1.
Ford Motor Company
–
The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
Ford Motor Company
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The
Ford World Headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan, also known as the Glass House
Ford Motor Company
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Henry Ford (ca. 1919)
Ford Motor Company
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A 1910
Model T, photographed in
Salt Lake City
Ford Motor Company
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William Clay Ford, Jr., great-grandson of Henry Ford, serves as the
executive chairman at the board of Ford Motor Company.
2.
Edison, New Jersey
–
Edison is a township in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States, in the New York City metropolitan area, and the Raritan Bayshore subregion of the Jersey Shore. As of the 2010 United States Census, Edison had a population of 99,967. The 2010 population reflected an increase of 2,280 from the 97,687 counted in the 2000 Census, Edisons population has been above the 100,000 threshold since 2010, increasing by 2. 7% to a Census-estimated 102,701 in 2015. Portions of the township were taken to form Metuchen on March 20,1900, the name was officially changed to Edison Township on November 10,1954, in honor of inventor Thomas Edison, who had his main laboratory in the Menlo Park section of the township. Edison was ranked the 28th most-livable small city in the United States by CNN Money Magazine, in 2008, two years later, Money Magazine ranked the township 35th out of the top 100 places to live in the United States. In the 2006 survey of Americas Safest Cities, the township was ranked 23rd, out of 371 cities included nationwide, in 2009, Edison was ranked as one of Americas 10 Best Places to Grow Up by U. S. News & World Report. The rankings focused on low crime, strong schools, green spaces, Edison Township, comprising former sections of Piscataway and Woodbridge townships, was settled in the 17th century. The earliest village was Piscatawaytown, which is centered around St. James Church, the community was previously known as Raritan Township, not to be confused with the current-day Raritan Township in Hunterdon County. In 1876, Thomas Edison set up his home and research laboratory in New Jersey on the site of a real estate development in Raritan Township called Menlo Park. While there he earned the nickname the Wizard of Menlo Park, Christie Street was the first street in the world to use electric lights for illumination. Edison subsequently left Menlo Park and moved his home and laboratory to West Orange in 1886, near Piscatawaytown village, a portion of the Township was informally known as Nixon, after Lewis Nixon, a manufacturer and community leader. Soon after the outbreak of World War I, Nixon established a massive volatile chemicals processing facility there and it was the site of the 1924 Nixon Nitration Works disaster, a massive explosion and resulting fire that killed 20 persons and destroyed several square miles of the Township. In 1954, the name was changed to honor inventor Thomas A. Edison. Also on the ballot in 1954 was a proposal to change the communitys name to Nixon. Edison has been one of the municipalities in New Jersey. As of the 2000 United States Census, it was the fifth most-populated municipality in the state, after the cities of Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Edison is primarily a middle-class community with more than 75 ethnic communities represented. Edison has a large Jewish community next to Highland Park, with multiple synagogues located in Edison, Edison also has a growing Indian community and a number of temples serving the religious needs of the community. Reflecting the number of Edisons residents from India and China, the township has sister city arrangements with Shijiazhuang, China, and Vadodara, India
Edison, New Jersey
–
Edison Tower
Edison, New Jersey
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Map of Edison Township in Middlesex County.
Edison, New Jersey
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Replica of Edison's lab where he invents the first commercially practical light bulb. Henry Ford, Edison's longtime friend, built it at the
Henry Ford Museum in Michigan.
Edison, New Jersey
–
Acoustic trio MKS performs at The Coffee House in Edison on a Saturday evening.
3.
Car classification
–
Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
Car classification
–
Aixam
Car classification
–
Citroën C1
Car classification
–
Renault Clio IV
Car classification
–
Ford Focus (International)
4.
Compact car
–
The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
Compact car
–
A
Japanese designed compact car, the
Honda Civic
Compact car
–
Ford Focus
Compact car
–
Chevrolet Cruze
Compact car
–
1952
Nash Rambler 2-door station wagon
5.
Battery (electricity)
–
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to a circuit will flow. It is the movement of ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells. Primary batteries are used once and discarded, the materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket, examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones. According to a 2005 estimate, the battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year. Batteries have much lower energy than common fuels such as gasoline. This is somewhat offset by the efficiency of electric motors in producing mechanical work. The usage of battery to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. Although early batteries were of value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated. It consisted of a pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly, many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances, near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy, a battery consists of some number of voltaic cells
Battery (electricity)
–
Various cells and batteries (top-left to bottom-right): two
AA, one
D, one handheld
ham radio battery, two
9-volt (PP3), two
AAA, one
C, one
camcorder battery, one
cordless phone battery.
Battery (electricity)
–
A
voltaic pile, the first battery
Battery (electricity)
–
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a
D Cell, a
C cell, an
AA cell, an
AAA cell, an
AAAA cell, an
A23 battery, a 9-volt
PP3 battery, and a pair of
button cells (CR2032 and LR44).
Battery (electricity)
–
A device to check battery voltage
6.
Electricity
–
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence of electric charge. Although initially considered a separate to magnetism, since the development of Maxwells Equations both are recognized as part of a single phenomenon, electromagnetism. Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, electric discharges, in addition, electricity is at the heart of many modern technologies. The presence of a charge, which can be either positive or negative. On the other hand, the movement of charges, which is known as electric current. When a charge is placed in a location with non-zero electric field, the magnitude of this force is given by Coulombs Law. Thus, if that charge were to move, the field would be doing work on the electric charge. Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would not be until the nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry, electricitys extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society, long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the Thunderer of the Nile, Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Patients suffering from such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them. Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. He coined the New Latin word electricus to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed and this association gave rise to the English words electric and electricity, which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Brownes Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646. Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke, Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray, in the 18th century, Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity, selling his possessions to fund his work. In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a key to the bottom of a dampened kite string. A succession of jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature
Electricity
–
Lightning is one of the most dramatic effects of electricity.
