1.
Outline of forestry
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Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. It is based оn reduced human intervention, that should be directed to accelerate the processes that nature would do by itself more slowly. It is a relationship of interdependence between humans and the systems in which the amount of biomass available from the forest increases with the health of its natural systems. Plantation forestry – industrial plantations are established to produce a volume of wood in a short period of time. Some plantations are managed by state authorities and others by paper. Donkey puncher was the operator of a steam donkey, a machine used in logging in the 19th and 20th centuries. Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment of forest stands are used to preserve, an estimate of the value and possible uses of timber is an important part of the broader information required to sustain ecosystems. Diameter at breast height – measurement of a trees diameter standardized at 1, the term is sometimes used in a narrow sense to mean moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard. However, in usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities. Wood is by far the dominant forest product, used for fuel, structural materials in the construction of buildings, or as a raw material, all non-wood products derived from forest resources are called non-timber forest products. H. R.11973 Transfer Act of 1905 - An Act Providing for the transfer of forest reserves from the Department of Interior to the Department of Agriculture
2.
Forestry
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Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving, and repairing forests and associated resources to meet desired goals, needs, and values for human and environment benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands, the science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester, other terms are used a verderer and a silviculturalist being common ones. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, the preindustrial age has been dubbed by Werner Sombart and others as the wooden age, as timber and firewood were the basic resources for energy, construction and housing. The development of forestry is closely connected with the rise of capitalism, economy as a science and varying notions of land use. Roman Latifundiae, large estates, were quite successful in maintaining the large supply of wood that was necessary for the Roman Empire. Large deforestations came with respectively after the decline of the Romans, however already in the 5th century, monks in the then Byzantine Romagna on the Adriatic coast, were able to establish stone pine plantations to provide fuelwood and food. This was the beginning of the massive forest mentioned by Dante Alighieri in his 1308 poem Divine Comedy, the use and management of many forest resources has a long history in China as well, dating back to the Han Dynasty and taking place under the landowning gentry. A similar approach was used in Japan and it was also later written about by the Ming Dynasty Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi. In Europe, land rights in medieval and early modern times allowed different users to access forests. The notion of commons refers to the traditional legal term of common land. The idea of enclosed private property came about during modern times, however, most hunting rights were retained by members of the nobility which preserved the right of the nobility to access and use common land for recreation, like fox hunting. Systematic management of forests for a yield of timber is said to have begun in the German states in the 14th century, e. g. in Nuremberg. Typically, a forest was divided into sections and mapped. Large firs in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Dutch ship yards, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m in width and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe and is still of importance in Finland. The notion of Nachhaltigkeit, sustainability in forestry, is connected to the work of Hans Carl von Carlowitz
3.
Silviculture
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Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. The name comes from the Latin silvi- + culture, the study of forests and woods is termed silvology. Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment of forest stands are used to preserve, more particularly, silviculture is the theory and practice of controlling the establishment, composition, constitution, and growth of forests. Suggestions for how best to go about the job, presented by Jeglum et al. though aimed primarily at the boreal forest in Ontario, the 110-page publication describes Best Management Practices, first by general principles, then by sensitive sites. Illustrations are plentiful and are chosen to complement this excellent text. To some the distinction between forestry and silviculture is that silviculture is applied at the level and forestry is broader. For example, John D. Matthews says complete regimes for regenerating, tending, adaptive management is common in silviculture, whereas forestry can include natural, conserved land without a stand level management and treatment being applied. A common taxonomy divides silviculture into regenerating, tending and harvesting techniques, and Dauerwald - Continuous cover forestry, in which are found, un-even aged forestry - Plenterwald - Selection forest - Zielstärkennutzung - Target diameter harvesting. This misunderstanding has meant that many older English textbooks did not capture the complexity of silviculture as practiced where it originated in Mitteleuropa. This silviculture was culturally predicated on wood production in temperate and boreal climates, the misapplication of this philosophy to those tropical forests has been problematic. There is also an alternative silvicultural tradition which developed in Japan, after harvesting comes regeneration, which may be split into Natural and Artificial. And tending which includes release treatments, pruning, thinning and intermediate treatments, as it can be imagined it maybe that any of these 3 phases may happen at the same time, within a stand, depending on the goal for that particular stand. Regeneration is basic to the continuation of forested, as well as to the afforestation of treeless land, regeneration can take place through self-sown seed, by artificially sown seed, or by planted seedlings. In whichever case, the performance of regeneration depends on its growth potential, seed, of course, is needed for all regeneration modes, both for natural or artificial sowing and for raising planting stock in a nursery. The process of natural regeneration involves the renewal of forests by means of self-sown seeds, root suckers, in natural forests, conifers rely almost entirely on regeneration through seed. Most of the broadleaves, however, are able to regenerate by the means of emergence of shoots from stumps, any seed, self-sown or artificially applied, requires a seedbed suitable for securing germination. In order to germinate, a seed requires suitable conditions of temperature, moisture, white spruce seed germinated at 35 °F and 40 °F after continuous stratification for one year or longer and developed radicles <6 cm long in the cold room. When exposed to light, those germinants developed chlorophyll and were normally phototropic with continued elongation, shade is very important to the survival of young seedlings
4.
Forest protection
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Thus due to this the different emphases around the world paradoxically suggest different things for forest protection. In German speaking countries forest protection would focus on the biotic and abiotic factors that are non-crime related, a protected forest is not the same as a protection forest. These terms can lead to confusion in English, although they are clearer in other languages. As a result, reading English literature can be problematic for non-experts due to localization and conflation of meanings, enforcement of laws regarding purchased forest land is weak or non-existent in most parts of the world. In the increasingly dangerous South America, home of major rainforests, one simple type of forest protection is the purchasing of land in order to secure it, or in order to plant trees. It can also mean forest management or the designation of such as natural reservoirs which are intended to be left to themselves. However, merely purchasing a piece of land does not prevent it from being used by others for poaching and illegal logging. A better way to protect a forest, particularly old growth forests in areas, is to obtain a part of it and to live on. Even in the United States, these measures sometimes dont suffice because arson can burn a forest to the ground, another issue about living on purchased forest-land is that there may not be a suitable site for a standard home without clearing land, which defies the purpose of protection. Alternatives include building a treehouse or an earthhouse and this is being done currently by indigenous people in South America to protect large reservoirs. In former times, North American Native Americans used to live in tipies or mandan earthhouses, an undertaking to develop modern treehouses is being taken by a company from Germany called TrueSchool treehouses. A number of successful methods of forest protection have been tried. Protecting a small section of land in a larger forest may also have limited value, for example, tropical rainforests can die if they decrease in size, since they are dependent on the moist microclimate which they create. There is an excellent article in National Geographic October issue concerning redwood forest in California, a compromise is to conduct agriculture and stock farming, or sustainable wood management. This ascribes different values to forest land and farmland, for many areas are clear felled. Two conflicting studies on the idea that protecting forests only relocates deforestation, according to the paradox of forest protection protected areas such as rural settlements near protected zones grew at twice the rate of those elsewhere. The IUCN implements such protocols that protect over 670 eco-regions, 46% of the eco-regions had less than 10% forest protection. Which means that areas are not being monitored as they should
5.
Aesthetics
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Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
6.
Fish
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A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
7.
