogs. There are health benefits and risks associated with going barefoot, however, shoes can limit the flexibility, strength and mobility of the foot and can lead to higher incidences of flexible flat foot, bunions, hammer toe and Mortons neuroma. There are many sports that are performed barefoot, most notably gymnastics and martial arts, in modern language, someone who tends not to wear shoes in public or is participating in the aforementioned sports may be described as a barefooter. People in ancient times, such as the Egyptians, Hindus and Greeks often went barefoot, the Egyptians and Hindus made some use of ornamental footwear, such as a soleless sandal known as a Cleopatra, which did not provide any practical protection for the foot. Athletes in the Ancient Olympic Games participated barefoot and generally unclothed, even the gods and heroes were primarily depicted barefoot, the hoplite warriors fought battles in bare feet, and Alexander the Great operated barefoot armies. The Romans, who conquered the Greeks and adopted many aspects of their culture, did not adopt the Greek perception of footwear. Roman clothing explicitly including footwear was seen as a sign of power and as a necessity of living in a civilized world, there are many references to shoes being worn in the Bible. During weddings of this period, a father would give his son-in-law a pair of shoes to symbolize the transfer of authority, going barefoot was seen as a marker of poverty and the lowest social class, as well as being the mark of a prisoner. In the 15th century, chopines were created in Turkey and were usually 7-8 inches high and these shoes became popular in Venice and throughout Europe as a status symbol revealing wealth and social standing
15.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
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Shoemaking
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Shoemaking is the process of making footwear. Originally, shoes were made one at a time by hand, shoemakers, also known as cordwainers or snobs, may produce a range of footwear items, including shoes, boots, sandals, clogs and moccasins. Such items are made of leather, wood, rubber, plastic, jute or other plant material. Trades that engage in shoemaking have included the cordwainers and cobblers trades, today shoes are often made on a factory basis rather than a craft basis. For most of history, shoemaking has been a handicraft, limited to time consuming manufacture by hand, traditional shoemakers used more than 15 different techniques of making shoes. Some of these were, pegged construction, English welted, goyser welted, Norwegian, stitchdown, turnout, German sewn, moccasin, bolognese stitched, and blake-stitched. The most basic foot protection, used since ancient times in the Mediterranean area, was the sandal, similar footwear worn in the Far East was made from plaited grass or palm fronds. In climates that required a full foot covering, a piece of untanned hide was laced with a thong, providing full protection for the foot. The production of shoes, was widespread in medieval Europe. They were made from a piece of wood roughly cut into shoe form. A variant of this form was the clog, which were wooden soles to which a leather upper was attached, the sole and heel were made from one piece of maple or ash two inches thick, and a little longer and broader than the desired size of shoe. With the use of a hollower, the inner soles contours were adapted to the shape of the foot, the leather uppers were then fitted closely to the groove around the sole. Clogs were of great advantage to workers in muddy and damp conditions, keeping the feet dry, by the 1600s, leather shoes came in two main types. Turn shoes consisted of one thin flexible sole, which was sewed to the upper while outside in and this type was used for making slippers and similar shoes. The second type united the upper with an insole, which was attached to an out-sole with a raised heel. This was the variety, and was used for most footwear, including standard shoes. The traditional shoemaker would measure the feet and cut out upper leathers according to the required size and these parts were fitted and stitched together. The insole was then attached to a last made of wood, some lasts were straight, while curved lasts came in pairs, one for left shoes, the other for right shoes
17.
Cordwainer
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A cordwainer is a shoemaker who makes new shoes from new leather. The cordwainers trade can be contrasted with the trade, according to a tradition in Britain that restricted cobblers to repairing shoes. This usage distinction is not universally observed, as the word cobbler is widely used for tradespersons who make or repair shoes, the earliest attestation in English is a reference to “Randolf se cordewan”, ca. According to the OED, the term is now considered obsolete except where it persists in the name of a trade-guild or company, the terms cordwainer and cobbler have often been considered not interchangeable, according to a tradition in Britain that restricted cobblers to repairing shoes. In this usage, a cordwainer is someone who makes new shoes using new leather, medieval cordovan leather was used for the highest quality shoes, but cordwainers also used domestically produced leathers and were not solely producers of luxury footwear. In the historic London guild system, the cobblers and cordwainers were separate guilds, historically, cobblers also made shoes but only using old leather recovered from discarded or repaired shoes. Today, many makers of bespoke shoes will also repair their own work, in London, the occupation of cordwainer was historically controlled by the guild of the Worshipful Company of Cordwainers. They were granted a charter of incorporation in 1439, but had received their first ordinance in 1272. The ward of the City of London named Cordwainer is historically where most cordwainers lived and worked, until 2000, a Cordwainers Technical College existed in London. For over a hundred years, the College had been recognised as one of the leading establishments for training shoemakers. It produced some of the fashion designers, including Jimmy Choo. In 2000, Cordwainers College was absorbed into the London College of Fashion, in Scotland, in 1722, the cordwainers petitioned “to be incorporated and separated from the shoe-makers ‘or those who make single-soled shoes’”. Cordwainers were among those who sailed to Virginia in 1607 to settle in Jamestown, by 1616, the secretary of Virginia reported that the leather and shoe trades were flourishing. Christopher Nelme, of England, was the earliest shoemaker in America whose name has recorded, he sailed to Virginia from Bristol, England. In 1620, the Pilgrims landed in Massachusetts near the site of modern Provincetown, nine years later, in 1629, the first shoemakers arrived, bringing their skills with them. The Honourable Cordwainers Company, a guild, was founded in 1984 by a group of shoemakers and historians. Cordwainers were also among the settlers of Canada. By 27 June, the thirteen transport ships following the Sphinx reached the harbour with the initial 2576 British settlers, among them were nineteen cordwainers
18.