Electricity
–
Thales, the earliest known researcher into electricity
Electricity
–
Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research on electricity in the 18th century, as documented by
Joseph Priestley (1767) History and Present Status of Electricity, with whom Franklin carried on extended correspondence.
Electricity
–
Michael Faraday 's discoveries formed the foundation of electric motor technology
7.
Pickup truck
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A pickup truck is a light duty truck having an enclosed cab and an open cargo area with low sides and tailgate. Today in North America, the pickup is used like a passenger car. The term pickup is of unknown origin and it was used by Studebaker in 1913 and by the 1930s pick-up had become the standard term. In Australia and New Zealand ute, short for utility, is used for both pickups and coupé utilities, in South Africa people of all language groups use the term bakkie, a diminutive of bak, Afrikaans for bowl. In the early days of automobile manufacturing, vehicles were sold as a chassis only, and third parties added bodies on top. In 1913 the Galion Allsteel Body Company, a developer of the pickup and dump truck, built and installed hauling boxes on slightly modified Ford Model T chassis. Seeking part of market share, Dodge introduced a 3/4-ton pickup with cab. In 1925 Ford followed up with a Model T-based steel-bodied, half-ton with an adjustable tailgate, billed as the Ford Model T Runabout with Pickup Body, it sold for US$281. In 1928 it was replaced by the Model A which had a closed-cab, safety glass windshield, roll-up side windows, in 1931 Chevrolet produced its first factory-assembled pickup. Ford Australia produced the first Australian ute in 1932, during the Second World War, the United States government halted the production of privately owned pickup trucks. In the 1950s consumers began purchasing pickups for lifestyle rather than utilitarian reasons, car-like smooth-sided fenderless trucks were introduced, such as the Chevrolet Fleetside, the Chevrolet El Camino, the Dodge Sweptline and in 1957, Fords purpose-built Styleside. Pickups began to feature comfort items like power options and air conditioning, trucks became more passenger oriented with the introduction of crew cabs in the Toyota Stout and the Hino Briska, was introduced in 1962. Dodge followed with a cab in 1963, Ford in 1965. Over the intervening years, Detroit lobbied to protect the light-truck tariff, thereby reducing pressure on Detroit to introduce vehicles that polluted less, the US governments 1973 Corporate Average Fuel Economy policy sets higher fuel economy requirements for cars than pickups. CAFE led to the replacement of the wagon by the minivan. Eventually, this idea led to the promotion of the SUV. Pickups, unhindered by the emissions regulations on cars, began to replace muscle cars as the performance vehicle of choice. The Dodge Warlock appeared in Dodges adult toys line, along with the Macho Power Wagon, the gas guzzler tax, which taxed fuel-inefficient cars while exempting pickup trucks, further distorted the market in favour of pickups
Pickup truck
–
1922 Ford Model T Pickup 2
Pickup truck
–
1956 Chevrolet Cameo with smooth sided bed
Pickup truck
–
2006 Ram 3500 Mega Cab Dually
Pickup truck
–
1990 Subaru Sambar
kei truck
8.
Automobile layout
–
In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
Automobile layout
–
FF layout
9.
Rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout
–
In automotive design, an RR, or Rear-engine, Rear-wheel-drive layout places both the engine and drive wheels at the rear of the vehicle. In contrast to the RMR layout, the center of mass of the engine is between the axle and the rear bumper. Most of the traits of the RR configuration are shared with the mid-engine rear-wheel-drive, the front-engine front-wheel-drive layout also has this advantage. The farther back the engine, the greater the bias, typical weight bias for an FR, is 55/45 front/rear, for MR, 45/55, for RR, 35/65. Rear weight bias reduces forward weight transfer under braking, and increases rear weight transfer under acceleration, the former means that traction is more evenly distributed among all four wheels under braking, resulting in shorter stopping times and distances. The latter means that the wheels have increased traction when accelerating, allowing them to put more power on the ground. The disadvantage to a weight bias is that the car can become unstable. When this happens, rotational inertia dictates that the added weight away from the axis of rotation will be likely to maintain the spin. This is an inherent instability in the design, making it easier to induce, all cars, regardless of drivetrain layout, obey the same laws of physics and can do this, but it is much easier to do and harder to correct in MR and RR vehicles. When not braking, the weight over the front wheels means less traction, resulting in the car having a tendency to understeer. To counteract this, it is necessary to induce forward weight transfer to increase front grip, but this significantly destabilizes the car and can be hard to do properly, that is, without spinning. In these respects, an RR can be considered to be an exaggeration of MR - harder braking, faster and earlier acceleration, and increased oversteer, in off road and low-traction situations, the RR layout has some advantages compared to other 2WD layouts. The weight is biased towards the driven wheels- as with FF vehicles and this both improves drive-wheel traction and reduces the tendency for the undriven wheels to dig in. In addition, the driving and steering requirements are split between front and rear- as with FR vehicles- making it likely for either to lose traction. Many dune buggies successfully use a Volkswagen beetle as the car for this reason. The relative simplicity and light compared to 4WD can therefore sometimes outweigh the disadvantage of only having two driven wheels. Where RR differs from MR is in that the engine is located outside the wheelbase, the major advantage of MR - low moment of inertia - is negated somewhat, and there is more room for passengers and cargo. Furthermore, because both axles are on the side of the engine, it is technically more straightforward to drive all four wheels
Rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout
–
Tatra 77, one of first streamlined cars with RR platform
Rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout
–
RR layout
Rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout
–
Volkswagen Bug/Beetle (VW Type 1)
Rear-engine, rear-wheel drive layout
–
Tatra 603 with RR platform.
10.
Electric motor
–
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
Electric motor
–
Various electric motors, compared to 9 V battery.
Electric motor
–
Cutaway view through stator of induction motor.
Electric motor
–
Faraday's electromagnetic experiment, 1821
Electric motor
–
Jedlik 's "electromagnetic self-rotor", 1827 (Museum of Applied Arts, Budapest). The historic motor still works perfectly today.