Outdoor recreation
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Outdoor recreation or outdoor activity refers to leisure pursuits engaged in the outdoors, often in natural or semi-natural settings out of town. Outdoor recreation may also refer to a sport game or practice held in an outdoor setting. When the recreation involves excitement, physical challenge, or risk, such as in rafting or climbing, the two primary purposes for outdoor recreation are beneficial use and pleasurable appreciation. Beneficial use is related to the physical and social rewards that goal-directed activity instills in individuals or groups, some outdoor goal-directed activities are, backpacking, canoeing, canyoning, caving, climbing, hiking, hill walking, hunting, kayaking, and rafting. Arguably broader groupings of goal-directed outdoor activities would include water sports, snow sports, goal-directed outdoor activities are predominantly physical, though they may also be mentally, emotionally, and spiritually rewarding. The outdoors as a physical or social setting may meet the needs of health, self-sufficiency, risk-taking, the building of social ties. The outdoors can be an environment in which show what they can do. Pleasurable appreciation encourages experiences of being let in on natures show and these activities may also be physically rewarding. Many people in modern civilizations believe that the value of nature is only in its utilitarian value. They would discount the inner perceptual and/or spiritual benefits of the value of nature that may be experienced during pleasurable appreciation. Outdoor activities may also be pursued for the purposes of finding peace in nature, enjoying life and they are alternatives to expensive forms of tourism. Outdoor activities are frequently used as a medium in education. Trekking is about enjoying a great walking holiday, treks can be day hikes, overnight or extended hikes. An example of a day trek is hiking during the day and returning at night to a lodge for a hot meal, trekking can be more enjoyable when undertaken while being generally physically fit. Physical preparation for trekking includes cycling, swimming, jogging and long walks and its also expected that backpackers leave no trace while enjoying the outdoors. The activity of mountain biking involves steering a mountain cycle over rocky tracks, to tackle the trails, the requirements are physical strength, stamina and a strong mountain cycle. Mountain bikes or ATBs feature a rugged frame and fork and their frames are often built of aluminum so they are lightweight and stiff, making them efficient to ride. Many styles of mountain biking are practiced, including all mountain, downhill, trials, dirt jumping, trail riding, the latter two are the most common
8.
Wilderness
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Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. Some governments establish them by law or administrative acts, usually in land tracts that have not been modified by human action in great measure, the main feature of them is that human activity is restricted significantly. These actions seek not only to preserve what already exists, but also to promote and advance a natural expression, Wilderness areas can be found in preserves, conservation preserves, National Forests, National Parks and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches or otherwise undeveloped areas. These areas are considered important for the survival of species, biodiversity, ecological studies, conservation, solitude. Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral, some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity. They may also preserve historic genetic traits and provide habitat for flora and fauna that may be difficult to recreate in zoos. The word wilderness derives from the notion of other words. The mere presence or activity of people does not disqualify an area from being wilderness, many ecosystems that are, or have been, inhabited or influenced by activities of people may still be considered wild. This way of looking at wilderness includes areas within which natural processes operate without human interference, the WILD Foundation states that wilderness areas have two dimensions, they must be biologically intact and legally protected. The World Conservation Union classifies wilderness at two levels, Ia and Ib, activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas, such as fire suppression and the interruption of animal migration also affect the interior of wildernesses. Especially in wealthier, industrialized nations, it has a legal meaning as well. Many nations have designated wilderness, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, looked at through the lens of the visual arts, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of landscape art occurred in the Tang Dynasty, the tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art. In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature, for most of human history, the greater part of the Earths terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated in settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire, Ashoka, the Great Mauryan King, defined the first laws in the world to protect flora and fauna in Edicts of Ashoka around 3rd Century B. C. In the Middle Ages, the Kings of England initiated one of the world’s first conscious efforts to natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to hunt wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness, nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and the land from villagers gathering firewood. Similar measures were introduced in other European countries, the idea of wilderness having intrinsic value emerged in the Western world in the 19th century
9.
Wildlife
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Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to include all plants, fungi, and other organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems, humans have historically tended to separate civilization from wildlife in a number of ways including the legal, social, and moral sense. Some animals, however, have adapted to suburban environments and this includes such animals as domesticated cats, dogs, mice, and gerbils. The global wildlife population has decreased by 52 percent between 1970 and 2014, according to a report by the World Wildlife Fund, anthropologists believe that the Stone Age people and hunter-gatherers relied on wildlife, both plants and animals, for their food. In fact, some species may have been hunted to extinction by human hunters. Today, hunting, fishing, and gathering wildlife is still a significant food source in parts of the world. In other areas, hunting and non-commercial fishing are seen as a sport or recreation. Meat sourced from wildlife that is not traditionally regarded as game is known as bush meat, in November 2008, almost 900 plucked and oven-ready owls and other protected wildlife species were confiscated by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Malaysia, according to TRAFFIC. The animals were believed to be bound for China, to be sold in wild meat restaurants, most are listed in CITES which prohibits or restricts such trade.60. Many Amazon species, including peccaries, agoutis, turtles, turtle eggs, anacondas, armadillos, others in these informal markets, such as monkeys and parrots, are destined for the pet trade, often smuggled into the United States. Still other Amazon species are popular ingredients in traditional medicines sold in local markets, the medicinal value of animal parts is based largely on superstition. Many animal species have spiritual significance in different cultures around the world, for example, eagles, hawks and their feathers have great cultural and spiritual value to Native Americans as religious objects. In Hinduism the cow is regarded sacred, muslims conduct sacrifices on Eid-ul-Adha to commemorate the sacrificial spirit of Ibrahim in love of God. Camels, sheep, goats, and cows may be offered as sacrifice during the three days of Eid, many nations have established their tourism sector around their natural wildlife. South Africa has, for example, many opportunities for tourists to see the wildlife in its national parks. In South India the Periar Wildlife Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park and Mudamalai Wildlife Sanctuary are situated around, India is home to many national parks and wildlife sanctuaries showing the diversity of its wildlife, much of its unique fauna, and excels in the range. This subsection focuses on forms of wildlife destruction. Exploitation of wild populations has been a characteristic of man since our exodus from Africa 130,000 –70,000 years ago
10.
Forest product
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A forest product is any material derived from a forestry for direct consumption or commercial use, such as lumber, paper, or forage for livestock. All other non-wood products derived from forest resources, comprising a variety of other forest products, are collectively described as non-timber forest products. Many forest management policies have been implemented that impact forest product economics, including forest access restrictions, harvesting fees, since 1947, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has published an annual yearbook of forest products. The FAO Yearbook of Forest Products is a compilation of data on basic forest products for all countries and territories of the world. It contains series of data on the volume of production. It includes tables showing direction of trade and average values of trade for certain products. Statistical information in the yearbook is based primarily on data provided to the FAO Forestry Department by the countries through questionnaires or official publications, in the absence of official data, FAO makes an estimate based on the best information available. FAO also publishes an annual survey of pulp and paper production capacities around the world, the survey presents statistics on pulp and paper capacity and production by country and by grade. The statistics are based on information submitted by correspondents worldwide, most of them pulp and paper associations, forests Products data in Canada since chall hatt pagal 1990 Halll hattt ghadr
11.
Non-timber forest product
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They include game animals, fur-bearers, nuts, seeds, berries, mushrooms, oils, foliage, medicinal plants, peat, fuelwood, fish, spices and forage. All research promote forest products as valuable commodities and tools that can promote the conservation of forests and these definitions include wild and managed game, fish and insects. NTFPs are commonly grouped into such as floral greens, decoratives, medicinal plants, foods, flavors and fragrances, fibers. Other terms similar to NTFPs include special, non-wood, minor, alternative, NTFPs in particular highlight forest products which are of value to local people and communities but have been overlooked in the wake of forest management priorities. In recent decades, interest has grown in using NTFPs as alternatives or supplements to forest management practices, black truffle cultivation in the mediterranean area is a good example of a high profitability when well managed. The harvest of NTFPs remains widespread throughout the world, Other terms synonymous with harvesting include wild-crafting, gathering, collecting and foraging. NTFPs also serve as raw materials for industries ranging from large-scale floral greens suppliers, one exception to this is the maple syrup industry, which in 2002 in the US alone yielded 1.4 million US gallons worth USD$38.3 million. In temperate forests such as in the US, wild edible mushrooms such as matsutake, medicinal plants such as ginseng, while these high-value species may attract the most attention, a diversity of NTFPs can be found in most forests of the world. In tropical forests, for example, NTFPs can be an important source of income that can supplement farming and/or other activities, gums & resin exuding plants 5. Dyes & colour yielding plants 6, fiber & floss yielding plants 7. Leaves for plates Minority people in Vietnam, Myanmar and Laos are living away from the mainstream settlements, the hill tribes and many other minority groups are closely associated with forests for centuries. Much of their subsistence and part of the income is generated from the sale of a variety of NTFP products. In the Highlands of Vietnam, NTFPs calendar is spread almost throughout the year that provides an income for the ethnic minority people. From June to August is the wild berry called Uoi collection that provides the bulk of household income, every family sends several people into the forest on a regular basis during this period where they stay for 2–3 days during which 5–6 kg of berries is collected. A kilogram of dried berries is sold for $1.50, the next comes bamboo shoots, mushrooms and vegetable collection that goes through to February. The minority people in Sa Pa area depends mainly on a variety of NTFPs for their livelihoods, among the products collected are fruits, berries, leaves, mushrooms, fish, bees honey, bamboo shoots, wild orchids and the list goes on. The Friday market is full of orchids and other wild plants put forward by people for the tourists. Between 10-15% of the household income is derived from the sale of NTFPs
12.
Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
13.
Afforestation
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Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally or artificially, forestation is the establishment of forest growth on areas that either had forest or lacked it. Reforestation and afforestation are categories of forestation, special tools, e. g. tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster. Gap dynamics is the pattern of plant growth that occurs following the creation of a forest gap, gap dynamics are a typical characteristic of temperate and tropical forests, and have a wide variety of causes and effects on forest life. In some places, forests need help to themselves because of environmental factors. For example, in zones, once forest cover is destroyed. Other factors include overgrazing by livestock, especially such as goats, cows. Together these may lead to desertification and the loss of topsoil, without soil, in some tropical areas, forest cover removal may result in a duricrust or duripan that effectively seal off the soil to water penetration and root growth. In many areas, reforestation is impossible because people are using the land, in other areas, mechanical breaking up of duripans or duricrusts is necessary, careful and continued watering may be essential, and special protection, such as fencing, may be needed. There is extensive and ongoing Amazon deforestation. )China has deforested most of its wooded areas. China reached the point where timber yields declined far below historic levels, although it has set official goals for reforestation, these goals are set over an 80-year time horizon and have not been significantly met by 2008. China is trying to correct these problems by projects as the Green Wall of China, a law promulgated in 1981 requires that every school student over the age of 11 plants at least one tree per year. As a result, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, however, the forest area per capita is still far lower than the international average. There has also been criticism regarding the effectiveness of planting so many trees especially in regions where they never grew prior. Studies reveal that the table of those areas is becoming deeper indicating significant water loss. India has witnessed an increase in the percentage of the land area under forest cover from 1950 to 2006. In 1950 around 40.48 million hectares was covered by forest, in 1980 it increased to 67.47 million hectares and in 2006 it was found to be 69 million hectares. 23% of India is covered by forest, the forests of India are grouped into 5 major categories and 16 types based on biophysical criteria
14.
Reforestation
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Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands that have been depleted, usually through deforestation. Sometimes the term re-afforestation is used to distinguish between the original forest cover and the later re-growth of forest to an area, forestation is the establishment of forest growth on areas that either had forest or lacked it. Special tools, e. g. tree planting bars, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster, a debated issue in managed reforestation is whether or not the succeeding forest will have the same biodiversity as the original forest. If the forest is replaced with one species of tree and all other vegetation is prevented from growing back. However, most reforestation involves the planting of different seedlots of seedlings taken from the area, another important factor is the natural regeneration of a wide variety of plant and animal species that can occur on a clear cut. In some areas the suppression of forest fires for hundreds of years has resulted in large single aged, the logging of small clear cuts and/or prescribed burning, actually increases the biodiversity in these areas by creating a greater variety of tree stand ages and species. Reforestation need not be used for recovery of accidentally destroyed forests. In some countries, such as Finland, many of the forests are managed by the products and pulp. In such an arrangement, like other crops, trees are planted to replace those that have been cut, in such circumstances, the industry can cut the trees in a way to allow easier reforestation. The wood products industry systematically replaces many of the trees it cuts, for example, in 2010, Weyerhaeuser reported planting 50 million seedlings. However replanting an old-growth forest with a plantation is not replacing the old with the characteristics in the new. In just 20 years, a plantation in Costa Rica can produce up to about 400 m³ of wood per hectare. As the natural forests of Asia become more scarce or difficult to obtain. Other species such as mahogany grow more slowly than teak in Tropical America but are extremely valuable. Faster growers include pine, eucalyptus, and Gmelina, the reestablishment of forests is not just simple tree planting. Forests are made up of a community of species and they build dead organic matter into soils over time, a major tree-planting program could enhance the local climate and reduce the demands of burning large amounts of fossil fuels for cooling in the summer. Forests are an important part of the carbon cycle because trees. By removing this greenhouse gas from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, at any time, forests account for as much as double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere
15.
Tree
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In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are usable as lumber or plants above a specified height. Trees are not a group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk. In looser senses, the palms, the tree ferns, bananas. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old, the tallest known tree, a coast redwood named Hyperion, stands 115.6 m high. Trees have been in existence for 370 million years and it is estimated that there are just over 3 trillion mature trees in the world. A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk and this trunk typically contains woody tissue for strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier, below the ground, the roots branch and spread out widely, they serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots typically bear leaves, which light energy and convert it into sugars by photosynthesis, providing the food for the trees growth. Flowers and fruit may also be present, but some trees, such as conifers, instead have pollen cones and seed cones, others, such as tree ferns, trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues, trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world, trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always revered, with sacred groves in various cultures. Although tree is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition of what a tree is, either botanically or in common language. In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with the form of an elongated stem, or trunk. Trees are also defined by height, with smaller plants from 0.5 to 10 m being called shrubs
16.
Wildfire
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A wildfire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area. Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants 420 million years ago, wildfire’s occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems flora and fauna. Earth is an intrinsically flammable planet owing to its cover of vegetation, seasonally dry climates, atmospheric oxygen, widespread lightning. Wildfires can be characterised in terms of the cause of ignition, their properties, the combustible material present. Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life, but they have beneficial effects on native vegetation, animals. Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth, however, wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects. Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of such as available fuels, physical setting. Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection and suppression have varied over the years, one common and inexpensive technique is controlled burning, permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimise the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation. Wildland fire use is the cheapest and most ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, fuels may also be removed by logging, but fuels treatments and thinning have no effect on severe fire behaviour. Wildfires can also be started in communities experiencing shifting cultivation, where land is cleared quickly and farmed until the soil loses fertility, forested areas cleared by logging encourage the dominance of flammable grasses, and abandoned logging roads overgrown by vegetation may act as fire corridors. The most common cause of wildfires throughout the world. In Canada and northwest China, for example, lightning operates as the source of ignition. In other parts of the world, human involvement is a major contributor, in China and in the Mediterranean Basin, human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires. In the United States and Australia, the source of wildfires can be traced both to lightning strikes and to human activities. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in Burning Mountain, New South Wales, Centralia, Pennsylvania and they can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. The spread of wildfires based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography, as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight, overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows, Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff and other buried organic matter
17.