Patten (shoe)
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Pattens are protective overshoes that were worn in Europe from the Middle Ages until the early 20th century. Pattens were worn outdoors over a shoe, had a wooden or later wood and metal sole. Pattens functioned to elevate the foot above the mud and dirt of the street, in a period when road, the word patten probably derives from the Old French pate meaning hoof or paw. Women continued to wear pattens in muddy conditions until the nineteenth or even early 20th century, Pattens were worn during the Middle Ages outdoors and in public places over the thin soled shoes of that era. Medieval pattens were known in English by the terms, patyns, clogges, and galoches, medieval and Early Modern overshoes are now all usually referred to as pattens for convenience. There were three types of pattens, one with a wooden platform sole raised from the ground by either with wooden wedges or iron stands. The second variant had a wooden sole often hinged. The third type had a sole made from stacked layers of leather. Some later European varieties of these pattens had a sole, light wooden inner sections with leather above. In earlier varieties of pattens, dating from the 12th century on, from the late 14th century, the flat variety became increasingly common. Most London patten soles were constructed of alder, willow or poplar woods, in 1390, the Diocese of York forbade clergy from wearing pattens and clogs in both church and in processions, considering them to be indecorous, contra honestatem ecclesiae. Since shoes of the period had thin soles, pattens were commonly used mainly because of unpaved roads, furthermore, refuse in cities – animal especially horse dung and human effluent – was usually thrown directly into the street. Making full foot contact with such an unpleasant surface was, understandably, highly undesirable, by this time mens shoes had thicker soles and the wealthier males commonly wore high riding boots, thus pattens seem only to have been worn by women and working-class men in outdoor occupations. Since dress hems extended down to the feet for most of period, it was necessary to raise the hem above the ground to keep the dress clean even in well-swept. To talk excessively and too loudly was coined to be as if one, had your tongue run on pattens, used by Shakespeare and others. In houses, pattens were taken off with hats and overcoats upon entering, not doing so being considered rude, the word was also used for the traditional wooden outdoor shoes of Japan and other Asian countries. What are in effect snowshoes for mud, as used by wildfowlers, boatmen and these are shaped boards attached to the sole of a shoe, which extend sideways well beyond the shape of the foot, and therefore are a different sort of footwear from the patten discussed here. Horse-pattens were used on horses, especially for ploughing muddy fields, the word was also used for ice-skates, as it is in French
19.
High-heeled footwear
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High-heeled footwear is footwear that raises the heel of the wearers foot significantly higher than the toes. When both the heel and the toes are raised equal amounts, as in a shoe, it is technically not considered to be a high heel, however. High heels tend to give the illusion of longer, more slender legs. High heels come in a variety of styles, and the heels are found in many different shapes, including stiletto, pump, block, tapered, blade. The apparel industry would appear to take a view, the term high heels covers heels ranging from 2 to 5 inches or more. Extremely high-heeled shoes, such as those exceeding 6 inches, strictly speaking, are no longer considered apparel and they are worn for display or the enjoyment of the wearer. High heels are not a modern invention but there is confusion regarding when it was developed, research shows that high heels can be traced back to ancient Egypt. In the middle of the second millennium BC, Egyptians began to frequently uses sandals, retention was obtained generally by the Egyptians by a T or V thong passing through the sole. Egyptian butchers also wore heeled shoes for practical purposes, that is, things started to change when during the European renaissance, the high heel became a status symbol worn by both male and females from the higher social statuses. Catherine de Medici a Franco/Italian noblewomen pioneered the use of heels as a fashion statement, Catherine de Medici is believed to have worn them to impress the French court when she wed the Duke of Orleans, the future king. Two hundred years later King Louis XIV of France decreed that only nobility could wear heels, seventeenth-century portraits of King Louis XIV depict the various intricate heels worn by the king and they were often decorated with miniature battle scenes. During the 16th century, European royalty, such as Catherine de Medici and Mary I of England, by 1580, men wore them, and a person with authority or wealth was often referred to as well-heeled. Since the French Revolution the trend wearing high heels was ended to avoid any associating with the old aristocracy, since people wished to avoid the appearance of wealth, heels were largely eliminated from the common market for both men and women and replace by casual fashion and shoe wear. From the beginning of the Baroque the heel came back to shoes and it is sometimes suggested that raised heels were a response to the problem of the riders foot slipping forward in stirrups while riding. The riders heel, approximately 1 1⁄2 inches high, appeared in Europe around 1600 and these features are evident today in riding boots, notably cowboy boots. Since the Second World War, high heels have fallen in and out of fashion several times, most notably in the late 1990s. Lower heels were preferred during the late 1960s and early 1970s as well, the shape of the fashionable heel has changed from block to tapered, and stiletto. Today, high heels are typically worn with heights varying from a heel of 1.5 inches to a stiletto heel of 5 inches or more
20.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
21.
Chopine
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A chopine is a type of womens platform shoe that was popular in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. Chopines were originally used as a patten, clog, or overshoe to protect the shoes and dress from mud, chopines were popularly worn in Venice by both courtesans and patrician women from ca. Besides their practical uses, the height of the chopine became a reference to the cultural and social standing of the wearer, the higher the chopine. High chopines allowed a woman to tower over others, during the Renaissance, chopines became an article of womens fashion and were made increasingly taller, some extant examples are over 20 inches high. In 1430, the height of chopines was limited by Venetian law to three inches, but this regulation was widely ignored, extant pieces are covered with leather, brocades, or jewel-embroidered velvet. Often, the fabric of the chopine matched the dress or the shoe, however, despite being highly decorated, chopines were often hidden under the wearers skirt and were hidden from any critical observation. Although due to the design of the shoes, they caused the wearer to have a very “comical walk. ”According to some scholars, chopines caused an unstable and inelegant gait. Noblewomen wearing them were accompanied by two servants in order to walk around safely, by supporting themselves on the servants shoulders. Other scholars have argued that with practice a woman could walk, chopines were usually put on with the help of two servants. In the 15th century, chopines were also the style in Spain and their popularity in Spain was so great that the larger part of the nations cork supplies went towards production of the shoes. Some argue that the style originated in Spain, as there are extant examples. Chopines of the Spanish style were more conical and symmetric. That is not to say, however, that Spanish chopines were not adorned, on the contrary, there is evidence of jeweling, gilt lettering along the surround, tooling, there are a great many cognates of the word chopine. However, neither the word chopine nor any word similar to it appears in Florios dictionaries of either 1598 or 1611, the Italian word, instead, seems to be zoccoli, which likely comes from the Italian word zocco, meaning a stump or a block of wood. Florio does, however, use the word chopinos in his English definition of zoccoli
22.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
23.
Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
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Status symbol
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A status symbol is a perceived visible, external denotation of ones social position and perceived indicator of economic or social status. Many luxury goods are considered status symbols. Status symbol is also a sociological term – as part of social and sociological symbolic interactionism – relating to how individuals and groups interact, as people aspire to high status, they often seek also its symbols. As with other symbols, status symbols may change in value or meaning over time, for example, before the invention of the printing press, possession of a large collection of laboriously hand-copied books was a symbol of wealth and scholarship. In later centuries, books became common, so a private library became less-rarefied as a status symbol. In some past cultures of East Asia, pearls and jade were major status symbols, similar legal exclusions applied to the toga and its variants in ancient Rome, and to cotton in the Aztec Empire. Special colors, such as yellow or royal purple were reserved for royalty. Another common status symbol of the European medieval past was heraldry, status symbols also indicate the cultural values of a society or a subculture. For example, in a society, having money or wealth and things that can be bought by wealth, such as cars, houses. In a society that values honor or bravery, a battle scar would be more of a status symbol, among intellectuals being able to think in an intelligent and educated way is an important status symbol regardless of material possessions. In academic circles, a long list of publications and a tenured position at a prestigious university or research institute are a mark of high status. It has been speculated that the earliest foods to be domesticated were luxury feast foods used to cement ones place as a rich person. A uniform symbolizes membership in an organization, and may display additional insignia of rank, specialty, tenure, a state decoration medal or badge can show that the wearer has heroic or official status. Elaborate color-coded academic regalia is worn during commencement ceremonies, indicating academic rank. In many cultures around the world, diverse visual markers of marital status are widely used, coming of age rituals and other rites of passage may involve granting and display of symbols of a new status. Dress codes may specify who ought to wear particular kinds or styles of clothing, and when, the condition and appearance of ones body can be a status symbol. In times past, when most workers did physical labor outdoors under the sun and often had little food, being pale and fat was a symbol, indicating wealth. Now that workers usually do less-physical work indoors and find time for exercise, being tanned
25.