11.
AC induction motor
–
An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motors rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type, three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans, although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump, squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency drive applications. Tesla applied for U. S. patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these patents in May 1888, in April 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferrariss research on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation. George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system at time, licensed Tesla’s patents in 1888. Tesla was also employed for one year as a consultant, Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at Westinghouse. Steadfast in his promotion of development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889. Furthermore, he claimed that Teslas motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891, by 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Arthur E. Kennelly was the first to bring out full significance of the i to designate the 90-degree rotation operator in complex number analysis of AC problems. GEs Charles Proteus Steinmetz greatly developed application of AC complex quantities including in terms now commonly known as the induction motors Steinmetz equivalent circuit. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7. 5-horsepower motor in 1897. In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motors stator creates a field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motors rotor turns at the rate as the stator field. The induction motor stators magnetic field is changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces a current in the induction motors rotor, in effect the motors secondary winding. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor, the currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field
AC induction motor
–
Three-phase totally enclosed fan-cooled (
TEFC) induction motor with end cover on the left, and without end cover to show cooling fan. In TEFC motors, interior losses are dissipated indirectly through enclosure fins mostly by forced air convection.
AC induction motor
–
Cutaway view through stator of
TEFC induction motor. Note rotor air circulation vanes.
AC induction motor
–
A model of Tesla's first induction motor, in Tesla Museum, Belgrade.
AC induction motor
–
Early squirrel cage rotor
12.
Transmission (mechanics)
–
A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
Transmission (mechanics)
–
Gears from a five-speed + reverse gearbox from the 1600 Volkswagen Golf (2009).
Transmission (mechanics)
–
The main gearbox and rotor of a
Bristol Sycamore helicopter
Transmission (mechanics)
–
Tractor transmission with 16 forward and 8 backward gears
Transmission (mechanics)
–
Amphicar gearbox cutaway w/optional shift for water going propellers
13.
Wheelbase
–
In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
Wheelbase
–
Wheelbase (measured between rotational centers of wheels)
14.
Battery electric vehicle
–
A battery electric vehicle, battery-only electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines for propulsion and they derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include bicycles, scooters, skateboards, rail cars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles passed the one million unit milestone in September 2016. PHEVs with a series powertrain are also called range-extended electric vehicles, such as the Chevrolet Volt, in China, plug-in electric vehicles, together with hybrid electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles. The concept of electric vehicles is to use charged batteries on board vehicles for propulsion. Battery electric cars are becoming more and more attractive with the advancement of new technology that have higher power and energy density. BEVs include automobiles, light trucks, and neighborhood electric vehicles, two of these buses were used for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. A similar bus was operated in Napa Valley, California for 14 months ending in April,2004, the 2008 Beijing Olympics used a fleet of 50 electric buses, which have a range of 130 km with the air conditioning on. They use Lithium-ion batteries, and consume about 1 kW·h/mi, the buses were designed by the Beijing Institute of Technology and built by the Jinghua Coach Co. Ltd. The batteries are replaced with fully charged ones at the station to allow 24-hour operation of the buses. In France, the bus electric phenomenon is in development, PVI, a medium company located in the Paris region, is one of the leader of the market with its brand Gepebus. In the United States, the first battery-electric, fast-charge bus has been in operation in Pomona, the Proterra EcoRide BE35 uses lithium-titanate batteries and is able to fast-charge in less than 10 minutes. In 2014, the first production model all-electric school bus was delivered to the Kings Canyon Unified School District in California’s San Joaquin Valley, the bus was one of four the district ordered. This battery electric bus, which has 4 sodium nickel batteries, is the first modern electric school bus approved for student transportation by any state. The same technology is used to power the Mountain View Community Shuttles and this technology was supported by the California Energy Commission, and the shuttle program is being supported by Google. The buses will also be built in the United States and Finland, Tindo is an all-electric bus from Adelaide, Australia. The Tindo is made by Designline International in New Zealand and gets its electricity from a solar PV system on Adelaides central bus station, rides are zero-fare as part of Adelaides public transport system. Proterras EcoRide BE35 transit bus, called the Ecoliner by Foothill Transit in West Covina, California, is a duty, fast charge
Battery electric vehicle
–
Nissan Leaf, a top selling highway-capable
all-electric car.
Battery electric vehicle
–
A battery-electric minibus in
St Helens, England
Battery electric vehicle
–
The first all-electric school bus in the state of California pausing outside the California capitol building in Sacramento.
Battery electric vehicle
–
First-electric-bus service
15.