Natural resources
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Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, on earth it includes, sunlight, atmosphere, water, land along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems, Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment, every man-made product is composed of natural resources. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, however, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localised resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, the vast majority of resources are theoretically exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if managed improperly. There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material, examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, Actual resources — Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of a resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available. Reserve resources — The part of a resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource. Stock resources — Stock resources are those that have been surveyed, renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable, Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available, though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment, minerals are the most common resource included in this category. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Once they are used they take millions of years to replenish. Resource extraction involves any activity that withdraws resources from nature and this can range in scale from the traditional use of preindustrial societies, to global industry. Extractive industries are, along with agriculture, the basis of the sector of the economy
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Old-growth forest
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Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitat that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem. The concept of tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters. Old-growth forests are valuable, and logging of these forests has been a point of contention between the logging industry and environmentalists. Old-growth forests tend to have trees and standing dead trees, multi-layered canopies with gaps that result from the deaths of individual trees. Depending on the forest, this may take anywhere from a century to several millennia, hardwood forests of the eastern United States can develop old-growth characteristics in one or two generations of trees, or 150–500 years. In British Columbia, Canada, old growth is defined as 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the province where fire is a frequent and natural occurrence. In British Columbia’s coastal rainforests, old growth is defined as more than 250 years. In Australia, eucalypt trees rarely exceed 350 years of age due to frequent fire disturbance, Forest types have very different development patterns, natural disturbances and appearances. Levels of biodiversity may be higher or lower in old-growth forests compared to that in second-growth forests, depending on circumstances, environmental variables. Logging in old-growth forests is an issue in many parts of the world. Excessive logging reduces biodiversity, affecting not only the old-growth forest itself, a forest in old-growth stage has a mix of tree ages, due to a distinct regeneration pattern for this stage. New trees regenerate at different times from other, because each one of them has different spatial location relative to the main canopy. The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a stable ecosystem in the long term. A climax stand that is uniformly aged becomes senescent and degrades within a relatively short time-period to result in a new cycle of forest succession, thus, uniformly aged stands are a less stable ecosystem. Forest canopy gaps are essential in creating and maintaining mixed-age stands, also, some herbaceous plants only become established in canopy openings, but persist beneath an understory. Openings are a result of death due to small impact disturbances such as wind, low-intensity fires. Because old-growth forest is structurally diverse it provides higher-diversity habitat than forests in other stages, thus, sometimes higher biological diversity can be sustained in old-growth forest, or at least a biodiversity that is different from other forest stages. The characteristic topography of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds, mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals
19.
Biodiversity
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Biodiversity, a contraction of biological diversity, generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species and it is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation within an area, biome, terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics and these tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earths surface, and contain about 90 percent of the worlds species. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, there are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is a component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines. The richness of biodiversity depends on the conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 300,000 species of plants are known to date, all species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions, more than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor of all living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old, there are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, remains of life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe
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Drainage basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water. Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at elevations in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins. Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake. The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the covered by the basin. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks, in a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins. Drainage basins of the oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the oceans, the following is a list of the major ocean basins, About 48. 7% of the worlds land drains to the Atlantic Ocean. The two major mediterranean seas of the world also flow to the Atlantic, The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico basin includes most of the U. S. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes much of North Africa, east-central Africa, Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, Turkey, and the areas of Israel, Lebanon. Just over 13% of the land in the world drains to the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Oceans drainage basin also comprises about 13% of Earths land. It drains the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, antarctica comprises approximately eight percent of the Earths land. The five largest river basins, from largest to smallest, are the basins of the Amazon, the Río de la Plata, the Congo, the Nile, and the Mississippi. The three rivers that drain the most water, from most to least, are the Amazon, Ganga, endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks, the largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, in endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example of this is the Dead Sea, drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important
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Recreation
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Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The need to do something for recreation is an element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be fun. The term recreation appears to have used in English first in the late 14th century, first in the sense of refreshment or curing of a sick person. Other factors that account for a role of recreation are affluence, population trends. This direction of thought has even extended to the view that leisure is the purpose of work, and a reward in itself. Leisure is considered a right under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Recreation is difficult to separate from the concept of play. Children may playfully imitate activities that reflect the realities of adult life, a traditional view holds that work is supported by recreation, recreation being useful to recharge the battery so that work performance is improved. Many activities may be work for one person and recreation for another, or, at a level, over time recreational activity may become work. Thus, for a musician, playing an instrument may be at one time a profession, similarly, it may be difficult to separate education from recreation as in the case of recreational mathematics. Recreation is an part of human life and finds many different forms which are shaped naturally by individual interests. Recreational activities can be communal or solitary, active or passive, outdoors or indoors, healthy or harmful, a significant section of recreational activities are designated as hobbies which are activities done for pleasure on a regular basis. Some recreational activities - such as gambling, recreational use, or delinquent activities - may violate societal norms. Public space such as parks and beaches are venues for many recreational activities. Tourism has recognized that many visitors are attracted by recreational offerings. In support of recreational activities government has taken an important role in their creation, maintenance, and organization, many recreational activities are organized, typically by public institutions, voluntary group-work agencies, private groups supported by membership fees, and commercial enterprises. Examples of each of these are the National Park Service, the YMCA, the Kiwanis, Recreation has many health benefits, and, accordingly, Therapeutic Recreation has been developed to take advantage of this effect
22.
Ax Men
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Ax Men is an American reality television series that premiered on March 9,2008 on History. The program follows the work of several logging crews in the forests of Northwestern Oregon, Washington and Montana. The show highlights the dangers encountered by the loggers, the series was cancelled in 2016. J. M. Browning Logging is owned by Jay Browning and his left hand was torn off in a logging accident, but he now wears a prosthesis that allows him to operate a chainsaw. Jay runs his company with a hire the best in the business and his sons Jesse and Jared work for him, Jesse is scheduled to take over the company one day. Jay Browning started his company in 1985. His company has been headquartered in Astoria in Clatsop County ever since and this company, owned by Melvin Lardy and based in Buxton, Oregon, eats, sleeps and breathes logging. He’s been in the business for more than a decade, melvin’s equipment is the logger’s beginner set – a collection of rusted hunks of metal that stop at a moment’s notice and shut down production without warning. Melvin has always succeeded where others have failed, though, part of his success depends on greenhorn Michael, who’s been on the job only one month. Michael is working alongside his childhood buddies at Stump Branch, Michael is catching on quickly, but this business doesn’t cut anyone a break. Pihl Logging is owned by Mike Pihl, comments by employee Dwayne Dethlefs are often featured in promotional spots for the show, his son Dustin also works for the company. Both of them quit at the end of Season 2, with Dustin moving to Alaska in Season 4 to work for Olson Marine, Pihl is based in Vernonia, Oregon. Gustafson Logging Company is a logging company based out of Astoria. The company takes contracts to cut timber in Oregons second growth forests, Gustafson Logging is currently owned by three brothers, Clay, Mark and Wade Gustafson, sons of Duane Gustafson. The company was started in 1974 by Duane Gustafson, darrell Holthusen is the side rod, or crew foreman. The Pihl and Browning crews are featured in season, along with three other companies. Founded by Jimmy Smith in South Cle Elum, Washington, S&S recovers sunken old-growth logs from the beds of rivers that were used by generations of loggers to float them downstream. The company motto is Recovering the forests of yesterday to save the forests of tomorrow and his son James is active in the business, leaving to work for Collins River Logging in Season 3 and returning to S&S in Season 4
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Geographic information system
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A geographic information system is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. What goes beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure, a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries, in general, the term describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries, analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems. GIS is a term that can refer to a number of different technologies, processes. It is attached to operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications. For that reason, GIS and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on analysis, GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should be relatable to one another and ultimately to a real physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry, the first known use of the term geographic information system was by Roger Tomlinson in the year 1968 in his paper A Geographic Information System for Regional Planning. Tomlinson is also acknowledged as the father of GIS, previously, one of the first applications of spatial analysis in epidemiology is the 1832 Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine. The French geographer Charles Picquet represented the 48 districts of the city of Paris by halftone color gradient according to the number of deaths by cholera per 1,000 inhabitants and this was one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in epidemiology. The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for one layer for vegetation. This work was drawn on glass plates but later plastic film was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to general-purpose computer mapping applications by the early 1960s, the year 1960 saw the development of the worlds first true operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. A rating classification factor was added to permit analysis. CGIS was an improvement over computer mapping applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement and it supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the father of GIS, CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada
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Photogrammetry
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Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from photographs, especially for recovering the exact positions of surface points. It may also be used to recover the motion pathways of designated reference points on any moving object, on its components, and in the immediately adjacent environment. Photogrammetric analysis may be applied to one photograph, or may use high-speed photography and remote sensing to detect, measure, the quantitative results of photogrammetry are then used to guide and match the results of computational models of the natural systems. Photogrammetry is as old as photography, dating to the mid-19th century. Its detection component has been emerging from radiolocation, multilateration and radiometry and its 3-D positioning estimative component employs methods related to triangulation, trilateration and multidimensional scaling. This is done by multiplying the distance by 1/s. Photogrammetry uses methods from many disciplines, including optics and projective geometry, digital image capturing and photogrammetric processing includes several well defined stages, which allow to generate 2D or 3D digital models of the object as an end product. The data model on the right shows what type of information can go into, the 3-D co-ordinates define the locations of object points in the 3-D space. The image co-ordinates define the locations of the object points images on the film or an imaging device. The exterior orientation of a camera defines its location in space, the inner orientation defines the geometric parameters of the imaging process. This is primarily the focal length of the lens, but can include the description of lens distortions. Each of the four main variables can be an input or an output of a photogrammetric method, algorithms for photogrammetry typically attempt to minimize the sum of the squares of errors over the coordinates and relative displacements of the reference points. This minimization is known as bundle adjustment and is performed using the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm. Common points are identified on each image, a line of sight can be constructed from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of these rays determines the three-dimensional location of the point. Stereophotogrammetry is emerging as a robust non-contacting measurement technique to determine dynamic characteristics, photogrammetric data with a dense range data in which scanners complement each other. Photogrammetry is more accurate in the x and y direction while range data are more accurate in the z direction. Photos can clearly define the edges of buildings when the point cloud footprint can not and it is beneficial to incorporate the advantages of both systems and integrate them to create a better product
25.