Catherine de' Medici
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Catherine de Medici, daughter of Lorenzo II de Medici and of Madeleine de La Tour dAuvergne, was an Italian noblewoman who was Queen of France from 1547 until 1559, as the wife of King Henry II. As the mother of three sons who became kings of France during her lifetime, she had extensive, if at times varying, for a time, she ruled France as its regent. In 1533, at the age of fourteen, Caterina married Henry, second son of King Francis I, under the gallicised version of her name, Catherine de Médicis, she was Queen consort of France as the wife of King Henry II of France from 1547 to 1559. Throughout his reign, Henry excluded Catherine from participating in state affairs and instead showered favours on his mistress, Diane de Poitiers. Henrys death thrust Catherine into the arena as mother of the frail fifteen-year-old King Francis II. When he died in 1560, she became regent on behalf of her ten-year-old son King Charles IX and was granted sweeping powers, after Charles died in 1574, Catherine played a key role in the reign of her third son, Henry III. He dispensed with her only in the last months of her life. Catherines three sons reigned in an age of almost constant civil and religious war in France, the problems facing the monarchy were complex and daunting but Catherine was able to keep the monarchy and the state institutions functioning even at a minimum level. At first, Catherine compromised and made concessions to the rebelling Protestants, or Huguenots and she failed, however, to grasp the theological issues that drove their movement. Later she resorted, in frustration and anger, to hard-line policies against them, some historians have excused Catherine from blame for the worst decisions of the crown, though evidence for her ruthlessness can be found in her letters. In practice, her authority was limited by the effects of the civil wars. Without Catherine, it is unlikely that her sons would have remained in power, the years in which they reigned have been called the age of Catherine de Medici. According to Mark Strage, one of her biographers, Catherine was the most powerful woman in sixteenth-century Europe. Catherine was born on 13 April 1519 in Florence, Republic of Florence, the child of Lorenzo de Medici, Duke of Urbino, and his wife, Madeleine de la Tour dAuvergne. The young couple had married the year before at Amboise as part of the alliance between King Francis I of France and Lorenzos uncle Pope Leo X against the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. According to a chronicler, when Catherine was born, her parents were as pleased as if it had been a boy. King Francis wanted Catherine to be raised at the French court, Catherine was first cared for by her paternal grandmother, Alfonsina Orsini. After Alfonsinas death in 1520, Catherine joined her cousins and was raised by her aunt, the death of Pope Leo in 1521 interrupted Medici power briefly, until Cardinal Giulio de Medici was elected Pope Clement VII in 1523
26.
Mary I of England
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Mary I was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet Bloody Mary and she was the only child of Henry VIII by his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI succeeded their father in 1547, when Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because of religious differences. On his death their first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, was proclaimed queen, Mary assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was ultimately beheaded. Mary was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England, in 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556. Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after her half-brothers short-lived Protestant reign, during her five-year reign, she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions. After her death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry, Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London. She was the child of King Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Her mother had many miscarriages, before Marys birth, four previous pregnancies had resulted in a stillborn daughter and she was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth. Her godparents included her great-aunt the Countess of Devon, Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey, Henry VIIIs cousin once removed, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, stood sponsor for Marys confirmation, which was held immediately after the baptism. The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin Frances Brandon, in 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Marys governess. Sir John Hussey, later Lord Hussey, was her chamberlain from 1530, in July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals. By the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin and she studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek. Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani, also, as the miniature portrait of her shows, Mary had, like both her parents, a very fair complexion, pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair. She was also ruddy cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father, despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons. By the time Mary was nine years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, in 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border of Wales to preside, presumably in name only, over the Council of Wales and the Marches. She was given her own based at Ludlow Castle and many of the royal prerogatives normally reserved for the Prince of Wales. Vives and others called her the Princess of Wales, although she was never technically invested with the title and she appears to have spent three years in the Welsh Marches, making regular visits to her fathers court, before returning permanently to the home counties around London in mid-1528
27.
Leather
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Leather is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal rawhide and skin, often cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging from cottage industry to heavy industry, people use leather to make various goods—including clothing, bookbinding, leather wallpaper, and as a furniture covering. It is produced in a variety of types and styles. Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather, Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and it is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium, more exotic colors are possible when using chrome tanning. The chrome tanning method usually only takes a day to finish, and it is reported that chrome-tanned leather adds up to 80% of the global leather supply. Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannins and other found in different vegetable matter, such as tree bark prepared in bark mills, wood, leaves, fruits. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and it is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water, it tends to discolor, so if left to soak and then dried it shrinks, in hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals—becoming rigid, and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, historically, it was occasionally used as armour after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding. Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds and this is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the type of chrome-free leather, often seen in shoes for infants. Formaldehyde tanning is another aldehyde tanning method, brain-tanned leathers fall into this category, and are exceptionally water absorbent. Brain tanned leathers are made by a process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle. They are known for their softness and washability. Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning, and like brain tanning, produces a porous, chamois leather is made using marine oils that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to color it. Rose-tanned leather is a variation of oil tanning and brain tanning. Rose-tanned leather tanned leaves a powerful rose fragrance even years from when it is manufactured and it has been called the most valuable leather on earth, but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose otto and its labor-intensive tanning process
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Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
29.
Rubber
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Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds, plus water. Malaysia and Indonesia are two of the leading rubber producers, forms of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers. Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the tree or others. The latex is a sticky, milky colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark, the latex then is refined into rubber ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup, the coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for marketing. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials, in most of its useful forms, it has a large stretch ratio and high resilience, and is extremely waterproof. The major commercial source of rubber latex is the Pará rubber tree. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation, a properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. Congo rubber, formerly a source of rubber, came from vines in the genus Landolphia. These cannot be cultivated, and the drive to collect latex from wild plants was responsible for many of the atrocities committed under the Congo Free State. The latex exhibits the quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees. In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low, in Nazi Germany, research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In collaboration with Continental Tires, IME began a pilot facility, many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more processing to produce anything like usable rubber. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha and chicle from Manilkara species, the term gum rubber is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version. The first use of rubber was by the cultures of Mesoamerica. The earliest archeological evidence of the use of latex from the Hevea tree comes the Olmec culture. The Pará rubber tree is indigenous to South America, charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736
30.
