1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Neighborhoods of Queens
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This is a list of neighborhoods in Queens, one of the five boroughs of New York City. Unlike neighborhoods in the four boroughs, some Queens neighborhood names are used as the town name in postal addresses. This grouping tended to minimize the identity of neighborhoods, at the urging of the citizens of Queens and with the support of Congressman Gary Ackerman they were eliminated. The original zip codes are used by the USPS for mail delivery purposes
3.
Forest Hills (LIRR station)
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Forest Hills is a station on the Main Line of the Long Island Rail Road in Forest Hills. Like other LIRR stations within New York City, passengers may take advantage of the CityTicket program on weekends, located in the neighborhood of Queens of the same name, Forest Hills is situated on 71st Avenue between Austin and Burns Streets. It is also the boundary of Station Square, a historic Tudor town center. The station is also just east of the West Side Tennis Club, two blocks to the north along 71st Avenue is the Forest Hills – 71st Avenue subway station, one of the busiest in Queens. Built in 1911, the Forest Hills station is one of the oldest operating passenger stations in New York City. Being subsequently remodeled for handicapped accessibility with ramps, it is one of two LIRR stations without standard blue and white signage, instead there are plaques and antique signs that complement the surrounding area. On July 4,1917, former President Theodore Roosevelt made his Unification Speech from the steps of this station, a local station, Forest Hills has two side platforms and four tracks. Platform A serves westbound trains to Penn Station, while Platform B serves eastbound trains to the suburbs of Long Island, the two inner tracks are used by express trains, although bridge plates are occasionally used to bridge over an outer track during track work. The relatively flat and straight stretch of track at Forest Hills has been used for PATH PA-1 and R44 speed tests
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
6.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
7.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
8.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
9.
Boroughs of New York City
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New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch
10.
Queens
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Queens is the easternmost and largest in area of the five boroughs of New York City. Coterminous with Queens County since 1899, the borough of Queens is the second-largest in population, with a census-estimated 2,339,150 residents in 2015, approximately 48% of them foreign-born. Queens County also is the second-most populous county in the U. S. state of New York, behind the borough of Brooklyn. Queens is the fourth-most densely populated county among New York Citys boroughs, if each of New York Citys boroughs were an independent city, Queens also would be the nations fourth most populous city, after Los Angeles, Chicago, and Brooklyn. Queens is the most ethnically diverse area in the world. Queens was established in 1683 as one of the original 12 counties of New York and it was named after the Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza, Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland. It became a borough of New York City in 1898, and from 1683 until 1899, Queens has the most diversified economy of the five boroughs of New York City It is home to JFK International Airport and LaGuardia Airport. These airports are among the busiest in the world, causing the airspace above Queens to be the most congested in the country, attractions in Queens include Flushing Meadows Park, Citi Field, the US Open tennis tournament, Kaufman Astoria Studios, Silvercup Studios, and Aqueduct Racetrack. European colonization brought Dutch and English settlers, as a part of the New Netherland colony, First settlements occurred in 1635 followed by early colonizations at Maspeth in 1642, and Vlissingen in 1643. Other early settlements included Newtown and Jamaica, however, these towns were mostly inhabited by English settlers from New England via eastern Long Island subject to Dutch law. After the capture of the colony by the English and its renaming as New York in 1664, the Flushing Remonstrance signed by colonists in 1657 is considered a precursor to the United States Constitutions provision on freedom of religion in the Bill of Rights. The signers protested the Dutch colonial authorities persecution of Quakers in what is today the borough of Queens, originally, Queens County included the adjacent area now comprising Nassau County. It was a county of New York State, one of twelve created on November 1,1683. The county was named after Catherine of Braganza, since she was queen of England at the time, the county was founded alongside Kings County, and Richmond County. On October 7,1691, all counties in the Colony of New York were redefined, Queens gained North Brother Island, South Brother Island, and Huletts Island. On December 3,1768, Queens gained other islands in Long Island Sound that were not already assigned to a county, Queens played a minor role in the American Revolution, as compared to Brooklyn, where the Battle of Long Island was largely fought. Queens, like the rest of Long Island, remained under British occupation after the Battle of Long Island in 1776 and was occupied throughout most of the rest of the Revolutionary War. Under the Quartering Act, British soldiers used, as barracks, even though many local people were against unannounced quartering, sentiment throughout the county remained in favor of the British crown
11.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
12.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
13.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
14.
Interstate 495 (New York)
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Interstate 495 is an auxiliary Interstate Highway on Long Island in New York in the United States. The route extends for 71 miles from the portal of the Queens–Midtown Tunnel in the New York City borough of Manhattan to County Route 58 in Riverhead. I-495 does not intersect its parent route, I-95, however, it does connect to I-95 through I-295, which it meets in Queens. The portion of I-495 in Nassau and Suffolk counties is known as the Long Island Expressway, there is a gap in designation between I-278 and I-678, where the segment in between is designated as New York State Route 495. The expressway begins at the portal of the Queens–Midtown Tunnel in the Murray Hill section of Manhattan. The route heads eastward, passing under FDR Drive and the East River as it proceeds through the Triborough Bridge, once on Long Island, the highway passes through a toll booth and becomes known as the Queens–Midtown Expressway as it travels through the western portion of the borough. A mile after entering Queens, I-495 meets I-278 at exit 17, at this point, I-495 becomes NY495. It continues on an easterly path to the Rego Park neighborhood. The expressway continues east, veering to the southeast to bypass Kissena Park before curving back to the northeast to meet the Clearview Expressway at the edge of Cunningham Park. Past I-295, I-495 passes by the Queens Giant, the oldest and tallest tree in the New York metropolitan area, the tree, located just north of I-495 in Alley Pond Park, is visible from the highways westbound lanes. To the east, the connects to the Cross Island Parkway at exit 31 in the park prior to crossing into Nassau County. Although the name officially begins here, almost all locals and most signage use the Long Island Expressway or the LIE to refer the entire length of I-495. It is common to refer to the roads by these names—particularly Horace Harding—in local usage. The names may have intended to refer to sections of the expressway proper. Harding used his influence to promote the development of Long Islands roadways, Harding also urged construction of a highway from Queens Boulevard to the Nassau County Line, in order to provide better access to Oakland Country Club, where he was a member. After his death, the boulevard he helped build was named for him, Horace Harding was not related to the former President Warren G. Harding. In 1968, a line along the Long Island Expressway was proposed. Heading into Nassau County, the expressway sports a High-Occupancy Vehicle Lane, the two highways meet three times, although it actually crosses only once at exit 46 near the county line
15.
Grand Central Parkway
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The Grand Central Parkway is a 14. 61-mile long parkway that stretches from the Triborough Bridge in New York City to Nassau County on Long Island. At the Queens–Nassau border, it becomes the Northern State Parkway, which runs across the part of Long Island through Nassau County and into Suffolk County. The westernmost stretch also carries a short stretch of Interstate 278, the parkway runs through Queens and passes the Cross Island Parkway, Long Island Expressway, LaGuardia Airport and Citi Field, home of the New York Mets. The parkway is designated New York State Route 907M, a reference route. Despite its name, the Grand Central Parkway was not named after Grand Central Terminal, the Grand Central Parkway has a few unique distinctions. First, it is apparently the only parkway in New York City to carry an elliptical black-on-white design for its trailblazer, second, it is one of the few parkways in the state to allow truck traffic to any extent. The section shared with I-278 allows for small trucks—larger ones still cannot pass under the intentionally designed low underpasses, oversize trucks must travel on Astoria Boulevard, the local service road, to reach the bridge. The Grand Central Parkway begins at exit 44 off eastbound I-278 in the Astoria section of Queens, after crossing over 82nd Street and Ditmars Boulevard, the parkway enters the airport area, passing south of runway 4-22. A short distance to the northeast, exit 6 arrives at an interchange with 94th Street, immediately after exit 7 forks northward on a ramp to the airports terminals B, C and D. After exit 7, the Grand Central bends southeast and away from LaGuardia Airport, paralleling the Long Island Sound into the only exit 8. Entering the Corona section of Queens, the Grand Central enters exit 9, the Grand Central then proceeds south, crossing under the Long Island Rail Roads Port Washington Branch and soon into Flushing Meadows-Corona Park. Through the park, the parkway passes west of Arthur Ashe Stadium, the Queens Zoo and the Unisphere before entering exit 10, a cloverleaf interchange with the Long Island Expressway. Soon crossing into Forest Hills, the parkway continues through Flushing Meadows-Corona Park, passing Meadow Lake, entering exit 11, connecting to 69th Road and Jewel Avenue in. After that interchange, the parkway bends southeast through Forest Hills, passing Willow Lake and exit 12, which connects to NY25 via 78th Avenue. The Grand Central continues its bend, now proceeding eastward over Corona Yard, entering the Kew Gardens Interchange, connecting I-678, Union Turnpike and the Jackie Robinson Parkway in Kew Gardens. After the Kew Gardens Interchange, the Grand Central Parkway continues east into the Briarwood section of Queens, after crossing through the developed neighborhood of Briarwood, the parkway enters Jamaica Hills, passing south of Queens Hospital near 164th Street. Proceeding westbound, an exit is present, connecting to 168th Street, while eastbound, at the interchange with Utopia Parkway, the Grand Central passes south of St. Johns University, soon winding northeast into exit 19, which serves 188th Street in Jamaica Estates. The parkway leaves Cunningham Park, entering the Bellerose section of Queens, entering exit 22, the route then enters Alley Pond Park, where it interchanges with the Cross Island Parkway and Winchester Boulevard
16.