Forest inventory
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Forest inventory is the systematic collection of data and forest information for assessment or analysis. An estimate of the value and possible uses of timber is an important part of the information required to sustain ecosystems. When taking forest inventory the following are important things to measure and note, species, diameter at breast height, height, site quality, age, and defects. From the data collected one can calculate the number of trees per acre, the area, the volume of trees in an area. Inventories can be done for other reasons than just calculating the value, a forest can be cruised to visually assess timber and determine potential fire hazards and the risk of fire. The results of this type of inventory can be used in preventative actions, wildlife surveys can be undertaken in conjunction with timber inventory to determine the number and type of wildlife within a forest. The aim of the statistical forest inventory is to provide information about the state and dynamics of forests for strategic. Merely looking at the forest for assessment is called taxation, surveying and taking inventory of trees originated in Europe in the late 18th century out of a fear that wood would run out. The first information was organized into maps used to plan out usage, in the early 19th century forest harvesters estimated the volume and dispersal of trees within smaller forests with their eyes. More diverse and larger forests were divided into sections of similar type trees that were individually estimated by visual inspection. These estimates were related together to figure out the entire forest’s available resources, as the 19th century progressed so did the measurement techniques. New relationships between diameter, height, and volume were discovered and exploited and these newfound relationships allowed for a more accurate assessment of wood types and yields of much larger forests. By 1891, these surveys were conducted through sample-based methods involving statistical averages, in the 20th century, the statistical method of sampling had become well established and commonly used. Further developments, such as unequal probability sampling, arose, laser Scanning both terrestrially and aerially are now used alongside more manual methods. As a result, sampling accuracy and assessment values became more accurate, a forest inventory does not only record the trees height, DBH and number for tree yield calculations. But it also records the conditions of the forest, so this would include, geology, site conditions, tree health and other forest factors. A timber cruise is a measurement of a stand used to estimate the amount of standing timber that the forest contains. These measurements are collected at sample locations called plots, quadrants, each of these individual sample areas is one observation in a series of observations called a sample
26.
Ecosystem services
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Humankind benefits in a multitude of ways from all kinds of ecosystems, agroecosystemss, forest ecosystems, grassland ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems, natural ecosystems, urban ecosystems, etc. Collectively, these benefits are becoming known as ecosystem services, Ecosystem services are regularly involved in the provisioning of clean drinking water and the decomposition of wastes. While scientists and environmentalists have discussed ecosystem services implicitly for decades, to help inform decision-makers, many ecosystem services are being assigned economic values. Recognition of how ecosystems could provide services to humankind date back to at least Plato who understood that deforestation could lead to soil erosion. Modern ideas of ecosystem services probably began when Marsh challenged in 1864 the idea that Earth’s natural resources are unbounded by pointing out changes in fertility in the Mediterranean. It was not until the late 1940s that three key authors – Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr, William Vogt, and Aldo Leopold – promoted recognition of human dependence on the environment. In 1956, Paul Sears drew attention to the role of the ecosystem in processing wastes. In 1970, Paul Ehrlich and Rosa Weigert called attention to ecological systems in their environmental science textbook, the potential destruction, by man’s own activities, of those ecological systems upon which the very existence of the human species depends. In following years, variations of the term were used, the ecosystem services concept has continued to expand and includes socio-economic and conservation objectives, which are discussed below. A history of the concepts and terminology of ecosystem services as of 1997, can be found in Dailys book Nature’s Services, per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. The MA also delineated the four categories of ecosystem services—supporting, provisioning, regulating, by 2010, there had evolved various working definitions and descriptions of ecosystem services in the literature. Ecosystem services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services and these include services such as nutrient recycling, primary production and soil formation. These services make it possible for the ecosystems to provide such as food supply, flood regulation. Who vote for models that explicitly link ecological structures and functions with cultural values and those cultural values do result not from properties produced by ecosystems but are the product of a specific way of seeing within the given cultural framework of symbolic experience. S. Environmental Protection Agency, authorities opted to restore the polluted Catskill Watershed that had provided the city with the ecosystem service of water purification. Pollination of crops by bees is required for 15-30% of U. S. food production, however, intensified agricultural practices can quickly erode pollination services through the loss of species. The remaining species are unable to compensate this, the presence of such ecosystem elements functions almost like an insurance policy for farmers. In watersheds of the Yangtze River, spatial models for water flow through different forest habitats were created to determine potential contributions for hydroelectric power in the region, in the 1980s, mineral water company Vittel faced a critical problem
27.
Certified wood
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Certified wood and paper products come from responsibly managed forests – as defined by a particular standard. Forest certification programs typically require that forest management practices conform to existing laws, third-party certification audits performed by accredited certification bodies. Multi-stakeholder involvement in a development process. Today there are more than 50 certification programs worldwide addressing the many types of forests, the two largest international forest certification programs are the Forest Stewardship Council and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification. The PEFC is the largest certification framework in terms of forest area, the FSC program is the fastest growing. Third-party forest certification was pioneered in the early 1990s by the FSC, competing systems quickly emerged throughout the world. In the United States and Canada, there are a number of forest certification programs, three of these programs are endorsed by the PEFC. They are the American Tree Farm System, the Canadian Standards Association’s Sustainable Forest Management Standard, ATFS is applicable only in the United States, the Canadian Standards Association SFM Standard is applicable only in Canada. SFI is applicable to both the United States and Canada, the FSC, program is applied throughout North America. SFI is the world’s largest regional forest certification program in terms of total certified forest area, the ATFS, FSC, and SFI systems include the fundamental elements of credibility and make positive contributions to forest sustainability. No certification program can claim to be ‘best’, and no certification program that promotes itself as the only certification option can maintain credibility. Forest ecosystems are complex and a simplistic ‘one size fits all’ approach to certification cannot address all sustainability needs. ”, the forest management standards of the Canadian Standards Association, the FSC and the Sustainable Forestry Initiative are all used in Canada. Governments in Canada accept that these standards demonstrate, and promote the sustainability of forest management practices in Canada and it provides evidence that certified material in a certified product originates from certified forests. The United Nations reports that between January 2009 and May 2010, the number of PEFC and FSC chain-of-custody certificates issued worldwide increased by 88% for a total of 23,717 certificates. Forest certification is a voluntary process about 10% of the world’s forest under at least one certification program, customers that choose to buy certified products are supporting land managers, land owners and forest product companies that have made a commitment to meeting the standards of forest certification. Third-party forest certification is a tool for those seeking to purchase paper and wood products that come from forests that are well-managed. Green public procurement – governments such as the UK and the Netherlands have adopted green timber procurement policies, including recognition of FSC, an example is the UK’s Central Point of Expertise on Timber. Green building – standards for green building incentivize and reward the use of certified wood products, Certification does not relieve importers of the requirement to submit appropriate import declaration information to U. S. government agencies
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Community forestry
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It involves the participation and collaboration of various stakeholders including community, government and non-government organisations. The level of involvement of each of groups is dependent on the specific community forest project, the management system in use. It gained prominence in the mid-1970s and examples of community forestry can now be seen in countries including Nepal, Indonesia, Korea, Brazil, India. It has been considered one of the most promising options of combining forest conservation with development and community empowerment. Community forestry is defined by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations as any situation that intimately involves local people in forestry activity. Community forestry is deepened by SPERI via the concept of spirit forest where is source and space for maintaining livelihood identity, the second principal line of action is the implementation of pilot projects to demonstrate the feasibility of the community forestry framework. In a 2016 review of community-based forestry, FAO estimated that almost one-third of the worlds forest area is some form of community-based management. Community forestry first came to prominence in the mid-1970s and has continued to evolve over the last few decades in a number of countries. There is a variety of stakeholders involved when considering community forestry. Participation from some of the levels of community, government and non-government organisations are essential in the projects success. While specific stakeholders vary between different community forestry projects the primary groups are as follows, Table 1. Common stakeholders involved with community forestry, in this situation, stakeholders came to conclusion to handover forest resources to local communities for conserving, managing and utilization by their own decision. Despite significant development, continued improvement in the collaboration between local governments and forest communities seems to be a key point for better community forest management, a wide range of futures scenarios have been put up to help the environmental decision process. A study conducted in the Brazilian Amazon determined that there are a number of challenges that must be faced when developing a management strategy for community forestry. These challenges are outlined in Table 2 and Figure 1 shows the impact each management challenge has on other obstacles, each of the challenges outlined in Table 1 must be addressed in order for a self-sustaining community forestry management program to be established. Challenges faced by stakeholders managing forests For a conservation program within a Community forest to succeed, governments with interest in forest conservation introduce statewide policies and legislations which have historically failed to deliver the desired outcomes such as in China, Nepal and Peru. Moreover, no single stakeholder by itself can ensure the success of such a program, though there is little research on the role of community forestry to wildlife conservation, some empirical studies suggests that it help in wildlife conservation. It is done by decreasing the human disturbance, increasing regeneration of forest, common land in Nepal is owned by the state which often does not have the capacity to monitor and manage the area