Adhesives
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The use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such as sewing, mechanical fastening, thermal bonding, etc. Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion and these are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin, Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. The earliest human use of substances was approximately 200,000 years ago. The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately 2000 BCE, the Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not widely used until the period 1500–1700 CE, from then until the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were relatively gradual. Only since the last century has the development of synthetic adhesives accelerated rapidly, the earliest use of adhesives was discovered in central Italy when two stone flakes partially covered with birch-bark tar and a third uncovered stone from the Middle Pleistocene era were found. This is thought to be the oldest discovered human use of tar-hafted stones, the birch-bark-tar adhesive is a simple, one-component adhesive. Although sticky enough, plant-based adhesives are brittle and vulnerable to environmental conditions, the first use of compound adhesives was discovered in Sibudu, South Africa. The ability to produce stronger adhesives allowed middle stone age humans to attach stone segments to sticks in greater variations, more recent examples of adhesive use by prehistoric humans have been found at the burial sites of ancient tribes. Archaeologists studying the sites found that approximately 6,000 years ago the tribesmen had buried their dead together with food found in clay pots repaired with tree resins. The glue was analyzed as pitch, which requires the heating of tar during its production, the retrieval of this tar requires a transformation of birch bark by means of heat, in a process known as pyrolysis. The first references to adhesives in literature first appeared in approximately 2000 BCE, further historical records of adhesive use are found from the period spanning 1500–1000 BCE. Artifacts from this period include paintings depicting wood gluing operations and a made of wood. Other ancient Egyptian artifacts employ animal glue for bonding or lamination, such lamination of wood for bows and furniture is thought to have extended their life and was accomplished using casein -based glues. The ancient Egyptians also developed starch-based pastes for the bonding of papyrus to clothing, from 1 to 500 AD the Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. Wood veneering and marquetry were developed, the production of animal and fish glues refined, egg-based pastes were used to bond gold leaves incorporated various natural ingredients such as blood, bone, hide, milk, cheese, vegetables, and grains. The Greeks began the use of slaked lime as mortar while the Romans furthered mortar development by mixing lime with volcanic ash and this material, known as pozzolanic cement, was used in the construction of the Roman Colosseum and Pantheon
31.
Buckle
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The buckle or clasp is a device used for fastening two loose ends, with one end attached to it and the other held by a catch in a secure but adjustable manner. Often taken for granted, the invention of the buckle has been indispensable in securing two ends before the invention of the zipper, the basic buckle frame comes in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on the intended use and fashion of the era. Buckles are as much in use today as they have been in the past, used for much more than just securing one’s belt, instead it is one of the most dependable devices in securing a range of items. The word buckle enters Middle English via Old French and the Latin buccula or cheek-strap, some of the earliest buckles known are those used by Roman soldiers to strap their body armor together and prominently on the balteus and cingulum. Made out of bronze and expensive, these buckles were purely functional for their strength and durability vital to the individual soldier. The baldric was a belt worn diagonally over the right shoulder down to the waist at the left carrying the sword. Bronze Roman buckles came in various types, not only used for practical purposes, these buckles were also decorated. A Type I Roman buckle was a “buckle-plate” either decorated or plain, Type IA Roman buckles were similar to Type I buckles but differed by being long and narrow, made of double sheet metal, and attached to small D-shaped buckles. Type IB “buckle-loops” were even more similar to Type IA buckles, only difference being that instead of dolphin-heads, they were adorned with horse-heads. There were also Type II buckles used by Romans, but all types of Roman buckles could have served purposes for simple clothing as well, aside from the practical use found in Roman buckles, Scythian and Sarmatian buckles incorporated animal motifs that were characteristic to their respective decorative arts. These motifs often represented animals engaged in mortal combat and these motifs were imported by many Germanic peoples and the belt buckles were evident in the graves of the Franks and Burgundies. And throughout the Middle Ages, the buckle was used mostly for ornamentation until the half of the 14th century where the knightly belt. The buckle essentially consists of four components, the frame, chape, bar. The oldest Roman buckles are of a simple D-shaped frame, in which the prong or tongue extends from one side to the other, in the 14th century, buckles with a double-loop or 8-shaped frame emerged. The prongs of these attach to the center post. The appearance of multi-part buckles with chapes and removable pins, which were found on shoes. The frame is the most visible part of the buckle and holds the parts of the buckle together. Buckle frames come in shapes, sizes, and decorations
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Buttress
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A buttress is an architectural structure built against or projecting from a wall which serves to support or reinforce the wall. Buttresses are fairly common on more ancient buildings, as a means of providing support to act against the forces arising out of the roof structures that lack adequate bracing. The term counterfort can be synonymous with buttress, and is used when referring to dams, retaining walls. Early examples of buttresses are found on the Eanna Temple, dating to as early as the 4th millennium BCE, in addition to flying and ordinary buttresses, brick and masonry buttresses that support wall corners can be classified according to their ground plan. The gallery below shows views of various types of buttress supporting the corner wall of a structure
33.