Ford Ranger (North America)
–
Introduced to replace the Ford Courier produced in Japan by Mazda, the Ranger was produced in two distinct generations. While introduced a year after the Chevrolet S-10, the Ranger would go on to become the best-selling compact truck in the United States from 1987 to 2004. Over its production life, the chassis and underpinnings of the Ranger would be used for various compact Ford trucks, during the 1990s and 2000s, Mazda adopted a badge-engineered version of Ranger, taking on the B-Series nameplate. Over its 29-year production run, Ford produced the Ranger via three different assembly plants in North America. The Ranger was produced at the Louisville Assembly Plant in Louisville, Kentucky from 1982 to 1999, from 1993 to 2004, production also was sourced from Edison Assembly in Edison, New Jersey. For its entire run, the Ranger was produced at Twin Cities Assembly Plant in St. Paul. The final 2012 Ford Ranger produced on December 16,2011, Ford has recently announced that they will be manufacturing and selling the Ranger again starting in 2019. Ford began development of the Ranger in 1976, focusing on quality, the intent was to build a truck that was as capable as the full-size F-Series, but in a more economical package. The compact Ranger had a similar styling to the full-size Ford F-Series, used a similar architecture and this ability allowed the Ford Ranger to haul a 4-foot wide sheet of plywood, which is a common standard for a pickup truck. In addition, a key factor driving the development of the Ford compact truck was the 25 percent Chicken tax on imported trucks, Ford began production of the model year 1983 Ranger on January 18,1982 at the Louisville Assembly Plant, hitting showrooms in March. Available engines were the 72 hp 2.0 L and 82 hp 2.3 L OHC four-cylinders, a four-cylinder 59 hp 2.2 L Mazda/Perkins diesel, and a 115 hp 2.8 L Cologne V6. In 1985, a Mitsubishi-built 2.3 L turbo-diesel with 86 hp replaced the Mazda diesel engine, and in 1986, the 2. 8-liter engine was replaced with a 140 hp 2.9 L Cologne V6. The Super-cab was introduced in 1986, offering an extra 17 inches of space behind the front seats. Also in 1986, the cluster was modified to allow fitment of a factory tachometer. A lot of the parts of the such as the steering wheel, door handles, and the window cranks were similar to those in other Ford vehicles like the Bronco, Escort. Mid-year 1986 saw the introduction of the Ranger GT in California only, inside, the pickup was equipped with special bucket seats, full instrument cluster, and an optional center console. Front and rear sway bars were installed and 14-inch aluminum wheels completed the package, the truck received a facelift in 1988 for the 1989 model year, which included flush composite headlamps, new front fenders, hood, and grille, along with some upgrades to the frame. Inside, there was a new dashboard and steering column
Ford Ranger (North America)
–
Ford Ranger
Ford Ranger (North America)
–
First generation
Ford Ranger (North America)
–
1989 Ford Ranger
Ford Ranger (North America)
–
1993–1997
16.
Lead-acid batteries
–
The lead-acid battery was invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté and is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio and these features, along with their low cost, makes it attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors. As they are compared to newer technologies, lead-acid batteries are widely used even when surge current is not important. Large-format lead-acid designs are used for storage in backup power supplies in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like hospitals. For these roles, modified versions of the cell may be used to improve storage times. Gel-cells and absorbed glass-mat batteries are common in these roles, collectively known as VRLA batteries, lead–acid battery sales account for 40–45% of the value from batteries sold worldwide, a manufacturing market value of about $15 billion. In 1859, Gaston Plantés lead–acid battery was the first battery that could be recharged by passing a current through it. Plantés first model consisted of two lead sheets separated by rubber strips and rolled into a spiral and his batteries were first used to power the lights in train carriages while stopped at a station. In 1881, Camille Alphonse Faure invented a version that consisted of a lead grid lattice, into which a lead oxide paste was pressed. This design was easier to mass-produce, an early manufacturer of lead–acid batteries was Henri Tudor. Using a gel electrolyte instead of a liquid allows the battery to be used in different positions without leakage, gel electrolyte batteries for any position date from 1930s, and even in the late 1920s portable suitcase radio sets allowed the cell vertical or horizontal due to valve design. In the 1970s, the lead acid battery was developed, including modern absorbed glass mat types. In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead sulfate, and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid, the discharge process is driven by the conduction of electrons from the negative plate back into the cell at the positive plate in the external circuit. In the fully charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which is lost to the cell. The design of some types of lead-acid battery allow the level to be inspected and topped up with any water that has been lost. During discharge, H+ produced at the negative plates moves into the solution and then is consumed into the positive plates. This motion can be by electrically driven proton flow or Grotthuss mechanism, or by diffusion through the medium, since the density is greater when the sulfuric acid concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate by convection. Therefore, a liquid-medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge more efficiently than an otherwise similar gel cell, because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries
Lead-acid batteries
–
Lead–acid car battery
Lead-acid batteries
–
An opened two-wheeler self-starter battery
Lead-acid batteries
–
Charge current needs to match the ability of the battery to absorb the energy. Using too large a charge current on a small battery can lead to boiling and venting of the electrolyte. In this image a
VRLA battery case has ballooned due to the high gas pressure developed during overcharge.
Lead-acid batteries
–
Sulfated plates from 12V 5Ah battery
17.
Plug-in hybrids in California
–
California has been a leader in the promotion of plug-in hybrids, and plug-in electric vehicles in general, including all-electric vehicles and other zero-emission vehicles. The Governor of California, Jerry Brown, issued an order in March 2012 that established the goal of getting 1.5 million zero-emission vehicles on California roads by 2025. In September 2014, the Charge Ahead California Initiative set the goal to have at least 1 million zero-emission vehicles. As part of the government incentives, in addition to the existing federal tax credit. The limit to the number of green stickers was raised several times, and in September 2016, the expiration date for the green stickers is January 1,2019. As of September 2016, a total of 118,028 plug-in hybrids have been registered in California since 2010. The market share of PHEVs in the state climbed from 0. 1% of new car sales in 2011 to 0. 9% in 2012 to 1. 2% in 2013, and reached 1. 6% during 2014. During 2015 the plug-in hybrid segment share fell to 1. 4%, as of early June 2015, a total of 45,829 plug-in hybrid owners have benefited with the states Clean Vehicle Rebate Project, representing 42. 5% of all clean vehicle rebates issued since January 2011. By early March 2014, and based on CVRPs databse, the counties with the highest adoption of plug-in hybrids in the state are Los Angeles, Orange and Santa Clara. As of January 2014, California leads the country with 5,749 public charging points, as of March 2013, the United States had 5,678 charging stations across the country, a third of which were located in the three westernmost continental states. Deployments are led by California with 1,207 stations, Texas with 432 stations, Florida with 352, Washington with 326, as of October 2013, there were 378 DC quick charging stations across the country. Governor Jerry Brown issued an order in March 2012 that established the goal of getting 1.5 million zero-emission vehicles in California by 2025. He expects the initiative will help the state to reach the goal set for 2025. Californias ZEV regulation was first adopted in 1990 as part of the Low Emission Vehicle Program, the ZEV program is under the responsibility of the California Air Resources Board. The program goal is to reduce the air pollution affecting the main metropolitan areas in the state, particularly in Los Angeles. The program was created from Assembly Bill 118 that was signed by Governor Schwarzenegger in October 2007, the funding is provided on a first-come, first-served basis, and the project is expected to go through 2015. Eligible vehicles include only new California Air Resources Board-certified or approved zero-emission or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, a list of eligible vehicles can be found on the California Center for Sustainable Energy web site. Vehicles must be purchased or leased on or after March 15,2010, initially, the CVRP offered rebates of up to US$5,000 per light-duty vehicle, available for individuals and business owners who purchase or lease new eligible vehicles
Plug-in hybrids in California
–
The
Chevrolet Volt is the top selling
plug-in hybrid in California and the U.S. Shown charging in a public charging point in
Fremont, California.