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Conservation biology
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It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management. The conservation ethic is based on the findings of conservation biology, wilcox and Michael E. Soulé with a group of leading university and zoo researchers and conservationists including Kurt Benirschke, Sir Otto Frankel, Thomas E. Lovejoy, and Jared M. Diamond. The meeting was prompted by the concern over deforestation, disappearing species. Conservation biology and the concept of biological diversity emerged together, helping crystallize the modern era of conservation science, the inherent multidisciplinary basis for conservation biology has led to new subdisciplines including conservation social science, conservation behavior and conservation physiology. It stimulated further development of genetics which Otto Frankel had originated first but is now often considered a subdiscipline as well. The rapid decline of established biological systems around the means that conservation biology is often referred to as a Discipline with a deadline. Conservation biology is tied closely to ecology in researching the ecology of rare or endangered species. Conservation biologists work in the field and office, in government, universities, non-profit organizations, the topics of their research are diverse, because this is an interdisciplinary network with professional alliances in the biological as well as social sciences. Those dedicated to the cause and profession advocate for a response to the current biodiversity crisis based on morals, ethics. Conscious efforts to conserve and protect global biodiversity are a recent phenomenon, natural resource conservation, however, has a history that extends prior to the age of conservation. Resource ethics grew out of necessity through direct relations with nature and this social dilemma with respect to natural resource management is often called the Tragedy of the Commons. From this principle, conservation biologists can trace communal resource based ethics throughout cultures as a solution to communal resource conflict. For example, the Alaskan Tlingit peoples and the Haida of the Pacific Northwest had resource boundaries, rules and these rules were guided by clan elders who knew lifelong details of each river and stream they managed. There are numerous examples in history where cultures have followed rules, rituals, Conservation ethics are also found in early religious and philosophical writings. There are examples in the Tao, Shinto, Hindu, Islamic, in the bible, through Moses, God commanded to let the land rest from cultivation every seventh year. Before the 18th century, however, much of European culture considered it a view to admire nature. Wilderness was denigrated while agricultural development was praised, however, as early as AD680 a wildlife sanctuary was founded on the Farne Islands by St Cuthbert in response to his religious beliefs. Natural history was a preoccupation in the 18th century, with grand expeditions
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Coppicing
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Coppicing is a traditional method of woodland management which takes advantage of the fact that many trees make new growth from the stump or roots if cut down. In a coppiced wood, which is called a copse, young stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground level. In subsequent growth years, many new shoots emerge, and, after a number of years the coppiced tree, or stool, is ready to be harvested. Pollarding is a process carried out at a higher level on the tree. Many forestry practices worldwide involve cutting and regrowth, and coppicing has been of significance in many parts of lowland temperate Europe, the widespread and long-term practice of coppicing as a landscape-scale industry is something that remains of special importance in southern England. For this reason many of the English-language terms referenced in this article are particularly relevant to historic, typically a coppiced woodland is harvested in sections or coups on a rotation. In this way, a crop is available each year somewhere in the woodland, coppicing has the effect of providing a rich variety of habitats, as the woodland always has a range of different-aged coppice growing in it, which is beneficial for biodiversity. The cycle length depends upon the species cut, the custom. Birch can be coppiced for faggots on a three- or four-year cycle, coppicing maintains trees at a juvenile stage, and a regularly coppiced tree will never die of old age — some coppice stools may therefore reach immense ages. The age of a stool may be estimated from its diameter, evidence suggests that coppicing has been continuously practiced since pre-history. Coppiced stems are characteristically curved at the base and this curve occurs as the competing stems grow out from the stool in the early stages of the cycle, then up towards the sky as the canopy closes. The curve may allow the identification of coppice timber in archaeological sites, timber in the Sweet Track in Somerset has been identified as coppiced lime. When it originated, the system now called coppicing was solely for small wood production. In German this is called Niederwald, which translates as low forest, later on in Mediaeval times farmers encouraged pigs to feed from acorns and so some trees were allowed to grow bigger. This different silvicultural system is called in English coppice with standards, in German this is called Mittelwald, which translates as middle forest. As modern forestry seeks to harvest timber mechanically, and pigs are generally no longer fed from acorns, in the days of charcoal iron production in England, most woods in ironmaking regions were managed as coppices, usually being cut on a cycle of about 16 years. In this way, fuel could be provided for industry, in principle indefinitely. This was regulated by a statute of 1544 of Henry VIII, coppice with standards has been commonly used throughout most of Europe as a means of giving greater flexibility in the resulting forest product from any one area
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Environmental protection
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Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual, organisation controlled or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the environment and humans. Due to the pressures of over consumption, population and technology and this has been recognized, and governments have begun placing restraints on activities that cause environmental degradation. Since the 1960s, activity of environmental movements has created awareness of the environmental issues. There is no agreement on the extent of the impact of human activity and even scientific dishonesty occurs. For instance, in India, Environment Improvement Trust has been working for environment & forest protection since 1998, a group of Green Volunteers get a goal of Green India Clean India concept. CA Gajendra Kumar Jain an Chartered Accountant is founder of Environment Improvement Trust in Sojat city a small village of State of Rajasthan in India, in developing countries, such as throughout Latin America, these agreements are more commonly used to remedy significant levels of non-compliance with mandatory regulation. The challenges that exist with these agreements lie in establishing baseline data, targets, due to the difficulties inherent in evaluating effectiveness, their use is often questioned and, indeed, the whole environment may well be adversely affected as a result. The key advantage of their use in developing countries is that their use helps to build environmental management capacity and this approach ideally supports a better exchange of information, development of conflict-resolution strategies and improved regional conservation. Many of the resources are especially vulnerable because they are influenced by human impacts across many countries. As a result of this, many attempts are made by countries to develop agreements that are signed by multiple governments to prevent damage or manage the impacts of human activity on natural resources. This can include agreements that impact factors such as climate, oceans, rivers and these agreements have a long history with some multinational agreements being in place from as early as 1910 in Europe, America and Africa. Some of the most well-known international agreements include the Kyoto Protocol, discussion concerning environmental protection often focuses on the role of government, legislation, and law enforcement. However, in its broadest sense, environmental protection may be seen to be the responsibility of all the people, decisions that impact the environment will ideally involve a broad range of stakeholders including industry, indigenous groups, environmental group and community representatives. Gradually, environmental decision-making processes are evolving to reflect this broad base of stakeholders and are becoming more collaborative in many countries, many constitutions acknowledge the fundamental right to environmental protection and many international treaties acknowledge the right to live in a healthy environment. Also, many countries have organizations and agencies devoted to environmental protection, there are international environmental protection organizations, such as the United Nations Environment Programme. Tanzania is recognised as having some of the greatest biodiversity of any African country, almost 40% of the land has been established into a network of protected areas, including several national parks. In year 1948, Serengeti was officially established as the first national park for wild cats in East Africa, in 1998 Environment Improvement Trust start working for environment & forest protection in India from a small city Sojat. Founder of Environment Improvement Trust is CA Gajendra Kumar Jain working with volunteers, division of the biosphere is the main government body that oversees protection
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Forest farming