Grommet
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A grommet is a ring or edge strip inserted into a hole through thin material, typically a sheet of textile fabric, sheet metal and/or composite of carbon fiber, wood or honeycomb. Grommets are generally flared or collared on each side to them in place. A small grommet may also be called an eyelet, used for example on shoes, tarps, in electrical applications these are referred to as insulating bushings. Most common are molded rubber that are inserted into small hole diameters up to 2 in diameter, there are many hole configurations from standard round to assorted U-shapes. Larger penetrations that are irregular in shape as well as straight edges often use extruded or stamped strips of continuous length. These Continuous length materials are referred to as grommet edging, Grommets are used to reinforce holes in leather, cloth, shoes, canvas and other fabrics. They can be made of metal, rubber, or plastic, and are used in common projects, requiring only the grommet itself and a means of setting it with a punch. A simple punch, often sold with the grommets, can be struck with a hammer to set the grommet and it can also be set with an electronic, pneumatic, or gas-powered machine. There are also dedicated grommet presses with punch and anvil, as shown in the picture, ranging from inexpensive to better-quality tools, the grommet prevents the cord from tearing through the hole, thereby providing structural integrity. Small grommets are also called eyelets, especially used in clothing or crafting. Eyelets may be used decoratively for crafting. When used in sailing and various other applications they are called cringles, sometimes field workers may refer to them as grunyons. If metal or another hard material has a made in it. Rubber, plastic or plastic coated metal grommets are used to avoid this, the grommet could also protect the wiring/cabling from contamination from dirt, air, water, etc. The smooth and sometimes soft inner surface of the shields the wire from damage. Grommets are generally used whenever wires pass through punched/drilled sheet metal or plastic casings for this reason, two-piece hard plastic devices are available which also grip the wire that passes through. These are called strain relief bushings and are used to insulate, anchor. Preventing a tug or twist on the wire from stressing the electrical connections inside the connected equipment, sleeved grommets have a flexible extension, usually tapered or moulded to flex increasingly towards the free end in order to reduce fracturing of electrical insulation
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Heel
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The heel is the prominence at the posterior end of the foot. It is based on the projection of one bone, the calcaneus or heel bone and this tissue has a system of pressure chambers that both acts as a shock absorber and stabilises the sole. Each of these chambers contains fibrofatty tissue covered by a layer of connective tissue made of collagen fibers. These septa are attached both to the plantar aponeurosis above and the soles skin below. The sole of the foot is one of the most highly vascularized regions of the surface. The Achilles tendon is the tendon of the triceps surae, a three-headed group of muscles—the soleus. The main function of the triceps surae is plantar flexion, i. e. to stretch the foot downward and it is accompanied by a fourth head, the slight plantaris muscle, the long slender tendon of which is also attached to the heel bone but not visible. The compressive forces applied to the foot are distributed along five rays, the lateral rays stretch over the cuboid bone to the heel bone and the medial rays over the three cuneiform bones and the navicular bone to the ankle bone. In this context the heel thus forms the point of support that together with the balls of the large. Cracked heels is a health problem and it may cause infections. It is caused by dryness of the skin, and accumulation of dead skin. Over time it may cause pain and irritations, various moisturising creams and foot files are available to cure and prevent it. In the long-footed mammals, both the species and the clawed forms which walk on the toes, the heel is well above the ground at the apex of the angular joint known as the hock. In plantigrade species it rests on the ground, in birds, the heel is the backward-pointing joint which is often mistaken as the knee
35.
Hook and eye closure
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A hook-and-eye closure is a very simple and secure method of fastening garments together. It consists of a hook, commonly made of flattened wire bent to the required shape. The hook and eye closure has a history and is still used today. This form of fastening first appears under the name of crochet, the first reference to the modern term appears in Aubreys Brief Lives in 1697, which describes a doublet and breeches being attached with hook and eies. Hooks and eyes were made by hand from wire, until the city of Redditch, England, in 1643 a woman in the American colony of Maryland is recorded to have paid £10 worth of tobacco for hooks and eyes. The hook and eye played an important role in womens corsetry, used in rows and it was not until the first part of the 19th century that the industry was furthered in the United States. E. C. Beecher patented his hook-and-eye in June 1900 with the U. S, patent Office, in 1902, an updated version was submitted that consisted of an attachable hook-and-eye, without any stitching required. A similar hook and eye for brassieres was patented in 1902 by the M. E. Company, to construct the garment, sections of hook-and-eye tape were sewn into either side of the garment closure. Today this labor-saving method comes on either silk or cotton tape, depending on the firmness and they are generally provided at one gross to a box and range in size from No.1 small, to No.10 large
36.
Shoelace
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Each shoelace typically passes through a series of holes, eyelets, loops or hooks on either side of the shoe. Loosening the lacing allows the shoe to open enough for the foot to be inserted or removed. Tightening the lacing and tying off the ends secures the foot within the shoe, Traditional shoelaces were made of leather, cotton, jute, hemp, or other materials used in the manufacture of rope. Modern shoelaces often incorporate various synthetic fibers, which are more slippery. On the other hand, smooth synthetic shoelaces generally have a rough appearance, suffer less wear from friction. Specialized fibers like flame resistant nomex are applied in safety boots for firefighters, there are also various elasticized shoelaces, Traditional elastic laces look identical to normal laces, and can simply be tied and untied as normal. They may also come with a permanent clip so they can be fastened invisibly, knotty laces have a series of fat sections, which restrict movement through eyelets. These can be used to adjust tension throughout the lacing area and these laces can be tied or the ends can be left loose. Twirly laces are like a tight helix, which can simply be pulled tight without requiring a knot. Shoelaces with a flat cross-section are generally easier to hold and stay tied more securely than those with a round cross-section due to the surface area for friction. Very wide flat laces are often called fat laces, leather shoelaces with a square cross-section, which are very common on boat shoes, are notoriously prone to coming undone. Shoelaces can be coated, either in the factory or with aftermarket products, to increase friction, when a shoelace is secured with a knot, the lace is crimped, or squashed. Primarily this is what stops the lace from coming undone, in effect, the lace is narrower inside the knot than it is on the loose end, and the loose end cannot make itself smaller and slide though the knot. Generally, a flat tubular lace will stay tied more easily than a lace with a core because the flat lace can be more crimped within the knot. Most laces, however, are round and have core of cotton yarn, for these to stay tied securely, the core on the inside of the lace must be soft and compressible. A secondary factor of laces coming undone is the knot itself slipping and this is due to a lack of friction. Cotton laces have a surface and will make a more reliable knot compared to polyester. In addition, a lace can be smooth or have a coarse surface, finishing processes are available, including waxing and silicone treatments, which enhance friction and stop knot slippage
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Sole (shoe)
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A shoe is an item of footwear intended to protect and comfort the human foot while the wearer is doing various activities. Shoes are also used as an item of decoration and fashion, the design of shoes has varied enormously through time and from culture to culture, with appearance originally being tied to function. Additionally, fashion has often dictated many design elements, such as whether shoes have very high heels or flat ones, contemporary footwear in the 2010s varies widely in style, complexity and cost. Basic sandals may consist of only a sole and simple strap. High fashion shoes made by famous designers may be made of materials, use complex construction. Some shoes are designed for specific purposes, such as boots designed specifically for mountaineering or skiing, traditionally, shoes have been made from leather, wood or canvas, but in the 2010s, they are increasingly made from rubber, plastics, and other petrochemical-derived materials. Though the human foot is adapted to varied terrain and climate conditions, it is vulnerable to environmental hazards such as sharp rocks and hot ground. Some shoes are worn as safety equipment, such as steel-soled boots which are required on construction sites, the earliest known shoes are sandals dating from approximately 7000 or 8000 BC, found in the Fort Rock Cave in the US state of Oregon in 1938. Ötzi the Icemans shoes, dating to 3300 BC, featured brown bearskin bases, deerskin side panels, and a bark-string net, the Jotunheimen shoe was discovered in August 2006. Archaeologists estimate that the shoe was made between 1800 and 1100 BC, making it the oldest article of clothing discovered in Scandinavia. It is thought that shoes may have used long before this. By studying the bones of the toes, it was observed that their thickness decreased approximately 40,000 to 26,000 years ago. This led archaeologists to deduce that wearing shoes resulted in less bone growth and these earliest designs were very simple in design, often mere foot bags of leather to protect the feet from rocks, debris, and cold. They were more commonly found in colder climates, many early natives in North America wore a similar type of footwear, known as the moccasin. These are tight-fitting, soft-soled shoes typically made out of leather or bison hides, many moccasins were also decorated with various beads and other adornments. Moccasins were not designed to be waterproof, and in wet weather and warm summer months, as civilizations began to develop, thong sandals were worn. This practice dates back to pictures of them in ancient Egyptian murals from 4000 BC, One pair found in Europe was made of papyrus leaves and dated to be approximately 1,500 years old. They were also worn in Jerusalem during the first century of the Common Era, thong sandals were worn by many civilizations and made from a wide variety of materials
38.