Plug-in hybrids in California
–
Public
charging stations in a parking lot in
San Francisco.
Plug-in hybrids in California
–
Toyota Prius plug-in hybrid converted by
CalCars with a
fuel economy of over 100
miles per gallon exhibited at the Maker Faire 2008,
San Mateo, California.
Plug-in hybrids in California
–
Besides a US$2,500 federal tax credit, the
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid is eligible for an additional US$1,500 rebate in California.
18.
Ford Ranger
–
The Ford Ranger is a nameplate that has been used on three distinct model lines of cars sold by Ford. Ford repurposed the name Ranger in 1982 for the 1983 model year for a pickup truck sold in North America and, later. Since 1998, Ford has offered a model of Ranger sold internationally. For the 1983 model year, Ford introduced the Ford Ranger for the United States, replacing the 1971-1982 Ford Courier, the Ranger was the first compact pickup truck designed by Ford Motor Company. In 1995, exports of the Ford Ranger began in select Latin, to accommodate the demand for the vehicle, in 1998, Ford Argentina commenced local production of the Ranger, introducing a four-door cab not sold in North America. Over its 29-year production, the Ford Ranger was produced over the chassis architecture. Alongside a major redesign in 1993, the model saw mid-cycle updates for 1989, in South America, for 2010, the Ranger saw all-new exterior sheetmetal not given to its North American counterpart. In 1994, Mazda began sales of the B-Series in the United States and Canada by rebadging the Ford Ranger, on December 22,2011, the final Ford Ranger produced for North America rolled off the assembly line, becoming the final vehicle assembled at Twin Cities Assembly. For the 2012 model year, Ford Argentina began assembly of the Ford Ranger T6. In 2017, Ford announced that a version of the Ranger T6 would be sold in North America as a 2019 model. The Courier was also sold in North America prior to the 1983 model year, second-generation models from 2006 to 2011 were also designed by Mazda, being rebadged versions of the successor to the B-Series, the BT-50. Third-generation models, as produced since 2011, were designed and engineered by Ford Australia, the Ford Ranger is also the basis for the Ford Everest SUV and therefore, the Ranger and the Everest share a number of features
Ford Ranger
–
1983–1988 model years
Ford Ranger
–
1989–1992 model years
Ford Ranger
–
1993–1997 model years
Ford Ranger
–
1998–2000 model years
19.
Electric vehicle
–
An electric vehicle, also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. EVs include road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft, in the 21st century, EVs saw a resurgence due to technological developments and an increased focus on renewable energy. Government incentives to increase adoptions were introduced, including in the United States, around the same period, early experimental electrical cars were moving on rails, too. American blacksmith and inventor Thomas Davenport built a toy electric locomotive, powered by an electric motor. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built a locomotive that attained a speed of four miles per hour. In England a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, between 1832 and 1839, Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells. By the 20th century, electric cars and rail transport were commonplace, electrified trains were used for coal transport, as the motors did not use precious oxygen in the mines. Switzerlands lack of fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network. One of the earliest rechargeable batteries - the nickel-iron battery - was favored by Edison for use in electric cars and they were produced by Baker Electric, Columbia Electric, Detroit Electric, and others, and at one point in history out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. In fact, in 1900,28 percent of the cars on the road in the USA were electric, EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and his secret service agents toured Washington DC in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 mi per charge. A number of developments contributed to decline of electric cars, as roads were improved outside urban areas electric vehicle range could not compete with the ICE. Finally, the initiation of production of gasoline-powered vehicles by Henry Ford in 1913 reduced significantly the cost of gasoline cars as compared to electric cars. In January 1990, General Motors President introduced its EV concept two-seater and that September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s,800 of which were available through three-year leases. Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, Nissan and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers, in 2003, upon the expiration of GMs EV1 leases, GM crushed them. A movie made on the subject in 2005-2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car. Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, after public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV EVs to eager buyers, they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. This lesson did not go unlearned, BMW of Canada sold off a number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended, the production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005
Electric vehicle
–
Electric car. Top-selling
Nissan Leaf in Amsterdam
Electric vehicle
Electric vehicle
Electric vehicle
20.
Powertrain
–
In a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant describes the main components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, more recently in hybrid Powertrains the battery, the electric motor and the control algorithm are also seen as elements of the Powertrain. Usually powertrain is used to refer to simply the engine and transmission, a motor vehicles driveline or drivetrain consists of the parts of the powertrain excluding the engine and transmission. It is the portion of a vehicle, after the transmission, in a wider sense, the power-train includes all of its components used to transform stored energy into kinetic energy for propulsion purposes. This includes the utilization of power sources and non–wheel-based vehicles. The most recent developments in Powertrain are driven by the electrification of it in multiple components, electrical energy needs to be provided, usually this leads to larger batteries. Electrical engines can be found as isolated component or as part of other elements, in hybrid Powertrains the torque generated by the combustion engine and the electric motor have to be brought together and distributed to the wheels. The control of process can be quite involved but the reward are greatly improved acceleration values as well as much better emissions. Powertrain development for diesel engines involves the following, exhaust gas recirculation, changes also include new fuel qualities to allow new combustion concepts. So-called combined combustion systems or diesotto cycles are based on synthetic fuels, bEVs, FCEVs and PHEV powertrains are expected to reach parity with ICE powertrains in 2025. The manufacturing of components and systems is important to industry, including the automotive. In turn these requirements have led to designs involving higher internal pressures, greater instantaneous forces, the resulting designs in turn impose significantly more severe requirements on parts shape and dimension, and material surface flatness, waviness, roughness, and porosity. Quality control over these parameters is achieved through metrology technology applied to all of the steps in powertrain manufacturing processes, in automotive manufacturing, the frame plus the running gear makes the chassis. Later, a body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. Commercial vehicle manufacturers may have only and cowl and chassis versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies. These include buses, motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, the frame plus the body makes a glider. The final drive is the last in the set of components which delivers torque to the drive wheels, in a road vehicle, it incorporates the differential. In a railway vehicle, it incorporates the reversing gear
Powertrain
–
Powertrain of a modern automobile, comprising engine (with exhaust system), transmission, drive shaft, suspension and the wheels.