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Forest farming is a type of agroforestry practice characterized by the four Is, intentional, integrated, intensive and interactive. Agroforestry is a management system that combines trees with crops or livestock. It focuses on increasing benefits to the landowner as well as maintaining forest integrity, the practice involves cultivating non-timber forest products or niche crops, some of which, such as ginseng or shiitake mushrooms, can have high market value. Non-timber forest products are plants, parts of plants, fungi, examples of crops are ginseng, shiitake mushrooms, decorative ferns, and pine straw. Products typically fit into the categories, edible, medicinal and dietary supplements, floral or decorative. Forest farming, though not always by that name, is practiced around the world, for centuries, humans have relied on fruits, nuts, seeds, parts of foliage and pods from trees and shrubs in the forests to feed themselves and their livestock. Over time, certain species have been selected for cultivation near homes or livestock to provide food or medicine, for example, in the southern United States, mulberry trees are used as a feedstock for pigs and often cultivated near pig quarters. In 1929, J. Toyohiko Kagawa read and was influenced by Smith’s publication. He combined extensive plantings of trees, harvested the nuts and fed them to the pigs. The success of these trials prompted similar research in other countries, unfortunately, World War II disrupted communication and slowed advances in forest farming. In the mid-1950s research resumed in such as southern Africa. Kagawa was also an inspiration to Robert Hart pioneered forest gardening in temperate climates in the sixties in Shropshire, in earlier years, livestock were often considered part of the forest farming system. Now they are excluded and agroforestry systems that integrate trees, forages. In more recent years, there has growing interest in locally grown. There has been an increase in farmer’s markets and community-supported agriculture small enterprises and these have also become outlets for NTFPs. In order to stay competitive, many look to add unique crops to their product line. org. Forest farming principles constitute an ecological approach to forest management, forest resources are judiciously used while biodiversity and wildlife habitat are conserved. Forest farms have the potential to restore balance to fragmented second growth forests through intentional manipulation to create the desired forest ecosystem
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Habitat conservation
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It is a priority of many groups that cannot be easily characterized in terms of any one ideology. For much of history, nature had been seen as a resource, one that could be controlled by the government and used for personal. The idea was that only existed to feed animals and animals only existed to feed humans. The land itself had limited value only extending to the resources it could provide such as minerals, throughout the 18th and 19th centuries social views started to change and scientific conservation principles were first practically applied to the forests of British India. This was the first case of conservation management of forests in the world. Rather than focusing on the economic or material benefits associated with nature, humans began to appreciate the value of nature itself, however, land development from anthropogenic economic growth often causes a decline in the ecological integrity of nearby natural habitat. For instance, this was an issue in the rocky mountains of the USA. However, there is economic value in conserving natural habitats. Financial profit can be made from tourist revenue, particularly in the tropics where species diversity is high, the cost of repairing damaged ecosystems is considered to be much higher than the cost of conserving natural ecosystems. Measuring the worth of conserving different habitat areas is often criticized as being too utilitarian from a point of view. Habitat conservation is important in maintaining biodiversity, a part of global food security. There is evidence to support a trend of accelerating erosion of the resources of agricultural plants. An increase in similarity of agricultural plants and animals means an increased risk of food loss from major epidemics. Wild species of plants have been found to be more resistant to disease. A combination of seed banking and habitat conservation has been proposed to plant diversity for food security purposes. Events leading to habitat loss include climate change, catastrophic events such as volcanic explosions. Natural climate change, events have previously been the cause of many widespread, for example, some of the mass extinction events generally referred to as the Big Five have coincided with large scale such as the Earth entering an ice age, or alternate warming events. Other events in the big five also have their roots in natural causes, such as volcanic explosions and meteor collisions
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Natural environment
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The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some part of Earth and this environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud hut or a system in the desert. Though many animals build things to provide an environment for themselves, they are not human, hence beaver dams. People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a continuum, more precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, in a field, the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil. Natural environment is used as a synonym for habitat. For instance, when we say that the environment of giraffes is the savanna. Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere as correspondent to rocks, water, air, and life respectively. Some scientists include, as part of the spheres of the Earth, Earth science, is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology, the Earths crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma cools, beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes. An ocean is a body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earths surface is covered by ocean, a body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans. More than half of area is over 3,000 meters deep
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Natural landscape
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A natural landscape is the original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by human culture. The natural landscape and the landscape are separate parts of the landscape. However, in the twenty-first century landscapes that are untouched by human activity no longer exist. The phrase natural landscape was first used in connection with landscape painting, alexander von Humboldt was to further conceptualize this into the idea of a natural landscape separate from the cultural landscape. An early use of the phrase natural landscape by a geographer can be found in Carl O. Sauers paper The Morphology of Landscape. The concept of a landscape was first developed in connection with landscape painting. In both cases it was used to contrast a formal style with a natural one, that is closer to nature. Writing in 1844 the prominent American landscape gardener Andrew Jackson Downing comments, straight canals, round or oblong pieces of water, would evidently be in violent opposition to the whole character and expression of natural landscape. Andrew Jackson Downing was aware of, and sympathetic to, Humboldts ideas, subsequently the geographer Otto Schlüter, in 1908, argued that by defining geography as a Landschaftskunde would give geography a logical subject matter shared by no other discipline. He defined two forms of landscape, the Urlandschaft or landscape that existed before major human induced changes, Schlüter argued that the major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two landscapes. Matters are complicated by the fact that the nature and natural have more than one meaning. On the other hand, there is the awareness, especially since Charles Darwin. The dualism of the first definition has its roots is an ancient concept, because early people viewed nature, or the world as a divine Other. In the West, Christianitys myth of the fall, that is the expulsion of humankind from the Garden of Eden, cartesian dualism, from the seventeenth century on, further reinforced this dualistic thinking about nature. With this dualism goes value judgement as to the superiority of the natural over the artificial, modern science, however, is moving towards a holistic view of nature. What is meant by natural, within the American conservation movement, has been changing over the last century, in the mid-nineteenth century American began to realize that the land was becoming more and more domesticated and wildlife was disappearing. This led to the creation of American National Parks and other conservation sites, initially it was believed that all that was needed to do was to separate what was seen as natural landscape and avoid disturbances such as logging, grazing, fire and insect outbreaks. This, and subsequent environmental policy, until recently, was influenced by ideas of the wilderness, in 1963 the Leopold Report argued that A national park should represent a vignette of primitive America
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Nature
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Nature, in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, or material world or universe. Nature can refer to the phenomena of the world. The study of nature is a part of science. Although humans are part of nature, human activity is understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena. The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura, or essential qualities, innate disposition, and in ancient times, literally meant birth. Natura is a Latin translation of the Greek word physis, which related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants, animals. This usage continued during the advent of scientific method in the last several centuries. Within the various uses of the word today, nature often refers to geology, for example, manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature, unless qualified as, for example, human nature or the whole of nature. Depending on the context, the term natural might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural. Earth is the planet known to support life, and its natural features are the subject of many fields of scientific research. Within the solar system, it is third closest to the sun, it is the largest terrestrial planet and its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region. Precipitation varies widely with location, from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre,71 percent of the Earths surface is covered by salt-water oceans. The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the land in the Northern Hemisphere. Earth has evolved through geological and biological processes that have left traces of the original conditions, the outer surface is divided into several gradually migrating tectonic plates. The interior remains active, with a layer of plastic mantle. This iron core is composed of a solid phase. Convective motion in the core generates electric currents through dynamo action, the atmospheric conditions have been significantly altered from the original conditions by the presence of life-forms, which create an ecological balance that stabilizes the surface conditions. Geology is the science and study of the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth, the geology of an area evolves through time as rock units are deposited and inserted and deformational processes change their shapes and locations
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Overexploitation