Nail (fastener)
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In woodworking and construction, a nail is a pin-shaped object of metal which is used as a fastener, as a peg to hang something, or sometimes as a decoration. Generally nails have a point on one end and a flattened head on the other. Nails are made in a variety of forms for specialized purposes. The most common is a wire nail, other types of nails include pins, tacks, brads, and cleats. Nails are typically driven into the workpiece by a hammer, a nail gun. A nail holds materials together by friction in the axial direction, the point of the nail is also sometimes bent over or clinched after driving to prevent pulling out. The history of the nail is divided roughly into three periods, Hand-wrought nail Cut nail Wire nail To make a wrought-iron nail, iron ore is heated with carbon. To make a nail, a blacksmith heats the rod in a forge, next, the smith cuts off the taper, and inserts it into a nail heading tool with a square hole. The top of the taper is hammered downward to form a head, Nails date back at least to Ancient Egypt — bronze nails found in Egypt have been dated 3400 BC. The Romans made extensive use of nails, the Roman army, for example, left behind seven tons of nails when it evacuated the fortress of Inchtuthil in Perthshire in the United Kingdom in 86 or 87 CE. The term penny, as it refers to nails, probably originated in medieval England to describe the price of a hundred nails, Nails themselves were sufficiently valuable and standardized to be used as an informal medium of exchange. Until around 1800 artisans known as nailers or nailors made nails by hand – note the surname Naylor, at the time of the American Revolution, England was the largest manufacturer of nails in the world. Nails were expensive and difficult to obtain in the American colonies, families often had small nail-manufacturing setups in their homes, during bad weather and at night, the entire family might work at making nails for their own use and for barter. Thomas Jefferson wrote in a letter, In our private pursuits it is an advantage that every honest employment is deemed honorable. I am myself a nail maker, the production of wrought-iron nails continued well into the 19th century, but ultimately was reduced to nails for purposes for which the softer cut nails were unsuitable, including horseshoe nails. Originally, nails were handmade, and the process was slow, nails were relatively few. This naturally produced a desire to create machines to speed up and these nails were known as cut nails or square nails because of their roughly rectangular cross section. Cut nails were one of the important factors in the increase in balloon framing beginning in the 1830s, though still used for historical renovations, and for heavy-duty applications, such as attaching boards to masonry walls, cut nails are much less common today than wire nails
39.
Tread
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The tread of a tire or track refers to the rubber on its circumference that makes contact with the road or the ground. As tires are used, the tread is worn off, limiting its effectiveness in providing traction, a worn tire can often be retreaded. The grooves in the tire are correctly called the pattern, or simply the pattern. The grooves are not the tread, as they do not make contact with the ground and this distinction becomes significant in the case of racing slicks, which certainly have a tread but do not have grooves, and so they neither have a pattern. The grooves in the rubber are designed to allow water to be expelled from beneath the tire, the proportion of rubber to air space on the road surface directly affects its traction. Design of tire tread has an effect upon noise generated, especially at freeway speeds, generally there is a tradeoff of tread friction capability, deeper patterns often enhance safety, but simpler designs are less costly to produce and actually may afford some roadway noise mitigation. Tires intended for dry weather use will be designed with minimal pattern to increase the contact patch, tires with a smooth tread are known as slicks and are generally used for racing only, since they are quite dangerous if the road surface is wet. Street tires will also include wear limit indicators in the form of small raised bridges within the grooves, when the tread is worn down enough that the limit indicators make contact with the road, the tire is deemed to be at the end of its service life. Brake pads use similar indicators in the form of notches on their surface that disappear when they are used, Snow tires or Winter tires are tires designed for use in colder weather, snow and ice. To improve traction, they are made of different rubber and have a different tread pattern from regular street tires. Off-road tires used in mud or dirt feature individual knob patterns to allow the tire to bite into the surface, given the smaller contact patch, these tires tend to wear quickly when used on asphalt. Mountain bike and some motorcycle tires feature tread similar to off-road tires used on cars and trucks, road street bike tires, have smaller grooves in the tread allowing water to escape from beneath the tire. Continuous tracks such as used on military tanks or construction machines have metal track segments which may be rubber-coated. They usually do not feature tread patterns, because these would offer additional grip given the weight of the tracked vehicle. Traction is usually provided by grousers instead, anti-lock braking system Forensic tire tread evidence Snow chains Traction vector Traction control system Treadwear rating
40.
Goodyear welt
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A Goodyear welt is a strip of leather, rubber, or plastic that runs along the perimeter of a shoe outsole. The machinery used for the process was invented in 1869 by Charles Goodyear, time-consuming by modern standards, Goodyear welted construction is still considered one of the finest methods of shoe construction. Goodyear welt construction involves stitching a welt to the upper and a strip of canvas which cemented to the insole of a shoe as an attach-point for the sole. The space enclosed by the welt is then filled with cork or some other material. Shoes with other types of construction may also have welts, the Goodyear welt process is a machine based alternative to the traditional hand welted method for the manufacture of mens shoes, allowing it to be resoled repeatedly. The upper part of the shoe is shaped over the last and fastened on by sewing a leather, as well as using a welt, stitching holds the material firmly together. The welt forms a cavity which is filled with a cork material. The final part of the shoe is the sole, which is attached to the welt by some combination of stitching, the result is highly valued for being relatively waterproof by minimizing water penetration into the insole and the relative ease of resoling as long as the upper remains viable. Welted shoes are expensive to manufacture than those mass produced by automated machinery with molded soles. Salaman, The Dictionary of Leather-Working Tools c, 1700-1950, Allen & Unwin, London 1986. Pp.182 J. H. Thornton, Northampton College of Technology, Textbook of Footwear Manufacture, 28-32, National Trade Press, UK1953 F. Y. Golding, edited by, Boots and Shoes, Vol. VI, pp.178 The New Era Publishing, London 1936 Thomson, the Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States. Video, How Goodyear Welted Shoes are made USA ca
41.