21.
I4 engine
–
The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
I4 engine
–
Ford inline-four engine with cylinder head removed
I4 engine
–
A
cutaway Renault-Nissan M9R 2.0L Straight-4 DOHC Common rail diesel engine
I4 engine
–
Computer generated image showing the major internal moving parts of an inline-four engine with belt-driven double overhead camshafts and 4 valves per cylinder.
I4 engine
–
Ford Model T engine
22.
Engine
–
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
Engine
–
A V6
internal combustion engine from a
Mercedes car
Engine
–
Two 1949 photographs pertaining the
straight-eight engine of a
Rolls-Royce Phantom IV.
Engine
–
Boulton & Watt engine of 1788
23.
Tachometer
–
A tachometer is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per minute on an analogue dial. The word comes from Greek ταχος and metron, essentially the words tachometer and speedometer have identical meaning, a device that measures speed. It is by convention that in the automotive world one is used for engine. In formal engineering nomenclature, more terms are used to distinguish the two. The first mechanical tachometers were based on measuring the centrifugal force, the inventor is assumed to be the German engineer Dietrich Uhlhorn, he used it for measuring the speed of machines in 1817. Since 1840, it has used to measure the speed of locomotives. Tachometers or revolution counters on cars, aircraft, and other vehicles show the rate of rotation of the engines crankshaft and this can assist the driver in selecting appropriate throttle and gear settings for the driving conditions. This is more applicable to manual transmissions than to automatics, the red zone is superfluous on most modern cars, since their engines typically have a revolution limiter which electronically limits engine speed to prevent damage. Tractors fitted with a take off system have tachometers showing the engine speed needed to rotate the PTO at the standardized speed required by most PTO-driven implements. In many countries, tractors are required to have a speedometer for use on a road, to save fitting a second dial, the vehicles tachometer is often marked with a second scale in units of speed. This scale is only accurate in a gear, but since many tractors only have one gear that is practical for use on-road. Tractors with multiple road gears often have tachometers with more than one speed scale, aircraft tachometers have a green arc showing the engines designed cruising speed range. This is from a connection called an AC tap which is a connection to one of the stators coil output. Tachometers driven by a cable from a drive unit fitted to the engine exist - usually on simple diesel-engined machinery with basic or no electrical systems. On recent EMS found on vehicles, the signal for the tachometer is usually generated from an ECU which derives the information from either the crankshaft or camshaft speed sensor. Tachometers are used to estimate traffic speed and volume, a vehicle is equipped with the sensor and conducts tach runs which record the traffic data. These data are a substitute or complement to loop detector data, to get statistically significant results requires a high number of runs, and bias is introduced by the time of day, day of week, and the season
Tachometer
–
Left figure shows a tachometer that can show up to 7000
RPM
Tachometer
–
Cessna 172 's
G1000 tachometer (1,060 RPM) and engine hours (1736.7 hours)
24.
AM broadcasting
–
AM broadcasting is the process of radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation. AM was the first method of impressing sound on a signal and is still widely used today. Commercial and public AM broadcasting is authorized in the wave band worldwide. Commercial AM broadcasting developed from amateur broadcasts around 1920, and was the commercially important form of radio broadcasting until FM broadcasting began after World War II. This period is known as the Golden Age of Radio, today, AM competes with FM, as well as with various digital radio broadcasting services distributed from terrestrial and satellite transmitters. AM broadcasting was the first broadcasting technology invented, the technology of amplitude modulation radio transmission was developed between 1900 and 1920. This was used for private communication and message traffic, such as telegrams. The entrepreneurs who developed AM radiotelephone transmission did not anticipate broadcasting voice, the term broadcasting, borrowed from agriculture, was applied to this new activity around 1920. Prior to 1920 there was no concept of broadcasting, or that radio listeners could be a market for entertainment. Although there were a number of broadcasts during this period. True radio broadcasting didnt begin until around 1920, when it sprang up spontaneously among amateur stations, AM remained the dominant method of broadcasting for the next 30 years, a period called the Golden Age of Radio, until FM broadcasting started to become widespread in the 1950s. AM remains a popular, profitable entertainment medium today and the dominant form of broadcasting in some such as Australia. The first AM voice transmission was made by Canadian researcher Reginald Fessenden on 23 December 1900, Fessenden is a significant figure in the development of AM radio. He helped develop one of the first – the Alexanderson alternator, the first practical continuous wave AM transmitters were based on versions of the Poulsen arc transmitter invented in 1903, and the huge, expensive Alexanderson alternator, developed 1906–1910. The modifications necessary to transmit AM were clumsy and resulted in low audio quality. Modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in the antenna wire, the limited power handling ability of the microphone severely limited the power of the first radiotelephones, in powerful transmitters water-cooled microphones had to be used. At the receiving end, the crystal radio receivers then in use could not drive loudspeakers, only earphones. The discovery in 1912 of the ability of the Audion vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest
AM broadcasting
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Farmer listening to US government weather and crop reports using a crystal radio. Public service government time, weather, and farm broadcasts were the first radio "broadcasts".