Union Turnpike (New York)
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Union Turnpike is a thoroughfare stretching across central and eastern Queens in New York City. It runs from Myrtle Avenue in Glendale to Marcus Avenue in North New Hyde Park, about a mile into Nassau County, Union Turnpike from New Hyde Park to Woodhaven memorializes the Union Racetrack that was once a famous attraction for residents in Queens. Union Turnpike from Myrtle Avenue to the Nassau County border is 9.2 miles long. With the exception of a stretch of Jericho Turnpike in Queens near the Nassau County border. The turnpike crosses into Nassau County at the citys easternmost point on Langdale Street, North of the turnpike at this point is Glen Oaks and south of it is Floral Park, both sharing the same ZIP code. It then enters the hamlet of North New Hyde Park, starting from Myrtle Avenue and 87th Street in Glendale, Union Turnpike goes through Glendale and crosses Woodhaven Boulevard. It continues as the boundary of Forest Park to an intersection with Metropolitan Avenue. Just east of here Union Turnpike crosses over the Jackie Robinson Parkway near Exit 6, Union Turnpike then straddles the parkway, but there is no access to or from the parkway to Union Turnpike. Soon, Union Turnpike and the parkway go under a long tunnel, there is a full diamond interchange with it from Union Turnpike, but no access from the parkway. Just after Queens Boulevard, the ends at the Kew Gardens Interchange, connecting with the Van Wyck Expressway. It continues through Kew Gardens Hills, crossing Main Street, Parsons Boulevard and it then passes St. Johns University, crosses Utopia Parkway, goes through Jamaica Estates, crosses 188th Street, and enters Cunningham Park at an intersection with Francis Lewis Boulevard. Just after Francis Lewis Boulevard, it shares a diamond interchange with I-295. It then crosses Hollis Court Boulevard before leaving the park and it passes through Hollis Hills, crossing Bell Boulevard and Springfield Boulevard. Just after Springfield Boulevard is a interchange with the Grand Central Parkway. Past the Grand Central it becomes the boundary of Alley Pond Park until it intersects with Winchester Boulevard. It passes the Creedmoor Psychiatric Center, and then shares an interchange with the Cross Island Parkway. Past here, it crosses Little Neck Parkway in Bellerose, and it crosses the highest numbered street in New York City, 271st Street, and then passes the citys easternmost point, at Langdale Street. Just past here Union Turnpike enters Nassau County, and then intersects Lakeville Road and it passes a shopping center in Lake Success, crosses New Hyde Park Road, and ends a block east at Marcus Avenue
17.
Google Maps
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Google Maps is a web mapping service developed by Google. It offers satellite imagery, street maps, 360° panoramic views of streets, real-time traffic conditions, Google maps began as a C++ desktop program designed by Lars and Jens Eilstrup Rasmussen at Where 2 Technologies. In October 2004, the company was acquired by Google, which converted it into a web application, after additional acquisitions of a geospatial data visualization company and a realtime traffic analyzer, Google Maps was launched in February 2005. The services front end utilizes JavaScript, XML, and Ajax, Google Maps offers an API that allows maps to be embedded on third-party websites, and offers a locator for urban businesses and other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Map Maker allows users to expand and update the services mapping worldwide. Much of the satellite imagery is no more than three years old and is updated on a regular basis. Google Maps uses a variant of the Mercator projection. The current redesigned version of the application was made available in 2013. Google Maps for mobile was released in September 2008 and features GPS turn-by-turn navigation, in August 2013, it was determined to be the worlds most popular app for smartphones, with over 54% of global smartphone owners using it at least once. In 2012, Google reported having over 7,100 employees, Google Maps provides a route planner under Get Directions. Up to four modes of transportation are available depending on the area, driving, public transit, walking, in combination with Google Street View, issues such as parking, turning lanes, and one-way streets can be viewed before traveling. China mainland, Hong Kong, Macau, Jordan, Lebanon, only public transit directions are provided for South Korea. All countries of mainland North and Central America are covered contiguously, all countries of mainland South America are covered. All countries including Trinidad and Tobago* are treated contiguously, all inhabited countries and territories in the Caribbean are covered, though in general there are no connections between islands. Like many other Google web applications, Google Maps uses JavaScript extensively, as the user drags the map, the grid squares are downloaded from the server and inserted into the page. When a user searches for a business, the results are downloaded in the background for insertion into the panel and map. Locations are drawn dynamically by positioning a red pin on top of the map images, a hidden IFrame with form submission is used because it preserves browser history. The site also uses JSON for data rather than XML
18.
Long Island Rail Road
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With an average weekday ridership of 337,800 passengers in 2014, it is the busiest commuter railroad in North America. It is also one of the worlds few commuter systems that runs 24 hours a day,7 days a week and it is publicly owned by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, who refer to it as MTA Long Island Rail Road. The LIRR logo combines the circular MTA logo with the text Long Island Rail Road, the LIRR is one of two commuter rail systems owned by the MTA, the other being the Metro-North Railroad. Established in 1834 and having operated continuously since then, it is the second-oldest US railroad still operating under its original name and charter. There are 124 stations, and more than 700 miles of track and this service was superseded in 1849 by the land route through Connecticut that became part of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. The LIRR refocused its attentions towards serving Long Island, in competition with railroads on the island. In the 1870s, railroad president Conrad Poppenhusen and his successor Austin Corbin acquired all the railroads, the LIRR was unprofitable for much of its history. In 1900, the Pennsylvania Railroad bought a controlling interest as part of its plan for access to Manhattan which began on September 8,1910. The wealthy PRR subsidized the LIRR during the first half of the new century, after the Second World War, the railroad industrys downturn and dwindling profits caused the PRR to stop subsidizing the LIRR, and the LIRR went into receivership in 1949. The State of New York, realizing how important the railroad was to Long Islands future, in 1966, New York State bought the railroads controlling stock from the PRR and put it under the newly formed Metropolitan Commuter Transportation Authority. With MTA subsidies the LIRR modernized further, continuing to be the busiest commuter railroad in the United States, the LIRR is one of the few railroads that has survived as an intact company from its original charter to the present. The LIRR operates out of three terminals, in Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Queens. Jamaica Station in central Queens is the hub of all railroad activities, expansion of the system into Grand Central Terminal is expected over the next few years. Major stations include, Pennsylvania Station, in Midtown Manhattan, is the busiest of the western terminals and it is reached via the Amtrak-owned East River Tunnels from the Main Line in Long Island City. The New York City Subways 34th Street–Penn Station and 34th Street–Penn Station stations are next to the terminal and it also connects LIRR with Amtrak and NJ Transit trains. Atlantic Terminal, formerly Flatbush Avenue, in Downtown Brooklyn serves most other trains and it is next to the New York City Subways Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center station complex, providing easy access to Lower Manhattan. A handful of trains run to Hunterspoint Avenue or onward to the Long Island City station on the East River in Long Island City. From Hunterspoint Avenue, the Hunters Point Avenue subway station can be reached for Midtown Manhattan access, the same subway trains can also be reached from Long Island City station at the Vernon Boulevard–Jackson Avenue subway station
19.