Boot
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A boot is a type of footwear and a specific type of shoe. Most boots mainly cover the foot and the ankle, while some also cover some part of the lower calf, some boots extend up the leg, sometimes as far as the knee or even the hip. Most boots have a heel that is distinguishable from the rest of the sole. Traditionally made of leather or rubber, modern boots are made from a variety of materials, in some cases, the wearing of boots may be required by laws or regulations, such as the regulations in some jurisdictions requiring workers on construction sites to wear steel-toed safety boots. Some uniforms include boots as the regulated footwear, Boots are recommended as well for motorcycle riders. High-top athletic shoes are not considered boots, even though they do cover the ankle. In Britain, the term may be used to refer to football cleats, early boots consisted of separate leggings, soles, and uppers worn together to provide greater ankle protection than shoes or sandals. Around 1000 BC, these components were more permanently joined to form a unit that covered the feet and lower leg. A type of soft leather boots were worn by nomads in eastern Asia. The Inuit and Aleut natives of Alaska developed traditional winter boots of skin or sealskin featuring decorative touches of seal intestine, dog hair. 17th century European boots were influenced by military styles, featuring thick soles, waterproof gumboots are made in different lengths of uppers. In extreme cases, thigh-boots called waders, worn by anglers, such boots may also be insulated for warmth. With the exception of gum boots, boots sold in retail stores may be considered water resistant, as they are not usually fully waterproof. Most work boots are made from leather. Formerly they were usually shod with hobnails and heel- and toe-plates, but now can usually be seen with a rubber sole. Boots are normally worn with socks to prevent chafes and blisters, to sweat, to improve the foots grip inside the boot. Before socks became widely available, footwraps were worn instead, specialty boots have been designed for many different types of sports, particularly riding, skiing, snowboarding, ice-skating, and sporting in wet/damp conditions. Bovver boots, Doc Martens boots and army boots were adopted by skinheads and punks as part of their dress and have migrated to more mainstream fashion
42.
Chukka boot
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Chukka boots are ankle-high leather boots with suede or leather uppers, leather or rubber soles, and open lacing with two or three pairs of eyelets. The name chukka possibly comes from the game of polo, where a chukker is a period of play, a form of chukka boots originally worn by British forces in the Western Desert Campaign of World War II are desert boots. Chukkas are usually made from calfskin or suede, although they can be made from other materials, the style first became popular in the late 1940s through the 1960s as casual wear. In the 21st century, Chukkas persist as a popular menswear shoe and they can be worn with both suits and more casual wear like jeans. A variant of the Chukka boot is the boot, but these always have crepe rubber soles. Desert boots were popularized in the 1950s by UK shoe company C. & J. Clark, Desert boots were officially introduced to the world with the debut of the Clarks Desert Boot at the 1949 Chicago Shoe Fair. After feature coverage in Esquire magazine, their popularity took off, according to Clarks, inspiration came from the crepe-soled, rough suede boots made in Cairos Khan elKhalili bazaar for British Eighth Army officers. These boots were based on the South African veldskoen which became a popular item in Southern Africa due to their robust. Often being bought by soldiers for use in the bush wars of the region they have become popular across the world as desert boots. The year was 1941, and the soldier, well he wasnt just any infantryman, he was Nathan Clark, first and foremost to protect his country, and, secondly, to discover some new shoe designs for his familys company. They wanted something that was lightweight and grippy which led to creation of a boot with a suede upper on a crepe sole
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Combat boot
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Combat boots are military boots designed to be worn by soldiers during combat or combat training, as opposed to during parades and other ceremonial duties. Modern combat boots are designed to provide a combination of grip, ankle stability and they are traditionally made of hardened and sometimes waterproofed leather. Today, many combat boots incorporate technologies originating in civilian hiking boots, such as Gore-Tex nylon side panels, which improve ventilation and comfort. They are also specialized for certain climates and conditions, such as jungle boots, desert boots. The first soldiers known to have been issued boots were the soldiers of the standing army of ancient Assyria. Well documented were those of soldiers of the Roman Empire, Roman soldiers wore hobnail boots, called caligae. By the late 1st century the army began to transition into a boot called calcei. They offered more protection and warmth than the caligae and they quickly became a staple in both Roman military and civilian dress. During the English Civil War, each soldier of the New Model Army was issued three shoes or ankle boots, after every march, the soldier would change them around to ensure they received even wear. Following the Restoration, shoes and uniforms followed the civilian pattern, hessian boots were used by cavalry from the 18th century until World War I. Late in the Napoleonic Wars, the British army began issuing ankle boots that replaced the buckle shoes and these types of boots remained in use throughout the 19th century and were used in conflicts including the Crimean War, First Zulu War, and First Boer War. These in turn were replaced by boots, which were used in a variety of similar design patterns from the late 1880s until the late 1960s. The George Boots worn with the Officers dress uniform and mess dress are similar, but they lack the leather counter, the toe case and omit the hobnails, infantry regiments of the US military were equipped with calf-high boots in the War of 1812. From the 1820s until before the American Civil War soldiers were issued ankle-high boots, there was no left or right boot, instead, they shaped themselves to the wearers feet over time. As a result, these boots were very uncomfortable until broken in and they were replaced in 1858 with an improved version generally known as Jeff Davis boots after Jefferson Davis, the Secretary of War who re-equipped the army in the 1850s. These were used until the 1880s, since 2000, the Australian Army, primarily uses the Redback Terra Combat Boot as a replacement for the Vietnam War-era General Purpose combat boots. It was given an amount of tests in 1999, and was later distributed in 2000. Despite the boots general aptitude for the tasks which the ADF had first put it in place for, 90% of all negative feedback from soldiers was about its inappropriate sizing, having only 43 different sizes
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Cowboy boot