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Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Sustained overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, the term applies to natural resources such as, wild medicinal plants, grazing pastures, game animals, fish stocks, forests, and water aquifers. In ecology, overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity, ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at a rate that is unsustainable, given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This can result in extinction at the level and even extinction of whole species. The term is used and defined somewhat differently in fisheries, hydrology. Overexploitation can lead to destruction, including extinctions. However it is possible for overexploitation to be sustainable, as discussed below in the section on fisheries. Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans, introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native flora and fauna. Concern about overexploitation is relatively recent, though overexploitation itself is not a new phenomenon and it has been observed for millennia. For example, ceremonial cloaks worn by the Hawaiian kings were made from the mamo bird, the dodo, a flightless bird from Mauritius, is another well-known example of overexploitation. As with many species, it was naive about certain predators, allowing humans to approach. From the earliest of times, hunting has been an important human activity as a means of survival, there is a whole history of overexploitation in the form of overhunting. The overkill hypothesis explains why the megafaunal extinctions occurred within a short period of time. This can be traced with human migration, the most convincing evidence of this theory is that 80% of the North American large mammal species disappeared within 1000 years of the arrival of humans on the western hemisphere continents. A second wave of extinctions occurred later with European settlement, overexploitation doesnt necessarily lead to the destruction of the resource, nor is it necessarily unsustainable. However, depleting the numbers or amount of the resource can change its quality, for example, footstool palm is a wild palm tree found in Southeast Asia. Its leaves are used for thatching and food wrapping, and overharvesting has resulted in its leaf size becoming smaller, the tragedy of the commons refers to a dilemma described in an article by that name written by Garrett Hardin and first published in the journal Science in 1968. Central to Hardins essay is an example which is a parable for understanding how overexploitation can occur
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Renewable resource
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Renewable resources are a part of Earths natural environment and the largest components of its ecosphere. A positive life cycle assessment is a key indicator of a resources sustainability, definitions of renewable resources may also include agricultural production, as in sustainable agriculture and to an extent water resources. In 1962 Paul Alfred Weiss defined Renewable Resources as, The total range of living organisms providing man with food, fibres, drugs, another type of renewable resources is renewable energy resources. Common sources of energy include solar, geothermal and wind power. Water can be considered a material when carefully controlled usage, treatment. If not, it would become a resource at that location. For example, groundwater is removed from an aquifer at a rate much greater than its very slow natural recharge. Removal of water from the spaces may cause permanent compaction that cannot be renewed. 97. 5% of the water on the Earth is salt water, the remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Water pollution is one of the concerns regarding water resources. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry, major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants, ore and oil refineries and manufacturing plants. Food is any substance consumed to provide support for the body. Most food has its origin in renewable resources, Food is obtained directly from plants and animals. Wild berries and other fruits, mushrooms, plants, seeds and naturally growing edible resources, still represent a source of nutrition in many countries. In fact many wild animals are dependent on plants and fruits as a source of food. Hunting may not be the first source of meat in the modernised world and it is also the sole source of feeding for wild carnivores. The phrase sustainable agriculture was coined by Australian agricultural scientist Gordon McClymont and it has been defined as an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will last over the long term. Expansion of agricultural land reduces biodiversity and contributes to deforestation, although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water
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Sustainability
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In ecology, sustainability is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinitely. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of biological systems. In more general terms, sustainability is the endurance of systems, the organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics and culture. Sustainability science is the study of development and environmental science. Sustainability can also be defined as a process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a time and space. However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the results in a sustainable system. Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans, ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection. Information is gained from green chemistry, earth science, environmental science, Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems. Moving towards sustainability is also a challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles. The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere, sustain can mean “maintain, support, or endure”. ”The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals, such as economic development, social development and environmental protection. This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing, in fact, the three pillars are interdependent, and in the long run none can exist without the others. The three pillars have served as a ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years. Standards which today explicitly refer to the bottom line include Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade. Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability, one such pillar is future generations, which emphasizes the long-term thinking associated with sustainability. There is also an opinion that considers resource use and financial sustainability as two pillars of sustainability. Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment. The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment, a study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as sustainable development
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Sustainable development
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The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems. As the concept developed, it has shifted to more on economic development, social development. The concept of development has been — and still is — subject to criticism. What, exactly, is to be sustained in sustainable development, Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social, political, and economic challenges faced by humanity. Sustainability science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development, there is an additional focus on the present generations responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use by future generations. Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management which were developed in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1713 Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published Sylvicultura oeconomica. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert and his work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of a science of forestry. Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged. In 1987 the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report Our Common Future, the report included what is now one of the most widely recognised definitions of sustainable development. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable and it emphasises that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasises that broad public participation in making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. Broadly defined, sustainable development is an approach to growth and development and to manage natural, produced. A2013 study concluded that sustainability reporting should be reframed through the lens of four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics, the goals are to be implemented and achieved in every country from the year 2016 to 2030. Sustainable development, or sustainability, has described in terms of three spheres, dimensions, domains or pillars, i. e. the environment, the economy. The three-sphere framework was proposed by the economist René Passet in 1979. It has also been worded as economic, environmental and social or ecology, economy and this has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar of culture, institutions or governance. The ecological stability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans and their natural, social and built environments, also termed human ecology, this broadens the focus of sustainable development to include the domain of human health
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Sustainable forest management
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Sustainable forest management is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management has to keep the balance between three pillars, ecological, economic and socio-cultural. A number of sets of criteria and indicators have since developed to evaluate the achievement of SFM at the global, regional, country. These were all attempts to codify and provide for independent assessment of the degree to which the objectives of sustainable forest management are being achieved in practice. In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests, a definition of SFM was developed by the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, and has since been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization. This balance is critical to the survival of forests, and to the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For forest managers, sustainably managing a particular forest tract means determining, in a way, how to use it today to ensure similar benefits, health. In most cases, forest managers develop their forest plans in consultation with citizens, businesses, organizations and other interested parties in, the tools and visualization have been recently evolving for better management practices. Because forests and societies are in constant flux, the outcome of sustainable forest management is not a fixed one. What constitutes a sustainably managed forest will change over time as values held by the public change, Criteria and indicators are tools which can be used to conceptualise, evaluate and implement sustainable forest management. Criteria define and characterize the essential elements, as well as a set of conditions or processes, periodically measured indicators reveal the direction of change with respect to each criterion. Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management are used and many countries produce national reports that assess their progress toward sustainable forest management. There are nine international and regional criteria and indicators initiatives, which involve more than 150 countries. Countries who are members of the same initiative usually agree to produce reports at the same time, within countries, at the management unit level, efforts have also been directed at developing local level criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management. There appears to be growing international consensus on the key elements of sustainable forest management, seven common thematic areas of sustainable forest management have emerged based on the criteria of the nine ongoing regional and international criteria and indicators initiatives. This consensus on common thematic areas effectively provides a common, implicit definition of sustainable forest management, the seven thematic areas were acknowledged by the international forest community at the fourth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests and the 16th session of the Committee on Forestry. The Ecosystem Approach has been prominent on the agenda of the Convention on Biological Diversity since 1995, the CBD definition of the Ecosystem Approach and a set of principles for its application were developed at an expert meeting in Malawi in 1995, known as the Malawi Principles. The definition,12 principles and 5 points of operational guidance were adopted by the fifth Conference of Parties in 2000, application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention
