1.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
2.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
3.
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
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The department was created after the perceived failure of MAFF, to deal adequately with an outbreak of Foot and Mouth disease. The Department had about 9,000 core personnel, as of January 2008, the Departments main building is Nobel House on Smith Square, SW1. The Defra Ministers are as follows, The Permanent Secretary is Clare Moriarty, the Secretary of State wrote in a letter to the Prime Minister that he saw Defra’s mission as enabling a move toward what the World Wide Fund for Nature has called one planet living. Under this overarching aim, Defra has five strategic priorities, Climate change, sustainable consumption and production, including responsibility for the National Waste Strategy. Protecting the countryside and natural resource protection, a sustainable farming and food sector including animal health and welfare
4.
Scottish Government
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The Scottish Government is Scotlands devolved government. It was formally renamed in 2012 to the Scottish Government by section 12 of the Scotland Act 2012, the government consists of cabinet secretaries, who attend cabinet meetings, and ministers, who do not. It is led by the first minister, who selects the cabinet secretaries, the Scottish Government is responsible for devolved matters, and those not explicitly reserved to the British Parliament in Westminster, by Schedule 5 to the Scotland Act 1998. Devolved matters that were decided on by the Scotland Act 1998 included healthcare provision, education, justice, policing, rural affairs, economic development, the Scottish Government also has administrative responsibility for some matters where it does not have legislative power. An example is Sections 36 &37 of the Electricity Act 1989 which allow the Scottish Government to authorise power transmission lines and grant power generation consents. The Scottish Governments budget is decided upon by the grant that is formulated using the Barnett Formula with the ability to also increase or decrease income tax rates. In the financial year of 2016–17, the annual budget was £37.2 billion. The government is led by the First Minister, the Scottish Parliament nominates one of its members to be appointed as first minister by the monarch. He or she is assisted by various cabinet secretaries with individual portfolios, Ministers are similarly appointed to assist cabinet secretaries in their work. The Scottish law officers, the Lord Advocate and Solicitor General, can be appointed from outside the parliaments membership and they are appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the first minister. The first minister, the secretaries and the Scottish law officers are the members of the Scottish Government. They are collectively known as the Scottish Ministers, the members of the government have substantial influence over legislation in Scotland, putting forward the majority of bills that are successful in becoming Acts of the Scottish Parliament. The structure of the team used by the Scottish National Party after its election victory in May 2007 differs from those used by previous governments. The title cabinet secretary was introduced to replace what were called ministers, the cabinet secretaries and ministers are, The Scottish Cabinet is the group of ministers who are collectively responsible for all Scottish Government policy. While parliament is in session, the cabinet meets weekly, normally meetings are held on Tuesday afternoons in Bute House, the official residence of the first minister. The cabinet consists of the secretaries, excluding the Scottish Law Officers. The Lord Advocate attends meetings of the cabinet only when requested by the first minister, the cabinet is supported by the Cabinet Secretariat, which is based at St Andrews House. Scottish Government also includes a service that supports the Scottish ministers
5.
Scottish Gaelic
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Scottish Gaelic or Scots Gaelic, sometimes also referred to as Gaelic, is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish. The 2011 census of Scotland showed that a total of 57,375 people in Scotland could speak Gaelic at that time, the census results indicate a decline of 1,275 Gaelic speakers from 2001. A total of 87,056 people in 2011 reported having some facility with Gaelic compared to 93,282 people in 2001, only about half of speakers were fully literate in the language. Nevertheless, revival efforts exist and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 has increased, Scottish Gaelic is neither an official language of the European Union nor the United Kingdom. Outside Scotland, a group of dialects collectively known as Canadian Gaelic are spoken in parts of Atlantic Canada, mainly Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In the 2011 census, there were 7,195 total speakers of Gaelic languages in Canada, with 1,365 in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island where the responses mainly refer to Scottish Gaelic. About 2,320 Canadians in 2011 also claimed Gaelic languages as their mother tongue, with over 300 in Nova Scotia, aside from Scottish Gaelic, the language may also be referred to simply as Gaelic. In Scotland, the word Gaelic in reference to Scottish Gaelic specifically is pronounced, outside Ireland and Great Britain, Gaelic may refer to the Irish language. Scottish Gaelic should not be confused with Scots, the Middle English-derived language varieties which had come to be spoken in most of the Lowlands of Scotland by the modern era. Prior to the 15th century, these dialects were known as Inglis by its own speakers, from the late 15th century, however, it became increasingly common for such speakers to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse and the Lowland vernacular as Scottis. Today, Scottish Gaelic is recognised as a language from Irish. Gaelic in Scotland was mostly confined to Dál Riata until the 8th century, when it began expanding into Pictish areas north of the Firth of Forth, by 900, Pictish appears to have become extinct, completely replaced by Gaelic. An exception might be made for the Northern Isles, however, however, though the Pictish language did not disappear suddenly, a process of Gaelicisation was clearly underway during the reigns of Caustantín and his successors. By a certain point, probably during the 11th century, all the inhabitants of Alba had become fully Gaelicised Scots, by the 10th century, Gaelic had become the dominant language throughout northern and western Scotland, the Gaelo-Pictic Kingdom of Alba. Its spread to southern Scotland, was even and totalizing. Place name analysis suggests dense usage of Gaelic in Galloway and adjoining areas to the north and west as well as in West Lothian, less dense usage is suggested for north Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, the Clyde Valley and eastern Dumfriesshire. In south-eastern Scotland, there is no evidence that Gaelic was ever widely spoken, the area shifted from Cumbric to Old English during its long incorporation into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria
6.