Rockaway Beach Branch
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The Rockaway Beach Branch was a rail line owned and operated by the Long Island Rail Road in Queens, New York City, United States. The line left the Main Line at Whitepot Junction in Rego Park heading south via Ozone Park and across Jamaica Bay to Hammels in the Rockaways, turning west there to a terminal at Rockaway Park. Along the way it connected with the Montauk Branch near Glendale, the Atlantic Branch near Woodhaven, the portion north of the subway connection was closed in 1962, and three proposals exist for the reuse of the line. This route was created in order to cut an hour off of travel times to the Rockaways, the new route would take 30 minutes, while the existing route to the Rockaway via the South Side Railroad would take an hour and a half. The plans were changed to build a standard gauge line from Hunters Point rather than Greenpoint. An agreement was made with the Long Island Rail Road in 1880 to operate over its Montauk Division to Bushwick and Hunters Point and Atlantic Division to Flatbush Avenue. In order to support the traffic, the LIRR agreed to double-track the Montauk Division west of Richmond Hill. It continued to operate trains to Far Rockaway, as well as trains between Long Beach and Rockaway Beach. The old Far Rockaway Branch west of Arverne was soon connected to the NY&RB at Hammels, the NY&RB began operating trains to Far Rockaway over this connection. The NY&RB was operated independently until July 1,1904, when the LIRR leased it as the Rockaway Beach Division, at the same time, the Rockaway Beach Division was electrified north of Woodhaven Junction, and the Main Line was electrified west of Rego Park. The New York and Rockaway Beach Railway was merged into the LIRR on June 30,1922, in 1939, a project to completely eliminate grade crossings was begun on the Rockaway Peninsula by elevated the line there, and completing plans that had existed since 1901. The elevated structure was completed to Hammels in 1941 and between Hammels and Far Rockaway in 1942, a fire on the trestle across Jamaica Bay between The Raunt and Broad Channel stations on May 7,1950 cut service on the middle section of the line. This was among around 30 fires on the line since 1942, the Jamaica Bay trestle meanwhile remained out of service. The LIRR, then bankrupt, saw the Rockaway Beach Branch south of Ozone Park as a liability and did not wish to spend the huge sum need to repair it, and sought to either sell or abandon it. The city of New York, however, saw potential in extending subway service over Jamaica Bay. This connection had primarily used to allow trains from Brooklyn to reach Aqueduct Racetrack. The remains of the interlocking can still be seen in the Atlantic Avenue tunnel, while the incline is now used by Logan School Bus Company, who parks their bus fleet along the incline. LIRR service continued on the remaining 3. 5-mile portion of the Rockaway Beach Branch between Rego Park and Ozone Park, under a lease from the New York City Transit Authority, service was greatly reduced and truncated to a single-track operations between the two endpoints starting in 1956
20.
West Side Tennis Club
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The West Side Tennis Club is a private tennis club located in Forest Hills, a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Queens. The Club has 38 tennis courts in all four surfaces, a junior Olympic-size swimming pool and it is the home of the Forest Hills Stadium, a 14,000 seat outdoor tennis stadium and concert venue. It is most notable for hosting the U. S. National Championships, renamed the US Open Tennis Championships in 1968, a total of 60 times, first from 1915 to 1920, and then again from 1924 to 1977. In addition, the finals of the Davis Cup were held at the club 10 times, the US Pro tournament was held at the venue 11 times, and another big professional tournament, the Tournament of Champions, was held at the venue 3 times. The West Side Tennis Club was the venue of the Forest Hills Tennis Classic, a now-defunct WTA Tour Tier IV event, currently, the stadium is used as an outdoor concert venue. The club was founded in 1892 when 13 original members rented land on Central Park West for three clay courts and a small clubhouse, ten years later, the land had become too valuable, and the club moved to a site near Columbia University with room for eight courts. In 1908, the club moved again to a property at 238th Street, the new site covered two city blocks and had 12 grass courts and 15 clay courts. The club hosted the International Lawn Tennis Challenge in 1911, with crowds in the thousands, the club leadership realized that it would need to expand to a more permanent location. In 1912, a site in Forest Hills, Queens, was purchased, the signature Tudor-style clubhouse was built the next year. In 1915, the United States Lawn Tennis Association National Championship, later renamed the U. S. Open, by 1923, the success of the event necessitated the construction of a 14, 000-seat horseshoe-shaped stadium that still stands today. The stadiums first event was the final of the International Lawn Tennis Challenge, althea Gibson became the first black player to play in a Grand Slam event in 1950, and Billie Jean King was the first player to win a Grand Slam event with a metal racket in 1967. In 1968, the year of the first televised broadcast of the US Open, in 1975, the tournament was switched to Har-Tru clay courts. By 1978, the tournament had outgrown West Side, and the USTA moved the tournament to its new site in Flushing Meadows, in 2008, the stadium was the site of a womens satellite tournament. On February 17,2016, the newly formed New York Empire of World TeamTennis announced it would play its matches at the stadium beginning with its inaugural 2016 season. The stadiums usual seating capacity of 14,000 will be reconfigured to approximately 2,500 for Empire home matches. Were on a big upward swing the last couple of years with bringing the back and now with bringing professional tennis back, said Bob Ingersole. Empire coach Patrick McEnroe, who played at the stadium as a youth, Open tournaments, said, Its incredible when you think about the history there. Im so happy that the club and these concert promoters have resurrected the stadium, I think that this is another great step for the club and for the history to get some real professional tennis there
21.
US Open (tennis)
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The United States Open Tennis Championships is a hardcourt tennis tournament. The tournament is the version of one of the oldest tennis championships in the world. The US Open is held annually, starting on the last Monday in August, the main tournament consists of five event championships, mens and womens singles, mens and womens doubles, and mixed doubles, with additional tournaments for senior, junior, and wheelchair players. Since 1978, the tournament has played on acrylic hard courts at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, Queens. The US Open is owned and organized by the United States Tennis Association, net proceeds from ticket sales, sponsorships, and television deals are used to promote the development of tennis in the United States. The US Open is the only Grand Slam that employs tiebreakers in every set of a match, the first edition was won by Richard Sears, who went on to win seven consecutive singles titles. In the first years of the U. S. National Championship only men competed and this was followed by the introduction of the U. S. Womens National Doubles Championship in 1899 and the U. S. The womens tournament used a system from 1888 through 1918. This view was opposed by another group of players which included eight former national singles champions, the contentious issue was brought to a vote at the annual USNLTA meeting on February 5,1915 and with 128 votes in favor and 119 against it was decided to relocate. From 1921 through 1923, the tournament was played at the Germantown Cricket Club in Philadelphia and it returned to Forest Hills in 1924 following the completion of the newly constructed 14,000 seat concrete Forest Hills Stadium. Though regarded unofficially by many as a major championship beforehand, the tournament was officially designated as one of the tournaments by the ILTF commencing in 1924. At the 1922 U. S. National Championships the draw for the first time included seeded players in order to avoid leading players drawing against each other in the early rounds. Open era The open era began in 1968 when all five events were merged into the US Open, the 1968 combined tournament was open to professionals for the first time. That year,96 men and 63 women entered the event, from 1970 to 1974 the US Open used a best-of-nine point, sudden death tiebreaker before moving to the ITF best-of-twelve point system. In 1973 the US Open became the first Grand Slam tournament to award equal prize money to men and women with that years singles champions John Newcombe, another US Open innovation came in 1975 when floodlights enabled night play for the first time. In 1978 the tournament moved from the West Side Tennis Club, Forest Hills, Queens to the larger USTA National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows, Queens, three miles to the north. In the process, the tournament switched the court surface from clay, jimmy Connors is the only individual to have won US Open singles titles on all three surfaces, while Chris Evert is the only woman to win on two surfaces. The US Open is the only Grand Slam tournament that has played every year since its inception
22.