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Cowboy boots refer to a specific style of riding boot, historically worn by cowboys. They have a Cuban heel, rounded to pointed toe, high shaft, and, traditionally, no lacing. Cowboy boots are made from cowhide leather but are also sometimes made from exotic skins such as alligator, snake, ostrich, lizard, eel, elephant, stingray, elk, buffalo. There are two styles of cowboy boots, western, and roper. The classic style is distinguished by a tall boot shaft, going to at least mid-calf, with an angled cowboy heel, a slightly lower, still angled, walking heel is also common. The toe of western boots was originally rounded or squared in shape, the narrow pointed toe design appeared in the early 1940s. Roper boots are made with rounded toes, but, correlating with style changes in streetwear. The roper style is manufactured in a lace-up design which often fits better around the ankle and is less likely to slip off. Riding boots had been a part of life for centuries. Until the industrial age, boots were individually handmade in many different styles, early cowboy boot designs, along with other cowboy accoutrements, were also heavily influenced by the vaquero tradition imported from Spain to the Americas, dating back to the early 16th century. Military boots designed for cavalry riders also had an influence, later, the industrial revolution allowed some styles of boots to be mass-produced. One mass-produced boot style, the Wellington boot, was popular with cowboys in the USA until the 1860s. During the cattle drive era of 1866–1884, the cowboy was not apt to ruin a good pair of boots while working. The basic style elements permeated even working boots, and made the Wellington obsolete, fashion magazines from 1850 and 1860 show the cowboy boot with topstitching, cutouts of geometric or other natural elements and underslung heel. The American-style boot was taken up by bootmakers in the ranching areas of Texas, Oklahoma. Two of the best known early bootmakers of the era were Charles Hyer of Hyer Brothers Boots in Olathe, Kansas, after the couple divorced, the Olsen-Stelzer brand was started by Stelzer. When mounting and, especially, dismounting, the slick, treadless leather sole of the boot allowed easy insertion, the original toe was rounded and a bit narrowed at the toe to make it easier to insert. While an extremely pointed toe is a modern stylization appearing in the 1940s, it adds no practical benefit, and can be uncomfortable in a working boot
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Fashion boot
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A fashion boot is a boot worn for reasons of style or fashion. The term is applied to women’s boots. Fashion boots come in a variety of styles, from ankle to thigh-length, and are used for casual, formal. Although boots were a style of women’s footwear in the Nineteenth Century. They became widely popular in the 1970s and have remained a staple of women’s winter wardrobes since then, in the 19th and early 20th Centuries, ankle and calf-length boots were common footwear for women. Rising hemlines made longer styles of boots popular, in 1913, Denise Poiret, the wife of celebrated French couturier Paul Poiret, caused a sensation in Paris and New York by wearing knee-length boots in wrinkled Morocco leather. Designed by her husband, made by the bottier Favereau, and styled with a low heel and a toe, she had versions in red, white, green. By 1915 the New York Times was reporting that, inspired by Mme Poiret, by the 1920s Russian boots were available in a variety of styles, calf- or knee-length, with a Cuban or Louis heel, which could be pull-on, or zip-fastened for a closer fit. Worn with knee-length skirts, they often featured decorative features such as stitching or fur trims. As roads were surfaced and horse-drawn transport gave way to the motor engine, Boots were seen as restrictive and uncomfortable when compared with the new styles of fashionable shoe that complimented a more streamlined and simplified look for womens clothing. Although they were popular as late as the beginning of the 1930s. American designer Beth Levine is widely credited as the first person to introduce boots into Haute Couture, as early as 1953, Beth Levine introduced under the Herbert Levine label a calf-length boot in white kidskin, which sold poorly. Most retailers saw boots as a category of footwear from shoes. By contrast, Levine argued that boots were shoes and could be a part of a womans outfit. The re-emergence of boots as an item in the 1960s has been interpreted as an antidote to the femininity of Diors post war New Look. Rising hemlines and the availability of new, brightly colored artificial materials such as PVC, the rising price of leather during the 1960s made these plastic and vinyl boots a popular alternative to more traditional footwear. As skirts became shorter in the late 1960s, there was a resurgence of interest in thigh-length boots or cuissardes. The tallest boots from this period were so high that they were equipped with suspenders to hold them up, high laced boots, similar to those worn in Edwardian times, were also popular
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Go-go boot
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Go-go boots are a low-heeled style of womens fashion boot first introduced in the mid-1960s. The original go-go boots, as defined by André Courrèges in 1964, were white, low-heeled, and mid-calf in height, a specific style which is sometimes called the Courrèges boot. The term go-go is derived from the French expression à gogo, meaning in abundance, galore, which is in turn derived from the ancient French word la gogue for joy, happiness. The term go-go has also explained as a 1964 back-formation of the 1962 slang term go, meaning something that was all the rage. The go-go boot is presumed to have named after the dance style. Fashion boots were revived in the early 1960s by designers such as Beth Levine, although at first they featured fashionable high heels such as the stiletto and kitten heels. The earliest go-go boots were mid-calf, white and flat-heeled, as seen in the work of the designer André Courrèges, the simple minimalism of the Courrèges boot was easily and widely reproduced for the mass market. Courrèges boots provided the foundation for the development of the go-go boot, while remaining low-ish, the heel also became higher and chunkier. The earliest Courrèges boots were made of leather, such as kidskin or patent leather, but many of the subsequent versions and copies were made in PVC, vinyl, and other plastics. In 1966, the song These Boots Are Made for Walkin was released and performed by a go-go boot wearing Nancy Sinatra, tim Gunn suggests that Sinatra helped establish the boot as a symbol of female power. Female dancers on the television shows Hullabaloo and Shindig, also wore the short, white boots. In the mid 1990s, as part of a revival of 1960s fashions. The dictionary definition of go-go at Wiktionary
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Hiking boot
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Hiking boots are footwear specifically designed for protecting the feet and ankles during outdoor walking activities such as hiking. They are one of the most important items of hiking gear, Hiking boots are constructed to provide comfort for walking considerable distance over rough terrain. Boots that protect the feet and heel are recommended. Hiking boots give ankle support and are fairly stiff, a less popular alternative is to use light trainers with thin soles. Footwear should be too loose nor too tight, to help prevent blisters. Hiking socks that wick sweat from the feet, provide warmth, and cushion the feet are recommended, most hiking boots are also designed for other outdoor activities such as backpacking, climbing, mountaineering, and hunting. There are three types of walking footwear. Trail shoes are made for hiking in dry climates, on well-established and they are suitable for many types of day hikes. Trail hikers are for steeper inclines and muddy paths and they are used where a lightweight boot is most suitable. Trail hikers are also sturdy, higher-cut, and watertight and these boots provide more stability and ankle protection against protruding limbs and rocks than hiking shoes do. Mountain walking or hiking boots are designed for mountain and hill walking, backpacking and mountaineering, Crampons can be attached to them for a better grip on glaciers or hard-packed snow. They are extremely strong, durable, and have stiff soles to give the ankles support, Mountaineering boots are usually taller and stiffer than hiking boots, providing insulation as well as support and protection. Upper - The upper part of a boot is intended to protect. Uppers should be water repellant/proof, but allow the feet to breathe to prevent excess moisture from causing blisters, soles - Hiking boots have deep-lugged soles of tough rubber to provide friction and avoid slipping on any surfaces. Soles absorb and redirect shocks, and provides cushion for the feet, tongues - The flaps that cover the inlet of the upper are called tongues. This is the part the goes underneath the laces, tongues make sure that water, dirt and debris will not enter the boots. Linings and Paddings - Linings and paddings provide more protection and comfort for the feet, Insoles / Footbeds - Insoles are the bottom part of the inner that the feet rest on. Insoles that are shaped to the hikers feet will ensure maximum support
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A pair of Sandals