Forestry in the United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom, being in the British Isles, is ideal for tree growth, thanks to its mild winters, plentiful rainfall, fertile soil and hill-sheltered topography. Growth rates for broadleaved trees exceed those of mainland Europe, while conifer growth rates are three times those of Sweden and five times those of Finland, in the absence of people, much of Great Britain would be covered with mature oaks, except for Scotland. Although conditions for forestry are good, trees do face damage threats arising from fungi, parasites, nowadays, about 12. 9% of Britains land surface is wooded and this area is increasing. That year, the Forestry Commission was established to produce a reserve of timber. However, the recovery is very much in progress. Other European countries average from 25% to 37% of their area as woodland, of the 31,380 square kilometres of forest in Britain, around 30% is publicly owned and 70% is in the private sector. More than 40,000 people work on this land, broadleaves account for 29% of Britains woodlands, the rest being conifers, but considering only England, the figures are 55% broadleaf and 45% conifer. Britains native tree flora comprises 32 species, of which 29 are broadleaves, Britains industry and populace uses at least 50 million tonnes of timber a year. More than 75% of this is softwood, and Britains forests cannot supply the demand, in fact, paper and paper products make up more than half the wood consumed in Britain by volume. In October 2010, the new government of the UK suggested it might sell off around half the Forestry Commission-owned woodland in the UK. A wide variety of groups were vocal about their disapproval, and by February 2011, instead, it set up the Independent Panel on Forestry led by Rt Rev James Jones, then the Bishop of Liverpool. This body published its report in July 2012, among other suggestions, it recommended that the forested portion of England should rise to 15% of the countrys land area by 2060. Throughout most of British history, the trend has been to create farmland at the expense of forest, furthermore, variations in the Holocene climate have led to significant changes in the ranges of many species. This makes it complex to estimate the extent of natural forest cover. Furthermore, the effects of fire, human clearance and grazing probably limited forest cover to about 50% of the area of Scotland even at its maximum. The stock of woodland declined alarmingly during the First World War, the Subcommittee, better known as the Acland Committee after its chairman Sir A. H. D. Following the Acland Report of 1918 the Forestry Commission was formed in 1919 to meet this need, state forest parks were established in 1935. Emergency felling controls had been introduced in the First and Second World Wars, landowners were also given financial incentives to devote land to forests under the Dedication Scheme, which in 1981 became the Forestry Grant Scheme
7.
Woodland
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Woodland /ˈwʊdlənd/ is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses, woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of primary or secondary succession. Higher density areas of trees with a closed canopy that provides extensive. Conservationists have worked hard to preserve woodlands, because people are destroying animals habitats when building homes, for example, the woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes. The term ancient woodland is used in British nature conservation to refer to any wooded land that has existed since 1600, woodlot is a closely related American term, which refers to a stand of trees generally used for firewood. While woodlots often technically have closed canopies, they are so small that light penetration from the edge makes them ecologically closer to woodland than forest, in Australia, a woodland is defined as an area with sparse cover of trees, and an open woodland has very sparse cover. Woodlands are also subdivided into tall woodlands, or low woodlands and this contrasts with forests, which have greater than 30% cover by trees
8.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
9.