AM broadcasting
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German man listening to subscription radio receiver. Broadcasting in Germany began 1922 as a Post Office monopoly, which provided this receiver which could only receive one station.
AM broadcasting
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Atlanta social club holds a "radiophone dance" in 1920 to music broadcast from a band across town, with dancers wearing earphones. This "phantom dancing" became a fad during the "radio craze" of the early "Roaring 20s".
AM broadcasting
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De Forest's transmitter broadcasting the Hughes-Wilson presidential election returns November 7, 1916, operated by his engineer, Charles Logwood
25.
FM broadcasting
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FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation technology. Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, it is used worldwide to provide high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio, FM broadcasting is capable of better sound quality than AM broadcasting, the chief competing radio broadcasting technology, so it is used for most music broadcasts. FM radio stations use the VHF frequencies, the term FM band describes the frequency band in a given country which is dedicated to FM broadcasting. Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum. Usually 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion thereof, with few exceptions, In the former Soviet republics, and some former Eastern Bloc countries, assigned frequencies are at intervals of 30 kHz. This band, sometimes referred to as the OIRT band, is slowly being phased out in many countries, in those countries the 87. 5–108.0 MHz band is referred to as the CCIR band. In Japan, the band 76–95 MHz is used, the frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an exact multiple of 100 kHz. In most of South Korea, the Americas, the Philippines, in some parts of Europe, Greenland and Africa, only even multiples are used. In the UK odd or even are used, in Italy, multiples of 50 kHz are used. There are other unusual and obsolete FM broadcasting standards in countries, including 1,10,30,74,500. Random noise has a triangular spectral distribution in an FM system and this can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, the amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 µs time constant is used, in the Americas and South Korea,75 µs is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions, for stereo, pre-emphasis is applied to the left and right channels before multiplexing. They cannot be pre-emphasized as much because it would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier, systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasis, e. g. dbx in the BTSC TV sound system, or none at all. Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio level information was experimented with. Edwin Armstrong who invented FM was the first to experiment with multiplexing and these original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated
FM broadcasting
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A commercial 35 kW FM radio transmitter built in the late 1980s. It belongs to FM radio station KWNR in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, and broadcasts at a frequency of 95.5 MHz.
FM broadcasting
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FM Radio Broadcasting: Big Picture in Full Electromagnetic Spectrum
FM broadcasting
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A dramatic demonstration by
General Electric in 1940 of FM's superior rejection of static (
RFI). The radio had both AM and FM receivers. With a million volt arc as a source of interference behind it, the AM receiver produced only a roar of static, while the FM receiver clearly reproduced a music program from Armstrong's experimental FM transmitter in New Jersey.
FM broadcasting
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Armstrong's first prototype FM broadcast transmitter, located in the
Empire State Building, New York City, which he used for secret tests of his system between 1934 and 1935. Licensed as experimental station W2XDG, it transmitted on 41 MHz at a power of 2 kW
26.
Radio
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When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form, Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it, for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation. Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves, an antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected, the electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, a radio communication system sends signals by radio. The term radio is derived from the Latin word radius, meaning spoke of a wheel, beam of light, however, this invention would not be widely adopted. The switch to radio in place of wireless took place slowly and unevenly in the English-speaking world, the United States Navy would also play a role. Although its translation of the 1906 Berlin Convention used the terms wireless telegraph and wireless telegram, the term started to become preferred by the general public in the 1920s with the introduction of broadcasting. Radio systems used for communication have the following elements, with more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised for different communications purposes. Each system contains a transmitter, This consists of a source of electrical energy, the transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle such as amplitude, frequency, phase. Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker. It was the used for the first audio radio transmissions. Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the capture effect whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, Digital data can be sent by shifting the carriers frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high frequency radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music, analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM. Angle modulation alters the phase of the carrier wave to transmit a signal
Radio
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The
Alexandra Palace radio transmitter mast
Radio
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Classic radio
receiver dial
Radio
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Rooftop
television antennas.
Yagi-Uda antennas like these six are widely used at
VHF and
UHF frequencies.
Radio
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Bakelite radio at the Bakelite Museum, Orchard Mill, Williton, Somerset, UK.
27.
Loudspeaker
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A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer, which converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. The most widely used type of speaker in the 2010s is the speaker, invented in 1925 by Edward W. Kellogg. The dynamic speaker operates on the basic principle as a dynamic microphone. Besides this most common method, there are several technologies that can be used to convert an electrical signal into sound. The sound source must be amplified or strengthened with a power amplifier before the signal is sent to the speaker. Speakers are typically housed in an enclosure or speaker cabinet which is often a rectangular or square box made of wood or sometimes plastic. The enclosures materials and design play an important role in the quality of the sound, where high fidelity reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeaker transducers are often mounted in the same enclosure, each reproducing a part of the audible frequency range. In this case the individual speakers are referred to as drivers, drivers made for reproducing high audio frequencies are called tweeters, those for middle frequencies are called mid-range drivers, and those for low frequencies are called woofers. Smaller loudspeakers are found in such as radios, televisions, portable audio players, computers. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concerts, the term loudspeaker may refer to individual transducers or to complete speaker systems consisting of an enclosure including one or more drivers. To adequately reproduce a range of frequencies with even coverage, most loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver. Individual drivers are used to different frequency ranges. The drivers are named subwoofers, woofers, mid-range speakers, tweeters, the terms for different speaker drivers differ, depending on the application. In two-way systems there is no mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds falls upon the woofer and tweeter, home stereos use the designation tweeter for the high frequency driver, while professional concert systems may designate them as HF or highs. When multiple drivers are used in a system, a network, called a crossover. Loudspeaker driver of the type pictured are termed dynamic to distinguish them from earlier drivers, or speakers using piezoelectric or electrostatic systems, or any of several other sorts. Johann Philipp Reis installed an electric loudspeaker in his telephone in 1861, it was capable of reproducing clear tones, alexander Graham Bell patented his first electric loudspeaker as part of his telephone in 1876, which was followed in 1877 by an improved version from Ernst Siemens. In 1898, Horace Short patented a design for a loudspeaker driven by compressed air, he sold the rights to Charles Parsons
Loudspeaker
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Kellogg and Rice in 1925 holding the large driver of the first moving-coil cone loudspeaker.