Forest Park (Queens)
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Forest Park is a park in the New York City borough of Queens. It has an area of 538 acres, containing 165 acres of trees, the park is operated and maintained by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. The Wisconsinian glaciation molded this land between 20,000 and 10,000 years ago and left the Harbor Hill Moraine, the land was inhabited by the Rockaway, Lenape, and Delaware Native Americans when the Dutch West India Company settled the area in 1635. The site of Forest Park was occupied by various landowners until the late 19th century, because of the numerous private landowners involved, the park had to be assembled in 124 parcels, finishing in 1898. Starting in 1896, the firm of Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot was contracted to provide a plan for the park. Frederick Law Olmsted surveyed the park and designed Forest Park Drive, existing residential buildings were auctioned and disassembled and removed. A nine-hole golf course opened in 1901 and its club house, which was designed in the Dutch Colonial Revival style by the firm of Helmle, Huberty & Hudswell, and which now houses the parks Administration Office, first opened in 1905. Carousels designed by Daniel Muller were added in 1918, one of them was destroyed by fire in 1966, jackson Pond was used for fishing and ice skating, but was filled in for redevelopment. During the park’s centennial celebration in 1995,100 trees were planted as a part of Operation Pine Grove, funded by American Forests, Parks uses the greenhouse, built in 1910, to grow trees and plants for many other city parks. In addition, the ponds in the forest provide a haven for bird watching. Forest Park Drive between the Bandshell and the entrance to the Jackie Robinson Parkway rides along the top of the glacial moraine, the Forest Park Carousel was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004. Within Forest Park is The Overlook, the building for Queens Parks, and Oak Ridge. Forest Park also offers an array of recreational facilities, such as the George Seuffert, Sr. Bandshell, the Carousel, the Bridle Path, tennis courts, playgrounds. Although only the Montauk Line still operates today, Forest Park is divided by Woodhaven Boulevard and the Jackie Robinson Parkway, despite these thoroughfares, Forest Park is the third-largest park in Queens, and contains the largest continuous oak forest in Queens and a 110-acre golf course. Forest Park is bounded by Myrtle Avenue, Union Turnpike, Park Lane, Park Lane South, Forest Parks trees include the Northern red oak, Scarlet oak, Tulip tree, Shagbark hickory, White oak, American beech, American sweetgum, and Black cherry. Several trees here are more than 150 years old, and create a canopy with an under-layer of Dogwood, Virginia creeper, Sassafras, and Corktree. The park was ravaged in 1912 by the blight, and for a time was used for lumbering, about the same time. These have since moved to the Brooklyn Botanic Garden and Bronx Park
23.
Queens Boulevard
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Queens Boulevard is a major thoroughfare in the New York City borough of Queens connecting Midtown Manhattan, via the Queensboro Bridge, to Jamaica. It forms part of New York State Route 25, at 7.5 miles, it is one of the longest roads in Queens, and it runs through some of Queens busiest areas. Much of the road is 12 lanes wide, and at its intersection with Yellowstone Boulevard in Forest Hills, along much of its length, the road includes six express lanes and a three-lane-wide service road on each side. Drivers must first exit to the road in order to make right turns or pull over, left turns must be made from the express lanes. It is known as the Boulevard of Death, more crashes happen along Queens Boulevard than any other roadway statewide. Queens Boulevard is also the point of a number of the other major streets in Queens, such as Northern Boulevard, Woodhaven Boulevard, Junction Boulevard, Roosevelt Avenue. A remnant of the old Hoffman Boulevard can be found in Forest Hills where the lanes of traffic diverge into two routes, one straight and one that bends around MacDonald Park. The part that bends around the park was the route of Hoffman Boulevard. The street was built in the early 20th century to connect the new Queensboro Bridge to central Queens, in 1913, a trolley line was constructed from 59th Street in Manhattan east along the new boulevard. During the 1920s and 1930s the boulevard was widened in conjunction with the digging of the IND Queens Boulevard Line subway tunnels in the 1920s and 1930s, the improvement was between Van Dam Street and Hillside Avenue, and it cost $2,230,000. The street was widened to 200 feet between Van Dam Street and Union Turnpike, and from there to Hillside Avenue it was widened to 150 feet, as part of the project, there was to have been separated rights-of-way for the trolley line. On April 17,1937, trolley service along Queens Boulevard ended, in 1941, the New York City Planning Department proposed converting it into a freeway, as was done with the Van Wyck Expressway from the Queensboro Bridge to Hillside Avenue. The boulevard would be converted to an expressway with grade separation at the important intersections. As part of the project, the lanes of Queens Boulevard were depressed in the area of Woodhaven Boulevard and Horace Harding Boulevard. The plan to upgrade the boulevard was delayed with the onset of World War II and this street hosts one of the highest numbers of New York City Subway services in the city. The E F M R and the 7 <7> N W all use stretches of the right of way, only Broadway, Sixth Avenue in Manhattan and Fulton Street in Brooklyn carry more at any one time. In addition, the Q60 bus travels its entire length, for a few decades streetcar service operated along the boulevard and until 1957 operated along the sides of the Queensboro Bridge into Manhattan. For the section where the line ran congruent with the Flushing IRT elevated line the ran in a median below the viaduct supporting the elevated trains
24.
Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage
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Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage, known as Olivia Sage, was an American philanthropist known for her contributions to education and progressive causes. In 1869 she married the robber baron Russell Sage as his second wife, at his death in 1906, she inherited a fortune estimated at more than $63,000,000, to be used at her discretion. A former teacher, Sage strongly supported education, both with program and building grants to Syracuse and other universities and she established the Russell Sage Foundation in 1907 and founded Russell Sage College in 1916, as well as endowing programs for women. Margaret Olivia Slocum, called Olivia, was born in Syracuse, New York, to Margaret, after the Panic of 1837 and the decline of canal traffic with the construction of railroads, his businesses and warehouses began to fail. Olivias early life was haunted by her fathers financial struggles, but she was educated in private schools, Olivia Slocum supported herself by teaching for 20 years in Syracuse, New York, where she lived with her parents, and Philadelphia. Her father continued to struggle and in 1857, fatally ill with tuberculosis, Olivia and her mother had to move in with relatives. During the Civil War, Olivia Slocum moved to Philadelphia, where she worked as a governess for a wealthy family and she also volunteered in a military hospital. In 1869 at age 41, Olivia Slocum married Russell Sage and she became involved in activities in which her role as his wife defined her. In 1906 Sage died and left his fortune of about $70 million to Olivia. Mrs. Sage donated Constitution Island to the government as an addition to West Point. In 1905, Olivia Sage told Syracuse University that she would purchase Yates Castle and this independent project demonstrated her attachment to Syracuse, her self-identification as a teacher, and her commitment to womens education. Sage became a patron of E. Lilian Todd after seeing Todds first airplane design at an exhibition at Madison Square Gardens in 1906. Her greatest single gift was $10,000,000 in 1907 to establish the Russell Sage Foundation, in 1908 she donated $650,000 to Yale University, enabling the purchase of the Hillhouse property for the universitys Science Hill. In 1909, she donated Holder Hall to Princeton University, named after her Quaker ancestor Christopher Holder, two years later, Sage gave $300,000 to Cornell University for the construction of a womens dormitory, Risley Hall, named after her mother-in-law. Her promotion of education also included funding the construction of the Olivia Josselyn House, named for her grandmother. That year she also acquired Marsh Island in the Gulf of Mexico and dedicated it as a refuge for birds, in 1916, Sage founded Russell Sage College in Troy, New York. Later, in 1919 she gave $2,750,000 for the development of the Russell Sage Foundation Homes, in addition she gave extensively to the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the Emma Willard School, both in Troy. She also contributed to the National Training School in Durham, North Carolina, up to 1915, the sum total of Sages gifts surpassed $23,000,000
25.
Russell Sage Foundation
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The Russell Sage Foundation is an American philanthropic foundation that primarily funds research relating to income inequality. Located in New York City, it is a research center, the foundation also publishes, under its own imprint, the books that derive from the work of its grantees and visiting scholars. The foundation focuses on labor markets, immigration and ethnicity, and social inequality in the United States and her will added a $5 million bequest in 1917. The Foundation was also responsible for reforms in health care, city planning, consumer credit, labor law, the training of nurses. In 1907, the foundation funded the Pittsburgh Survey, the first systematic effort to survey working class conditions in a large U. S. city, considered a major Progressive Era achievement, the findings inspired labor reforms and helped end twelve-hour days and seven-day weeks for steel workers. Between 1909 and 1922, the Foundation spent nearly a sixth of its capital to build Forest Hills Gardens, the aim was to demonstrate the economic and social viability of an intelligently planned suburban community. The first lots sold for $800, and a new suburb began thriving by 1917, in 1922, the Foundation helped launch the Regional Plan Association to research, write and publish a plan to guide the future development of the New York metropolitan region. In its first 40 years, the Foundation spent more than $1 million on the Regional Survey, researchers completed 12 massive volumes as part of the effort, with the first being published in 1928-29. The Foundation also provided support for social feminists such as Mary van Kleeck, since World War II, the Foundation has devoted its efforts to strengthening the social sciences as a means of achieving more informed and rational social policy. It launched a variety of programs to draw the social sciences closer to decision-makers in other professions and this initiative included funds for research on social indicators, a collection of data that measure the quality of life. In the 1950s, the Foundation supported research on the practice and it established the Foundation Center, a non-profit that maintains data on organized philanthropy. It was also the first to publish The Foundation Directory, a listing of the nation’s several thousand largest foundations. During this decade, the foundation also received money from the Ford Foundation for the utilization of the behavioral sciences. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Foundation turned to ethics, including patients rights, extreme measures to sustain life. Foundation-supported books from this period include Bernard Barber’s Drugs and Society, the Foundation was an early force in the development of behavioral economics, launching the Behavioral Economics program in 1986 with the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. Books on behavioral economics published by Russell Sage include Quasi Rational Economics, three charter members of the Roundtable subsequently received the Noble Prize in economics, George Akerlof, Daniel Kahneman, and Thomas Schelling. The Foundation launched new programs to study immigration, the rise of economic inequality, between 1992 and 2000, the Foundation worked with the Ford Foundation to conduct a Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality. In 2000, the Foundation partnered with the Population Reference Bureau to produce The American People, Census 2000, edited by Reynolds Farley of the University of Michigan and John Haaga of PRB
26.