Loudspeaker
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The first moving-coil cone loudspeakers, developed by Edward Kellogg and Chester Rice in 1925. (left) Early prototype with electromagnet pulled back, showing voice coil attached to cone. (right) The first commercial version, sold with the RCA Radiola receiver, had only a 6 inch cone. In 1926 it sold for $250, equivalent to about $3000 today.
Loudspeaker
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A four-way, high fidelity loudspeaker system. Each of the four drivers outputs a different frequency range; the fifth aperture at the bottom is a
bass reflex port.
Loudspeaker
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Exploded view of a dome tweeter.
28.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
Steel
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The
steel cable of a
colliery winding tower
Steel
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Steels and other iron–carbon alloy phases
Steel
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Iron ore pellets for the production of steel
Steel
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A Bessemer converter in
Sheffield,
England
29.
Bench seat
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The bench seat was the traditional seat installed in American and Australian automobiles. This seat featured a continuous pad running the width of the cabin. The second row of seating in most sedans is usually a bench, the third row of most SUVs and minivans, which may be forward-facing or rear-facing, is also a bench seat. The front bench seat typically allowed three people to sit abreast, or six passengers in most four-door sedans with this type of arrangement. For example, although advertised as a compact car, the Willys Aero could comfortably sit three abreast on its front and rear bench seats, and deliver excellent fuel economy. Nash Motors introduced the unique airliner reclining front bench seats that would be transformed into a bed, in 1972, the Jeep Commandos center console for the automatic transmission was replaced with a steering column mounted shifter, making the much-requested bench seat an option. The innovative but unusual 1975 AMC Pacer introduced numerous designs that included the cab forward, the bucket seat arrangement leaves a space between the two front seats, usually occupied by a shifter and hand brake. Originally, bucket seats were associated with imported cars in the 1950s and 1960s, in Australia, the Holden Kingswood, Ford Falcon and Chrysler Valiant were fitted with bench seats for many years. Holden offered a seat on the Commodore in the 1990s, originating with the VG Ute. The traditional sedans with full-width bench seating offered nearly the same capacity as the newer three-row SUV or minivan. Some models, such as the Chrysler Pacifica, feature a console in the second row. Even in the United States, the seat has largely replaced the bench seat, the bucket is viewed as sportier. For high performance cars, bucket seats help keep the driver in place during high accelerations, until recently, around the mid 1990s, bench seats were still favored on large premium sedans such as minivans, but even in this market they have become rare. They were standard equipment on the Ford Crown Victoria, Mercury Grand Marquis, as of 2013, it was reported that only one American automobile, the Chevrolet Impala was sold with a bench seat, and the option was terminated in the next model year. The front bench seat also declined due to safety concerns as air bags could only protect two front seat passengers
Bench seat
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Fiat Multipla with bench seat
Bench seat
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1967
AMC Ambassador with a reclining front bench seat offering room and seat belts for three adults
30.
Bucket seats
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A bucket seat is a seat contoured to hold one person, distinct from bench seats, which are flat platforms designed to seat multiple people. Bucket seats are standard in fast cars to keep drivers and other passengers in place when making sharp or quick turns, racing vehicles usually have only one bucket seat. Vehicles sold to the public often have two bucket seats in the front compartment and may contain more in the rear compartment. The bucket seat trend was apparent in sporty cars, particularly two-seaters. Some bucket seats may be swivel seats as well, for decades, American cars were typically equipped with bench seats, which permitted three-passenger seating. As European cars became more accessible to Americans following World War II, bucket seats became the symbol of sport, bucket seats then spread to American manufacturers, beginning as sporty trim packages in the late 1950s and later coming as a standard feature. By 1962, more than 1 million U. S. built cars were equipped with bucket seats, often. The popularity of the bucket seat grew with the advent of sporty compact cars such as the Ford Mustang. By the 1990s, a few mid- and full-size domestic cars, as well as trucks, the last sedan to come with a front bench as standard was the 2011 Lincoln Town Car and the last sedan to even offer it as an option was the 2013 Chevrolet Impala. As of 2015, only some pickup trucks retain the front bench seat, although rear seating in automobiles largely utilizes bench seats, some 2+2 cars have bucket seats in the rear. Long-wheelbase variants of full-size luxury cars, such as the Lexus LS 460L have an executive seating package option that reduces the rear to two passengers but provides them with more amenities, the Porsche Panamera offers only bucket seats as the rear configuration despite its large size. Bucket seats are used in passenger vans and minivans, although they are not always referred to as such. Unlike those in cars, bucket seats in vans can be configured in different ways or even removed for more cargo storage. In the typical configuration, the front and middle rows have two bucket seats each, while the third-row seat has a three-person bench, for a total of seven passengers. Honda Odyssey 2005-2010 models adds a stowable PlusOneSeat between the middle row bucket seats, the Australian Mazda MPV has three seats in the middle and two in the last row. The Chrysler Pacifica was a luxury crossover SUV where all three rows were bucket seats, a sport seat is an improved version of a bucket seat with advanced lateral support and ability to accommodate racing harnesses. Sport seats are designed according to the shape of a body to provide advanced lateral support and weight distribution. Sport seats come with special openings for 3-point, 4-point, or 5-point racing harnesses to increase safety in extreme driving conditions and these seats often are lighter in weight compared to stock bucket seats, which is vital for any sport car
Bucket seats
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Bucket seat with Schroth six-point harness in a
2010 Porsche 997 GT3 RS 3.8