Grosvenor Atterbury
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Grosvenor Atterbury was an American architect, urban planner and writer. Much of Atterbury’s early work consisted of houses for wealthy industrialists. Atterbury was given the commission for the housing community of Forest Hills Gardens which began in 1909 under the sponsorship of the Russell Sage Foundation. For Forest Hills, Atterbury developed a construction method, each house was built from approximately 170 standardized precast concrete panels, fabricated off-site. In this way Atterbury can be considered a progenitor of the Modern Movement, Atterbury was elected to the National Academy of Design in 1918 as an Associate member, and became a full member in 1940. Childrens Village of the Hartford Orphan Asylum,1680 Albany Ave. Hartford, Connecticut Shore Road Historic District, cold Spring Harbor, New York Atterbury Hill, Southampton
27.
Garden city movement
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The garden city movement is a method of urban planning that was initiated in 1898 by Sir Ebenezer Howard in the United Kingdom. Garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by greenbelts, containing areas of residences, industry. Inspired by the utopian novel Looking Backward and Henry Georges work Progress and Poverty, Howard published his book To-morrow, the garden city would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population, another garden city would be developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several cities as satellites of a central city of 58,000 people, linked by road. Howard’s To-morrow, A Peaceful Path to Real Reform sold enough copies to result in a second edition and this success provided him the support necessary to pursue the chance to bring his vision into reality. Howard believed that all agreed the overcrowding and deterioration of cities was one of the troubling issues of their time. He quotes a number of respected thinkers and their disdain of cities, Howard’s garden city concept combined the town and country in order to provide the working class an alternative to working on farms or ‘crowded, unhealthy cities’. To build a city, Howard needed money to buy land. He decided to get funding from gentlemen of responsible position and undoubted probity and he founded the Garden City Association, which created First Garden City, Ltd. in 1899 to create the garden city of Letchworth. However, these donors would collect interest on their investment if the city generated profits through rents or, as Fishman calls the process. Howard tried to include working class cooperative organisations, which included over two members, but could not win their financial support. In 1904, Raymond Unwin, an architect and town planner, along with his partner Barry Parker, won the competition run by First Garden City Ltd. to plan Letchworth. However, the architects ignored Howard’s symmetric design, instead replacing it with a more ‘organic’ design, Letchworth slowly attracted more residents because it was able to attract manufacturers through low taxes, low rents and more space. Despite Howard’s best efforts, the prices in this garden city could not remain affordable for blue-collar workers to live in. The populations comprised mostly skilled middle class workers, after a decade, the First Garden City became profitable and started paying dividends to its investors. Although many viewed Letchworth as a success, it did not immediately inspire government investment into the line of garden cities. Likely in frustration, Howard bought land at Welwyn to house the garden city in 1919. The purchase was at auction, with money Howard desperately and successfully borrowed from friends, the Welwyn Garden City Corporation was formed to oversee the construction
28.
Tudor Revival architecture
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It later became an influence in some other countries, especially the British colonies. For example, in New Zealand, the architect Francis Petre adapted the style for the local climate, elsewhere in Singapore, then a British colony, architects such as R. A. J. Bidwell pioneered what became known as the Black and White House. The earliest examples of the style originate with the works of such eminent architects as Norman Shaw and George Devey and this was generally modelled on the grand prodigy houses built by the courtiers of Elizabeth I and James VI. It was associated with the Arts and Crafts Movement, outside North America, Tudorbethan is also used synonymously with Tudor revival and mock Tudor. The emphasis was on the simple, rustic, and the less impressive aspects of Tudor architecture, the Tudor revival style was a reaction to the ornate Victorian Gothic revival of the second half of the 19th century. Confusingly, it was promptly named Queen Anne style, when in reality it combined a revival of Elizabethan and Jacobean design details including mullioned. The style later began to incorporate the classic pre-Georgian features that are understood to represent Queen Anne in Britain. The term Queen Anne for this style of architecture tends to be commonly used in the USA than in Britain. In the USA it evolved into a form of architecture not instantly recognisable as that constructed in either the Tudor or Queen Anne period, in Britain the style remained closer to its Tudor roots. Large and small houses alike with half-timbering in their upper storeys and gables were completed with tall ornamental chimneys and it was here that the influences of the arts and crafts movement became apparent. However, Tudor Revival cannot really be likened to the structures of the originals. An example of this is the cottage style of Ascott House in Buckinghamshire. This was designed by Devey for the Rothschild family, who were among the earliest patrons, the Tudor revival, though, now concentrated on the picturesque. A very well known example of the idealised half-timbered style is Liberty & Co. department store in London, the store specialised, among other goods, in fabrics and furnishings by the leading designers of the Arts and Crafts movement. In the early part of the century, one of the exponents who developed the style further was Edwin Lutyens and this is Tudorbethan at its best, free in ground plan, stripped of cuteness, yet warmly vernacular in effect, familiar though new, eminently liveable. An example of Tudorbethan architecture was seen at Greaves Hall. Many of the features of the building could still be seen until it was demolished in 2009. Later came Mackey Hugh Baillie Scott and Blair Imrie who made their names as Tudor style architects, Lutyens though took the style away from what is generally understood as Tudor revival creating a further highly personalised style of his own
29.
Prefabricated building
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A prefabricated building, informally a prefab, is a building that is manufactured and constructed using prefabrication. It consists of components or units that are transported and assembled on-site to form the complete building. Buildings have been built in one place and reassembled in another throughout history, possibly the first advertised prefab house was the Manning cottage. A London carpenter, Henry Manning, constructed a house that was built in components and this was published at the time and a few still stand in Australia. One such is the Friends Meeting House, Adelaide, the peak year for the importation of portable buildings to Australia was 1853, when several hundred arrived. These have been identified as coming from Liverpool, Boston and Singapore, in Barbados the Chattel house was a form of prefabricated building which was developed by emancipated slaves who had limited rights to build upon land they did not own. As the buildings were moveable they were regarded as chattels. In 1855 during the Crimean War, after Florence Nightingale wrote a letter to The Times, in five months he designed the Renkioi Hospital, a 1,000 patient hospital, with innovations in sanitation, ventilation and a flushing toilet. Fabricator William Eassie constructed the required 16 units in Gloucester Docks, only used from March 1856 to September 1857, it reduced the death rate from 42% to 3. 5%. The worlds first prefabricated, pre-cast panelled apartment blocks were pioneered in Liverpool, a process was invented by city engineer John Alexander Brodie, whose inventive genius also had him inventing the football goal net. The tram stables at Walton in Liverpool followed in 1906, the idea was not extensively adopted in Britain, however was widely adopted elsewhere, particularly in Eastern Europe. Prefabricated homes were produced during the Gold Rush in the United States, homes were available in kit form by mail order in the United States in 1908. Prefabricated housing was popular during the Second World War due to the need for accommodation for military personnel. The United States used Quonset huts as military buildings, and in the United Kingdom prefabricated buildings used included Nissen huts, prefabs were built after the war as a means of quickly and cheaply providing quality housing as a replacement for the housing destroyed during the Blitz. The proliferation of prefabricated housing across the country was a result of the Burt Committee, under the Ministry of Works Emergency Factory Made housing programme, a specification was drawn up and bid on by various private construction and manufacturing companies. Almost 160,000 had been built in the UK by 1948 at a cost of close to £216 million, the largest single prefab estate in Britain was at Belle Vale, where more than 1,100 were built after World War 2. The estate was demolished in the 1960s amid much controversy as the prefabs were very popular with residents at the time, construction materials included steel, aluminium, timber or asbestos, depending on the type of dwelling. The aluminium Type B2 prefab was produced as four pre-assembled sections which could be transported by lorry anywhere in the country, the Universal House was given to the Chiltern Open Air Museum after 40 years temporary use
30.
Precast concrete
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In contrast, standard concrete is poured into site-specific forms and cured on site. Precast stone is distinguished from precast concrete using an aggregate in the mixture. Precast are only used within ranges of exterior and interior walls, compressed in concrete and stone, creating a solid but manuverable wall or face. By producing precast concrete in an environment, the precast concrete is afforded the opportunity to properly cure. Using a precast concrete system offers many advantages over onsite casting. Precast concrete production is performed on ground level, which helps with safety throughout a project, there is greater control over material quality and workmanship in a precast plant compared to a construction site. There are many different types of precast concrete forming systems for applications, differing in size, function. Stormwater drainage, water and sewage pipes, and tunnels make use of precast concrete units, the New South Wales Government Railways made extensive use of precast concrete construction for its stations and similar buildings. Between 1917 and 1932, they erected 145 such buildings, beyond cladding panels and structural elements, entire buildings can be assembled from precast concrete. Precast assembly enables fast completion of commercial shops and offices with minimal labor, for example, the Jim Bridger Building in Williston, North Dakota, was precast in Minnesota with air, electrical, water, and fiber utilities preinstalled into the building panels. The panels were transported over 800 miles to the Bakken oilfields, the building houses over 40,000 square feet of shops and offices. Virtually the entire building was fabricated in Minnesota, to complete the look of the four precast wall panel types — sandwich, plastered sandwich, inner layer and cladding panels — many surface finishes are available. Standard cement is white or grey, though different colors can be added with pigments or paints, the color and size of aggregate can also affect the appearance and texture of concrete surfaces. The shape and surface of the precast concrete molds have an effect on the look, The mold can be made of timber, steel, plastic, rubber or fiberglass, each material giving a unique finish. Ancient Roman builders made use of concrete and soon poured the material into moulds to build their network of aqueducts, is culverts. Modern uses for pre-cast technology include a variety of architectural and structural applications — including individual parts, in the modern world, precast panelled buildings were pioneered in Liverpool, England, in 1905. The process was invented by city engineer John Alexander Brodie, a genius who also invented the idea of the football goal net. The tram stables at Walton in Liverpool followed in 1906, the idea was not taken up extensively in Britain
31.
Queens Boulevard Line (surface)
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The Q60 bus route constitutes a public transit line running primarily along Queens Boulevard in Queens, New York City, United States, extending from Jamaica into Midtown, Manhattan. It is city-operated under the MTA Bus Company brand of MTA Regional Bus Operations, the route was originally the Queens Boulevard Line, a streetcar line operated by the Manhattan and Queens Traction Company from 1913 to 1937, when it became a bus line. The route was taken over by Green Bus Lines in 1943, the streetcar line began at Second Avenue in East Midtown Manhattan. The line proceeded across the Queensboro Bridge into Long Island City and it then traveled along the entire length of Queens Boulevard, situated in the median of the road, to Jamaica Avenue in Queens. It then traveled a short distance east on Jamaica Avenue, south on 139th Street, the line proceeded south on Sutphin Boulevard to 109th Avenue and 157th Street in South Jamaica. The streetcars used the outermost roadways of the Queensboro Bridges lower level and these tracks were shared with the Third Avenue Railways 42nd Street Crosstown Line. Other streetcar lines ran in the roadways of the lower level. The bridge was shared with elevated rapid transit service between the Queensboro Plaza station and the Second and Third Avenue elevated lines. The southern roadway has since converted to vehicular use, while the northern roadway is now a pedestrian. The current Q60 bus service follows the former route from East Midtown to South Jamaica via Queens Boulevard. During daytime hours, alternate buses begin or end service at Sutphin Boulevard, the segment of Queens Boulevard between Grand Avenue and 63rd Drive is also shared by the Q59 bus, while the segment west of Roosevelt Avenue is shared with the Q32. The Q60 shares the Queensboro Bridge with the Q32 and Q101, in 1909, the Manhattan and Queens Traction Company was granted a perpetual franchise by the city to build a streetcar line along Queens Boulevard towards the Queens-Nassau County border. On March 30,1909, the Queensboro Bridge opened between Long Island City, Queens and Midtown Manhattan, beginning on September 17 of that year, several trolley lines began service over the bridge. Construction on the Queens Boulevard Line began on November 2,1912, the line was extended east to Winfield on April 26, Grand Avenue in Elmhurst on July 28, and 71st Avenue in Forest Hills on August 27. On January 23,1914, the line was extended to Hillside Avenue at the end of Queens Boulevard, on January 31 it was extended south to the Jamaica LIRR station. In April 1916, a service was instituted between Jamaica station and South Street. The line was extended along Sutphin Boulevard to its terminus at 109th Avenue. In 1917, a spur of the line along Van Dam Street in Long Island City was inaugurated
32.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
33.
Tennis
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Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent or between two teams of two players each. Each player uses a racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net. The object of the game is to play the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return, the player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society, the sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as lawn tennis and it had close connections both to various field games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport of real tennis. The rules of tennis have changed little since the 1890s, two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. Tennis is played by millions of players and is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. Historians believe that the ancient origin lay in 12th century northern France. Louis X of France was a player of jeu de paume, which evolved into real tennis. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, in due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe. Because of the accounts of his death, Louis X is historys first tennis player known by name. Another of the enthusiasts of the game was King Charles V of France. It wasnt until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to be called tennis, from the French term tenez, an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent. It was popular in England and France, although the game was played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, during the 18th century and early 19th century, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. This in turn led to the codification of rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls. In 1872, along with two doctors, they founded the worlds first tennis club in Leamington Spa. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis, according to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield popularized this game enormously
34.
Golf
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Golf is a club and ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course in as few strokes as possible. Golf, unlike most ball games, cannot and does not utilize a standardized playing area, the game is played on a course with an arranged progression of 18 holes. Each hole on the course must contain a tee box to start from, there are other standard forms of terrain in between, such as the fairway, rough, sand traps, and hazards but each hole on a course is unique in its specific layout and arrangement. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format at all levels, while the modern game of golf originated in 15th-century Scotland, the games ancient origins are unclear and much debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, one theory asserts that paganica spread throughout Europe as the Romans conquered most of the continent, during the first century BC, and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan as the progenitor, a Chinese game played between the eighth and 14th centuries, the game is thought to have been introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages. Another early game that resembled modern golf was known as cambuca in England, the Persian game chaugán is another possible ancient origin. In addition, kolven was played annually in Loenen, Netherlands, beginning in 1297, to commemorate the capture of the assassin of Floris V, a year earlier. The modern game originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James IIs banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. James IV lifted the ban in 1502 when he became a golfer himself, with golf clubs first recorded in 1503-1504, to many golfers, the Old Course at St Andrews, a links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records. The oldest surviving rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 for the Company of Gentlemen Golfers, later renamed The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, Andrews Golf Club in Yonkers, New York. The levels of grass are varied to increase difficulty, or to allow for putting in the case of the green, while many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing area to the green, some holes may bend either to the left or to the right. This is commonly called a dogleg, in reference to a dogs knee, the hole is called a dogleg left if the hole angles leftwards and dogleg right if it bends right. Sometimes, a holes direction may bend twice, this is called a double dogleg, a regular golf course consists of 18 holes, but nine-hole courses are common and can be played twice through for a full round of 18 holes. Early Scottish golf courses were laid out on links land. This gave rise to the golf links, particularly applied to seaside courses
35.
IND Queens Boulevard Line
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The IND Queens Boulevard Line, sometimes abbreviated as QBL, is a line of the B Division of the New York City Subway in Manhattan and Queens, New York City, United States. The line, which is underground throughout its route, contains 23 stations. As of 2015, it is among the systems busiest lines, the Queens Boulevard Lines eastern terminus is the four-track 179th Street station. The line continues westward then northwest as a line with the local tracks to the outside of the express tracks. The Queens Boulevard Line merges with the IND Archer Avenue Line west of Briarwood, the express tracks and the local tracks diverge at 65th Street in Jackson Heights and merge again at 36th Street in Sunnyside. West of 36th Street, the IND 63rd Street Line splits off both pairs of tracks, entering Manhattan via the 63rd Street Tunnel. At Queens Plaza in Long Island City, the narrows to two tracks, with the local tracks splitting into the 60th Street Tunnel Connection and the IND Crosstown Line. From there, the tracks of the line provide crosstown service across Manhattan under 53rd Street before turning southwest at Eighth Avenue. The two-track section west of Queens Plaza is also known as the IND 53rd Street Line, the Queens Boulevard line is served by four overlapping routes. The E train serves the section between 50th Street and Briarwood, normally running express west of 71st Avenue, the F runs express from 36th Street to 71st Avenue and local east of 71st Avenue. The M and R serve local stops on the route west of 71st Avenue, with the M diverging from the line west of Fifth Avenue/53rd Street and the R splitting west of Queens Plaza. The E and F serve the line at all times, while the M runs on the line during weekdays only, during late nights, the E makes local stops west of Briarwood to provide local service along the line. The routes experience frequent overcrowding during weekdays, and the Queens Boulevard line has among the highest rush-hour train frequencies in the system, a proposed upgrade to the line, to replace its signals with a communications-based train control system, would add capacity to the line. The lines construction in the 1920s and 1930s promoted housing growth along the Queens Boulevard corridor, however, there are multiple provisions for spur routes along the Queens Boulevard line that were never built. The IND Queens Boulevard Line begins with a storage yard consisting of two levels with four tracks each south of 185th Street and Hillside Avenue. Once the tracks from the lower level merge with the tracks on the level, there is the first station Jamaica–179th Street. Just after curving north under the Van Wyck Expressway, a flying junction joins the two-track Archer Avenue Line to the local, soon after, the line turns west under Queens Boulevard. East of Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike, another flying junction ties the eastward tracks to Jamaica Yard, the other side of the wye curves west to become a lower level of the subway just west of Kew Gardens–Union Turnpike
36.
75th Avenue (IND Queens Boulevard Line)
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75th Avenue is a local station on the IND Queens Boulevard Line of the New York City Subway. Located at the intersection of 75th Avenue and Queens Boulevard in Forest Hills, Queens, it is served by the F train at all times, the Queens Boulevard Line, one of the first built by the city-owned Independent Subway System, opened on August 19,1933. The eastern terminus was at Roosevelt Avenue, in Jackson Heights, a 3. 5-mile extension from Roosevelt Avenue to Kew Gardens opened on December 31,1936. The extension added eight new stations, including one at 75th Avenue, early planning documents called for a station at Queens Boulevard–Puritan Avenue, Puritan Avenue was the name for 75th Road in Forest Hills Gardens. For the first few years of operation the station was referred to as Puritan Avenue, the design called for a small mezzanine but 75th Avenue was built with a full one as it was cheaper than filling in the excavation. The construction of the extension to Kew Gardens brought significant growth to Queens, specifically in Forest Hills, Forest Hills was transformed from a quiet residential community of one-family houses to an active population center. In 1953, the platforms at six Queens Boulevard Line stations, the bid for the project went out in 1951. The lengthened trains began running during rush hour on September 8,1953, eleven-car trains would only operate on weekdays. The extra car increased the carrying capacity by 4,000 passengers. This local station has four tracks and two side platforms, the F train stops here at all times, while the E train uses the two center tracks to bypass this station weekdays. The platforms color scheme consists of a sage green trim line on a black border with 75TH AVE tiled in white lettering on a black border beneath them. The name tablets have 75TH AVE. in white IND-custom font on a background with a lighter green border as above. Beneath them are directional signs in white lettering on a black border, the platform columns are painted in light Nile Green and the track columns have white 75TH AVE signs on them in black lettering. The former name of Puritan Avenue was still reflected on platform signage into the 1990s, the station has a full-length mezzanine above the platforms and tracks. However, it is set up in a way that does not allow a transfer between directions, as the fare control is located in the middle of the mezzanine. The token booth and turnstile banks for either direction are at the center, HEET turnstiles are at either ends near the stations entrances and exits, both of which have two street stairs. Chain-link fences separate the sections of the mezzanine within fare control, there are two switches near the western end of this station, one is a diamond crossover in the Queens-bound direction, and one is a regular switch in the Manhattan-bound direction. The diamond crossover allows trains to cross-over between the local and express tracks in the same direction
37.
Park Avenue
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Park Avenue is a wide New York City boulevard which carries north and southbound traffic in the borough of Manhattan, and is also a wide one-way pair in the Bronx. For most of the length in Manhattan, it runs parallel to Madison Avenue to the west. Park Avenues entire length was formerly called Fourth Avenue, the title applies to the section between the Bowery and 14th Street. Meanwhile, the section between 14th and 17th Street is called Union Square East, and between 17th and 32nd Streets, the name Park Avenue South is used, in the Bronx, Park Avenue runs in several segments between the Major Deegan Expressway and Fordham Road. Park Avenue was originally known as Fourth Avenue and carried the tracks of the New York, the railroad originally ran through an open cut through Murray Hill, which was covered with grates and grass between 34th and 40th Street in the early 1850s. A section of park was later renamed Park Avenue in 1860. When Grand Central Depot was opened in the 1870s, the tracks between 56th and 93rd Streets were sunk out of sight and, in 1888, Park Avenue was extended to north of Grand Central. In 1936 the elevated Park Avenue Viaduct was built around the station to allow traffic to pass unimpeded. In October 1937, a part of the Murray Hill Tunnel was reopened for road traffic, efforts to promote a Grand Park Avenue Expressway to Grand Concourse in the Bronx were unavailing. A tradition was introduced in 1945 as a memorial to American soldiers killed in action, on May 5,1959, the New York City Council voted 20–1 to change the name of Fourth Avenue between 17th and 32nd Streets to Park Avenue South. In 1963, the Pan Am Building, straddling Park Avenue atop Grand Central Terminal, was built between the automotive viaducts, on March 12,2014, two apartment buildings near 116th Street,1644 and 1646 Park Avenue, were destroyed in a gas explosion. Eight people were killed and many others were injured, the road that becomes Park Avenue originates as the Bowery. From Cooper Square at 8th Street to Union Square at 14th Street, it is known as Fourth Avenue, at 14th Street, it turns slightly northeast to align with other avenues drawn up in the Commissioners Plan of 1811. From 17th Street to 32nd Street, it is known as Park Avenue South, above 32nd Street, for the remainder of its distance, it is known as Park Avenue, a 140-foot-wide boulevard. Between 33rd Street and 40th Street, the northbound lane descends into the Murray Hill Tunnel. The bridge, one of two structures in Manhattan known as the Park Avenue Viaduct, returns to level at 46th Street after going through the Helmsley Building. The IRT Lexington Avenue Line runs under this portion of the street, once the line reaches Grand Central – 42nd Street, it shifts east to Lexington Avenue. From 47th to 97th Streets, Metro-North Railroad tracks run in a tunnel underneath Park Avenue, in the 1920s the portion of Park Avenue from Grand Central Terminal to 96th Street saw extensive apartment building construction
38.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
39.
Public housing
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Public housing may be a form of housing tenure in which the property is owned by a government authority, which may be central or local. Social housing can also be seen as a remedy to housing inequality. Some social housing organizations construct for purchase, particularly in Spain, although the common goal of public housing is to provide affordable housing, the details, terminology, definitions of poverty and other criteria for allocation vary within different contexts. The origins of municipal housing lie in the urban population increase caused by the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century. In the large cities of the period, many commentators, such as Octavia Hill and Charles Booth reported on the squalor, sickness. Henry Mayhew, visiting Bethnal Green, wrote in the The Morning Chronicle, roads were unmade, often mere alleys, houses small and without foundations, subdivided and often around unpaved courts. An almost total lack of drainage and sewerage was made worse by the ponds formed by the excavation of brickearth. Pigs and cows in back yards, noxious trades like boiling tripe, melting tallow, or preparing cats meat, and slaughter houses, dustheaps, and lakes of putrefying night soil added to the filth. Some philanthropists began to provide housing in tenement blocks, and some factory owners built entire villages for their workers, such as Saltaire in 1853 and it was in 1885, after the report from a Royal Commission in England, that the state first took an interest. This led to the Housing of the Working Classes Act of 1885, nearly 6,000 individuals were crammed into the packed streets, where one child in four died before his or her first birthday. Arthur Morrison wrote the influential A Child of the Jago, an account of the life of a child in the slum, construction of the Boundary Estate was begun in 1890 by the Metropolitan Board of Works and completed by the recently formed London County Council in 1900. The success of this project spurred many local councils to embark on similar construction schemes in the early 20th century. The Arts and Crafts movement and Ebenezer Howards Garden city ideas led to the leafy London County Council cottage estates such as firstly Totterdown Fields and later Wormholt and Old Oak. The First World War indirectly provided a new impetus, when the physical health. In 1916, 41% of conscripts were unfit to serve, Public housing projects were tried out in some European countries and the United States in the 1930s, but only became widespread globally after the Second World War. Minha Casa Minha Vida, the Brazilian governments social housing program, was launched in March 2009 with a budget of R$36 billion to one million homes. The second stage of the program, included within the government Growth Acceleration Program was announced in March 2010 and this stage foresees the construction of a further two million homes. Of the total 3 million homes,1, all funds for Minha Casa Minha Vida properties are provided by the Brazilian public bank, Caixa Econômica Federal
40.
John Lindsay
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John Vliet Lindsay was an American politician, lawyer, and broadcaster who was a U. S. congressman, mayor of New York City, candidate for U. S. president, and regular guest host of Good Morning America. During his political career, he served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from January 1959 to December 1965 and he died from Parkinsons disease and pneumonia in Hilton Head Island, South Carolina on December 19,2000. Lindsay was born in New York City on West End Avenue, to George Nelson Lindsay and he grew up in an upper-middle-class family of English and Dutch descent. Lindsays paternal grandfather migrated to the United States in the 1880s from the Isle of Wight, Lindsays father was a successful lawyer and investment banker. Lindsay attended the Buckley School, St. Pauls School and Yale, with the outbreak of World War II, Lindsay completed his studies early and in 1943 joined the United States Navy as a gunnery officer. He obtained the rank of lieutenant, earning five battle stars through action in the invasion of Sicily, in 1949, he began his legal career at the law firm of Webster, Sheffield, Fleischmann, Hitchcock & Chrystie. Back in New York City, Lindsay met his wife, Mary Anne Harrison, at the wedding of Nancy Bush. A native of Richmond, Virginia and a resident of Greenwich, Connecticut, Harrison was a distant relative of William Henry Harrison and Benjamin Harrison. That same year Lindsay was admitted to the bar, and rose to become a partner in his law firm four years later. Like Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, who redecorated the White House, Mary Lindsay, an educator, renovated Gracie Mansion. She died of cancer at the age of seventy-seven, four years after the passing of her husband, Lindsay began gravitating toward politics as one of the founders of the Youth for Eisenhower club in 1951 and as president of the New York Young Republican club in 1952. He went on to join the United States Department of Justice in 1955 as executive assistant to Attorney General Herbert Brownell, There he worked on civil liberties cases as well as the 1957 Civil Rights Act. While in Congress, Lindsay established a voting record increasingly at odds with his party. He was a member of a group of liberal and moderate Republicans in the House who voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1965, Lindsay was elected Mayor of New York City as a Republican with the support of the Liberal Party of New York in a three-way race. He defeated Democratic mayoral candidate Abraham D. Beame, then City Comptroller, as well as National Review magazine founder William F. Buckley, the unofficial motto of the campaign, taken from a Murray Kempton column, was He is fresh and everyone else is tired. On his first day as mayor, January 1,1966, as New Yorkers endured the transit strike, Lindsay remarked, I still think its a fun city, and walked four miles from his hotel room to City Hall in a gesture to show it. Dick Schaap, then a columnist for the New York Herald Tribune, in the article, Schaap sardonically pointed out that it wasnt
41.
Mario Cuomo
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Mario Matthew Cuomo was an American Democratic politician. He served as the 52nd Governor of New York for three terms, from 1983 to 1994, Lieutenant Governor of New York from 1979 to 1982, and Secretary of State of New York from 1975 to 1978. Cuomo was known for his views and public speeches, particularly his keynote speech at the 1984 Democratic National Convention where he criticized Ronald Reagans policies. His legacy as a reluctant standard-bearer for the Democrats in presidential elections led to him being dubbed Hamlet on the Hudson, Cuomo was defeated for a fourth term as governor by George Pataki in the Republican Revolution of 1994, and he subsequently retired from politics. He was the father of five, including Andrew Cuomo, the current Governor of New York and he died of natural causes due to heart failure in Manhattan, New York City, on New Years Day,2015. Cuomo was born in the Briarwood section of the New York City borough of Queens to a family of Italian origin and his father, Andrea Cuomo, was from Nocera Inferiore, and his mother, Immacolata, was from Tramonti, Campania. The family owned a store in South Jamaica, Queens, in New York City, Cuomo attended New York City P. S. 50 and St. Johns Preparatory School, batting helmets were not yet required equipment, and Cuomos injury was severe enough that he was hospitalized for six days. After his recovery, Cuomo gave up baseball and returned to St. Johns, deciding on a legal career, Cuomo attended St. Johns University School of Law, from which he graduated tied for first in his class in 1956. Cuomo clerked for Judge Adrian P. Burke of the New York Court of Appeals, in addition to practicing law, Cuomo was an adjunct professor at St. Johns Law School. He later represented another Queens residents group, the Kew Gardens–Forest Hills Committee on Urban Scale, Cuomo described his experience in that dispute in the book Forest Hills Diary, and the story was retold by sociologist Richard Sennett in The Fall of Public Man. After Carey and Krupsak were elected, the new governor appointed Cuomo Secretary of State of New York in January 1975, two years later, Cuomo ran for Mayor of New York City at Careys urging. Incumbent Mayor Abraham Beame was very unpopular and Cuomo was one of five major challengers to Beame in the Democratic primary, in a close and highly fractured election, U. S. Representative Ed Koch finished first with 19. 81% of the vote, as no candidate cleared 40% of the vote, Koch and Cuomo advanced to a runoff. Koch emerged victorious with 54. 94% of the vote to Cuomos 45. 06%, during the mayoral campaign, placards appeared saying, Vote for Cuomo, not the homo in reference to rumors about Kochs sexuality. Cuomo ran on his opposition to the penalty, which backfired amongst New Yorkers as crime was very high. Cuomo then went negative with ads that likened Koch to unpopular former mayor John Lindsay, meanwhile, Koch backers accused Cuomo of antisemitism and pelted Cuomo campaign cars with eggs. Cuomo was also defeated by Koch in the election, taking 40. 97% to Kochs 49. 99%
42.
New York City Housing Authority
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The New York City Housing Authority provides housing for low- and moderate-income residents throughout the five boroughs of New York City. NYCHA also administers a citywide Section 8 Leased Housing Program in rental apartments and these communities are often referred to in popular culture as projects, or developments. These facilities commonly have large income disparities with their respective surrounding neighborhood or community, more than 400,000 New Yorkers reside in NYCHAs 328 public housing developments across the City’s five boroughs. Another 235,000 receive subsidized rental assistance in private homes through the NYCHA-administered Section 8 Leased Housing Program, NYCHA is a New York state public-benefit corporation organized under the Public Housing Law. The NYCHA consists of seven members, of which the chairman is appointed by and serves at the pleasure of the Mayor of New York City, the Authority is the largest public housing authority in North America. In spite of problems, it is still considered by experts to be the most successful big-city public housing authority in the country. Most of its housing is also in high-rise buildings. NYCHA also administers a citywide Section 8 Leased Housing Program in rental apartments, however, new applications for Section 8 have not been accepted since December 10,2009. New York also maintains a waiting list for its apartments. NYCHAs Conventional Public Housing Program has 181,581 apartments in 345 developments throughout the city, NYCHA has approximately 13,000 employees serving about 176,221 families and approximately 403,120 authorized residents. Based on the 2010 census, NYCHAs Public Housing represents 8. 2% of the rental apartments and is home to 4. 9% of the city’s population. NYCHA residents and Section 8 voucher holders combined occupy 12. 4% of the rental apartments. In mid-2007, NYCHA faced a $225 million budget shortfall, the Fund received its first donation of $100,000 from the Deutsche Bank in December 2015. East Harlem in Manhattan has the second highest concentration of housing in the nation. The Bronxs largest development is Edenwald Houses in Edenwald with 2,036 apartments, brooklyns largest development is Red Hook Houses in Red Hook with 2,878 apartments. Manhattans largest development is Baruch Houses on the Lower East Side with 2,391 apartments Staten Islands largest development is Stapleton Houses in Stapleton with 693 apartments. The combined demographics of all housing developments in New York City is about 46% Black, 44% Hispanic, 4% White, 5% Asian. NYCHA residents in Chelsea earn significantly less money than the average Chelsea resident and are almost half as likely to have a college degree, at the end of 1935, NYCHA dedicated its first development, called First Houses, located on the Lower East Side of Manhattan
United States
New York
New York City