Outdoor recreation
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Outdoor recreation or outdoor activity refers to leisure pursuits engaged in the outdoors, often in natural or semi-natural settings out of town. Outdoor recreation may also refer to a sport game or practice held in an outdoor setting. When the recreation involves excitement, physical challenge, or risk, such as in rafting or climbing, the two primary purposes for outdoor recreation are beneficial use and pleasurable appreciation. Beneficial use is related to the physical and social rewards that goal-directed activity instills in individuals or groups, some outdoor goal-directed activities are, backpacking, canoeing, canyoning, caving, climbing, hiking, hill walking, hunting, kayaking, and rafting. Arguably broader groupings of goal-directed outdoor activities would include water sports, snow sports, goal-directed outdoor activities are predominantly physical, though they may also be mentally, emotionally, and spiritually rewarding. The outdoors as a physical or social setting may meet the needs of health, self-sufficiency, risk-taking, the building of social ties. The outdoors can be an environment in which show what they can do. Pleasurable appreciation encourages experiences of being let in on natures show and these activities may also be physically rewarding. Many people in modern civilizations believe that the value of nature is only in its utilitarian value. They would discount the inner perceptual and/or spiritual benefits of the value of nature that may be experienced during pleasurable appreciation. Outdoor activities may also be pursued for the purposes of finding peace in nature, enjoying life and they are alternatives to expensive forms of tourism. Outdoor activities are frequently used as a medium in education. Trekking is about enjoying a great walking holiday, treks can be day hikes, overnight or extended hikes. An example of a day trek is hiking during the day and returning at night to a lodge for a hot meal, trekking can be more enjoyable when undertaken while being generally physically fit. Physical preparation for trekking includes cycling, swimming, jogging and long walks and its also expected that backpackers leave no trace while enjoying the outdoors. The activity of mountain biking involves steering a mountain cycle over rocky tracks, to tackle the trails, the requirements are physical strength, stamina and a strong mountain cycle. Mountain bikes or ATBs feature a rugged frame and fork and their frames are often built of aluminum so they are lightweight and stiff, making them efficient to ride. Many styles of mountain biking are practiced, including all mountain, downhill, trials, dirt jumping, trail riding, the latter two are the most common
10.
Harvest
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Harvesting is the process of gathering a ripe crop from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, on smaller farms with minimal mechanization, harvesting is the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season. On large mechanized farms, harvesting utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated farm machinery, the term harvesting in general usage may include immediate postharvest handling, including cleaning, sorting, packing, and cooling. Harvest, a noun, came from the Old English word hærfest, meaning autumn, harvest-time, the harvest came to also mean the activity of reaping, gathering, and storing grain and other grown products during the autumn, and also the grain and other grown products themselves. Harvest was also verbified, To harvest means to reap, gather, people who harvest and equipment that harvests are harvesters, while they do it, they are harvesting. In history, crop failures and subsequent famines have triggered human migration, rural exodus, over years, unsustainable farming of land degrades soil fertility and diminishes crop yield. With a steadily growing population and local overpopulation, even slightly diminishing yields are already the equivalent to a partial harvest failure. Fortunately, fertilizers obviate the need for regeneration in the first place. Harvesting commonly refers to grain and produce, but also has other uses, the term harvest is also used in reference to harvesting grapes for wine. Within the context of irrigation, water harvesting refers to the collection, instead of harvest, the term exploit is also used, as in exploiting fisheries or water resources. Energy harvesting is the process of capturing and storing energy that would otherwise go unexploited, body harvesting, or cadaver harvesting, is the process of collecting and preparing cadavers for anatomical study. In a similar sense, organ harvesting is the removal of tissues or organs from a donor for purposes of transplanting. Harvesting or Domestic Harvesting in Canada refers to hunting, fishing, and plant gathering by First Nations, Métis, for example, in the Gwichin Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement, Harvesting means gathering, hunting, trapping or fishing. Similarly, in the Tlicho Land Claim and Self Government Agreement, Harvesting means, in relation to wildlife, hunting, trapping or fishing and, in relation to plants or trees, combine Harvester Harvest Harvest festival Overharvesting Threshing Winnowing
11.
Afforestation
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Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally or artificially, forestation is the establishment of forest growth on areas that either had forest or lacked it. Reforestation and afforestation are categories of forestation, special tools, e. g. tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster. Gap dynamics is the pattern of plant growth that occurs following the creation of a forest gap, gap dynamics are a typical characteristic of temperate and tropical forests, and have a wide variety of causes and effects on forest life. In some places, forests need help to themselves because of environmental factors. For example, in zones, once forest cover is destroyed. Other factors include overgrazing by livestock, especially such as goats, cows. Together these may lead to desertification and the loss of topsoil, without soil, in some tropical areas, forest cover removal may result in a duricrust or duripan that effectively seal off the soil to water penetration and root growth. In many areas, reforestation is impossible because people are using the land, in other areas, mechanical breaking up of duripans or duricrusts is necessary, careful and continued watering may be essential, and special protection, such as fencing, may be needed. There is extensive and ongoing Amazon deforestation. )China has deforested most of its wooded areas. China reached the point where timber yields declined far below historic levels, although it has set official goals for reforestation, these goals are set over an 80-year time horizon and have not been significantly met by 2008. China is trying to correct these problems by projects as the Green Wall of China, a law promulgated in 1981 requires that every school student over the age of 11 plants at least one tree per year. As a result, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, however, the forest area per capita is still far lower than the international average. There has also been criticism regarding the effectiveness of planting so many trees especially in regions where they never grew prior. Studies reveal that the table of those areas is becoming deeper indicating significant water loss. India has witnessed an increase in the percentage of the land area under forest cover from 1950 to 2006. In 1950 around 40.48 million hectares was covered by forest, in 1980 it increased to 67.47 million hectares and in 2006 it was found to be 69 million hectares. 23% of India is covered by forest, the forests of India are grouped into 5 major categories and 16 types based on biophysical criteria
12.
Whittlewood Forest
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Whittlewood Forest is a former medieval hunting forest in the south of the county of Northamptonshire in England. There are tracts of ancient woodland within the forest, and old ditch boundaries can be found at the edges of several of the individual woods, the area has been the subject of extensive academic historical research. The core of the forest is between the villages of Silverstone, Syresham, Abthorpe, Wicken and Potterspury extending south to the Northamptonshire-Buckinghamshire county boundary, interconnecting woods, made up in part by Hazelborough Wood, make up the main section. Isolated woods such as Bucknell Wood and a scattered collection east of the village of Whittlebury, remnants exist all around the villages and over the county boundary into Buckinghamshire and Milton Keynes. Outliers include Whistley wood to the west of Syresham and it is managed by the Forestry Commission, who also manage neighbouring woods such as Salcey Forest and Yardley Chase. Parts of the wood are protected as an SSSI, especially a number of separate copses which represent the remnants of the old Royal Forest. It is notable for bluebells in mid-Spring in many parts of the forest together with ancient woodland indicator species such as Yellow rattle. There are stands of beech and oak interspersed with hazel coppice as well as conifer plantations within the forest, the conifer plantations are slowly being removed as a part of a national policy to restore ancient woodland. They will be replaced with native hardwoods such as oak and beech, as with most ancient woods, coppicing is no longer practised, and many former coppice stools can be seen in the woods. Many types of deer can be found in the forest, including red deer, birds include buzzards and there are occasional sightings of the Red kite, possibly from the expanding population in the Chilterns. Ancient woodland Salcey Forest Yardley chase Natural England for SSSI designation Forestry Commission website Map sources for Whittlewood Forest
13.
Simon Fraser, 14th Lord Lovat
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Brigadier Simon Joseph Fraser, 14th Lord Lovat and 3rd Baron Lovat, KT, GCVO, KCMG, CB, DSO, was a leading Roman Catholic aristocrat, landowner, soldier, politician and the 23rd Chief of Clan Fraser. He was the son of Simon Fraser, 13th Lord Lovat, while legally the 14th Lord Lovat, he was referred to as the 16th Lord. Educated at Ampleforth and Oxford, he was an member of the Oxford University polo team. Lord Lovat was commissioned into the Queens Own Cameron Highlanders and promoted Lieutenant in 1890, in 1897 he resigned from the Regular Army and joined a volunteer battalion of the Queens Own Cameron Highlanders. In 1899 he raised the Lovat Scouts, and from February 1900 served as their second-in-command with the rank of captain, in charge of the mounted infantry, the corps served in the Second Boer War in South Africa. He was mentioned in despatches, and awarded the Distinguished Service Order in 1900, after the war he was appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1903 by Edward VII. In World War I, he commanded the Highland Mounted Brigade of the 2nd Mounted Division and he was appointed a Knight of the Thistle in 1915 for demonstrable leadership and courage. In March 1916 he took command of the 4th Mounted Division and he became a Rhodes Trustee in 1917, the same year as Rudyard Kipling. Lovat died in February 1933, aged 61, and was succeeded by his eldest son Simon as the 15th Lord Lovat and his younger son Sir Hugh Fraser was a successful politician and first husband of author Antonia Fraser. Sir Hugh died at the age of 66 from lung cancer, hon. Veronica Nell Fraser, died at age 85. Lt. Alan Phipps RN in 1940 in Westminster, London, Sir Fitzroy Hew Royle MacLean in 1946. Hon. Mary Diana Rose Rose Fraser, died at age 14, dictionary of National Biography Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages ThePeerage. com
14.
Reforestation
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Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands that have been depleted, usually through deforestation. Sometimes the term re-afforestation is used to distinguish between the original forest cover and the later re-growth of forest to an area, forestation is the establishment of forest growth on areas that either had forest or lacked it. Special tools, e. g. tree planting bars, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster, a debated issue in managed reforestation is whether or not the succeeding forest will have the same biodiversity as the original forest. If the forest is replaced with one species of tree and all other vegetation is prevented from growing back. However, most reforestation involves the planting of different seedlots of seedlings taken from the area, another important factor is the natural regeneration of a wide variety of plant and animal species that can occur on a clear cut. In some areas the suppression of forest fires for hundreds of years has resulted in large single aged, the logging of small clear cuts and/or prescribed burning, actually increases the biodiversity in these areas by creating a greater variety of tree stand ages and species. Reforestation need not be used for recovery of accidentally destroyed forests. In some countries, such as Finland, many of the forests are managed by the products and pulp. In such an arrangement, like other crops, trees are planted to replace those that have been cut, in such circumstances, the industry can cut the trees in a way to allow easier reforestation. The wood products industry systematically replaces many of the trees it cuts, for example, in 2010, Weyerhaeuser reported planting 50 million seedlings. However replanting an old-growth forest with a plantation is not replacing the old with the characteristics in the new. In just 20 years, a plantation in Costa Rica can produce up to about 400 m³ of wood per hectare. As the natural forests of Asia become more scarce or difficult to obtain. Other species such as mahogany grow more slowly than teak in Tropical America but are extremely valuable. Faster growers include pine, eucalyptus, and Gmelina, the reestablishment of forests is not just simple tree planting. Forests are made up of a community of species and they build dead organic matter into soils over time, a major tree-planting program could enhance the local climate and reduce the demands of burning large amounts of fossil fuels for cooling in the summer. Forests are an important part of the carbon cycle because trees. By removing this greenhouse gas from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, at any time, forests account for as much as double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere
15.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
16.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
17.
New Forest
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The New Forest is an area of southern England which includes one of the largest remaining tracts of unenclosed pasture land, heathland and forest in the heavily populated south east of England. It covers southwest Hampshire and extends into southeast Wiltshire and towards east Dorset, the name also refers to the New Forest National Park which has similar boundaries. There are many dotted around the area, and several small towns in the Forest. There are around 250 round barrows within its boundaries, and scattered boiling mounds, the Jutes were one of the early Anglo-Saxon tribal groups who colonised this area of southern Hampshire. The word ytene is also found locally as a synonym for giant, following the Norman Conquest, the New Forest was proclaimed a royal forest, in about 1079, by William the Conqueror. It was used for royal hunts, mainly of deer and it was created at the expense of more than 20 small hamlets and isolated farmsteads, hence it was then new as a single compact area. Two of Williams sons died in the forest, Prince Richard in 1081 and this Forest at present affordeth great variety of Game, where his Majesty oft-times withdraws himself for his divertisement. The reputed spot of Rufuss death is marked with a known as the Rufus Stone. Tirrell him seing not, Unwares him flew with dint of arrow shot, the common rights were confirmed by statute in 1698. The New Forest became a source of timber for the Royal Navy, in the Great Storm of 1703, about 4000 oak trees were lost. It also reconstituted the Court of Verderers as representatives of the Commoners, as of 2005, roughly 90% of the New Forest is still owned by the Crown. The Crown lands have been managed by the Forestry Commission since 1923, felling of broadleaved trees, and their replacement by conifers, began during the First World War to meet the wartime demand for wood. Further encroachments were made during the Second World War and this process is today being reversed in places, with some plantations being returned to heathland or broadleaved woodland. During the Second World War, an area of the forest, further New Forest Acts followed in 1949,1964 and 1970. The New Forest became a Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1971, the New Forest was proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in June 1999, and it became a National Park in 2005. Forest laws were enacted to preserve the New Forest as a location for royal deer hunting, there were also licences granted to gather bracken after Michaelmas Day as litter for animals. Along with grazing, pannage is still an important part of the Forests ecology, pigs can eat acorns without a problem, but for ponies and cattle large quantities of acorns can be poisonous. Pannage always lasts 60 days, but the date varies according to the weather –
18.
Forest of Dean
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The Forest of Dean is a geographical, historical and cultural region in the western part of the county of Gloucestershire, England. It forms a triangular plateau bounded by the River Wye to the west and north-west, Herefordshire to the north, the River Severn to the south. The area is characterised by more than 110 square kilometres of mixed woodland, a large area was reserved for royal hunting before 1066, and remained as the second largest crown forest in England, the largest being New Forest. Although the name is used loosely to refer to the part of Gloucestershire between the Severn and Wye, the Forest of Dean proper has covered a smaller area since medieval times. In 1327 it was defined to only the royal demesne and parts of parishes within the hundred of St Briavels. The Forest proper is within the parishes of West Dean, Lydbrook, Cinderford, Ruspidge. Traditionally the main sources of work have been forestry – including charcoal production - iron working, Archaeological studies have dated the earliest use of coal to Roman times for domestic heating and industrial processes such as the preparation of iron ore. The area gives its name to the government district, Forest of Dean. The administrative centre of the authority is Coleford, one of the main towns in the historic Forest area, together with Cinderford. The Forest of Dean is formed of a basin of palaeozoic rocks folded in the Variscan Orogeny. Its highest point is Ruardean Hill, the origins of the name remains an area of debate. The prevalence of Welsh place names in the area, suggests a possible corruption of Din, however, similar or identical elements from Old English exist throughout England. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing in the century, refers to the area as Danubia which may translate as land of Danes following the Viking settlements in that era. It is possible that an original name Dene developed from this, the area was inhabited in Mesolithic times, and there are also remains of later megalithic monuments, including the Longstone near Staunton and the Broadstone at Wibdon, Stroat. Barrows have been identified at Tidenham and Blakeney, bronze Age field systems have been identified at Welshbury Hill near Littledean, and there are Iron Age hill forts at Symonds Yat and Welshbury. There is archaeological evidence of trading by sea, probably through Lydney. The area was occupied by the Romans around 50 AD and they were attracted by its natural resources which included iron ore, ochre and charcoal. The coal mining industry was established on a small scale in Roman times
19.
Alice Holt Forest
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Alice Holt Forest is a royal forest in Hampshire, situated some 4 miles south of Farnham, Surrey. Once predominantly an ancient oak forest, it was noted in the 18th and 19th centuries for the timber it supplied for the building of ships for the Royal Navy. It is now planted mainly with conifers, the Forestry Commission took over the management of the forest in 1924, and a research station was set up in 1946 in the Alice Holt Lodge, a former manor house. The forest is now part of the South Downs National Park, which was established on 31 March 2010, the second part of the name is derived from the Old English holt, a wood or thicket, usually a managed wood of a single species. It was called Alder Holt Wood on the Ordnance Survey Maps Series 1 map 8 of 1 May 1816 The Forest is situated in the western Weald. It lies in the Gault clay vale that separates the ridge which runs between Farnham and Alton from the malmstone hills or hangers around Binsted. It occupies a low plateau with steeply sloping edges where deposits of stony Pleistocene drift, Alice Holt Forest was noted for the oak woodlands that grew on its thick Gault clay. In the 18th century the celebrated naturalist, Gilbert White, who lived nearby at Selborne, the forest is now mainly planted with conifers. According to the Forestry Commission, Alice Holt Forest Park today covers 851 hectares of mainly Corsican pine but approximately 140 hectares of oak, planted in 1815, some broad-leaved species have also been reintroduced as part of a regeneration programme. Extensive kiln sites and associated claypits exist, which date from the Roman occupation of Britain, the local antiquary Major A. G. Wade undertook limited investigations in the 1930s and 40s. Major research was undertaken in the 1970s by the Alice Holt Survey Group, under the co-direction of Malcolm Lyne, Alice Holt gives its name to a particular diagnostic pottery style from the Romano-British period, Alice Holt Pottery, a coarse grey sandy ware. The area was subject to Forest Law from the time of William the Conqueror, little had changed when a further survey was made in 1790, although by then 6,799 acres were privately owned. The Lieutenant of the Forest was dismissed in 1811 and four years later the Office of Woods initiated a massive re-planting programme on 1,600 acres of Alice Holt, all oaks. Many of the oaks planted in 1815 were still there 100 years later, replacement of the oaks by conifers took place between the two world wars, and accelerated in World War II. When the Forestry Commission took over Alice Holt, Woolmer and other Crown forests in 1924, Alice Holt had become reduced in extent, covering 2,142 acres. On 31 March 2010 Alice Holt Forest, along with the rest of the western Weald, recently Alice Holt oak has been used to build a replica of Shakespeares Globe Theatre in London. The forest is a designated Site of Interest for Nature Conservation, part of it is dedicated as a research area, used for studies into subjects such as forest carbon dynamics, environmental change and wood fuels. The forest is one of the Forestry Commissions most popular destinations and its facilities include a cafe, natural spaces and outdoor play structures for children to explore, cycle hire, and over 8 miles of waymarked trails for walking and cycling
20.
Roslin, Midlothian
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Roslin is a village in Midlothian, Scotland,7 miles to the south of the capital city Edinburgh. It stands on ground, near the northwest bank of the river North Esk. The name Roslin probably derives from the Celtic words ros, meaning a moor, an alternative derivation is from Gaelic ros, meaning a rocky promontory, and linne, meaning a waterfall or pool. The theory that it is a corruption of Roseline, a supposed medieval meridian passing through Paris, legend has it the village was founded in 203 A. D. by Asterius, a Pict. In 1303 Roslin was the site of a battle of the First War of Scottish Independence, in 1446, Rosslyn Chapel was constructed, under the guide of William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness. Roslin became important as the seat of the St Clair family, in 1456 King James II granted it the status of a burgh. Coal mining has been an occupation from the twelfth to the late twentieth centuries. From the 19th century onward, the attractions of the Glen, Castle, notable visitors included J. M. W. Turner, William Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy, who wrote “I never passed through a more delicious dell than the glen of Rosslyn”. William Morris visited in March 1887, noting in his Socialist Diary that Roslin was a beautiful glen-ny landscape much spoiled, by the misery of Scotch building and a manufactory or two. It moved to Easter Bush in 2011, the village sits on the west side of Roslin Glen, now a country park. Overlooking the Glen are Rosslyn Chapel and Roslin Castle, the elaborately carved chapel has long been associated with the Knights Templar and the Grail legend, and featured in the best selling book The Da Vinci Code. The popularity of the book and the use of the chapel as a location in the subsequent film greatly increased the number of visitors to the village, Rosslyn Castle, owned by the family of the Earl of Rosslyn since the 14th century, is in partial ruins. The habitable parts are let as holiday accommodation, a monument cairn erected by the Roslin Heritage Society at the end of last century, marks the site of the Battle of Roslin. James Gillespie, snuff-maker and philanthropist John Lawson Johnston the inventor of Bovril, was born in Roslin in 1839, david Gray, scored the winning goal in the 2016 Scottish Cup Final for Hibernian, their first win since 1902. Dr Colin Cunningham FRSA, environmental scientist, inventor and founder/Director of the Scottish Environmental Technology Network lived in Roslin 1974-1989, coincidently, his maternal grandfather was called John Johnston. Clan Sinclair Sinclair Rosslyn Chapel Roslin Castle Roslin Village Website 1st Roslin Boys Brigade
21.
HM Treasury
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The leading pronoun in the departments name varies depending upon the gender of the reigning monarch. The beginnings of the Treasury of England have been traced by some to a known as Henry the Treasurer. This claim is based on an entry in the Domesday Book showing the individual Henry the treasurer as a landowner in Winchester, where the royal treasure was stored. The Treasury of the United Kingdom thus traces its origins to the Treasury of the Kingdom of England, the Treasury emerged from the Royal Household. It was where the king kept his treasures, the head of the Treasury was called the Lord Treasurer. Starting in Tudor times, the Lord Treasurer became one of the officers of state. In 1667, Charles II of England was responsible for appointing George Downing, the builder of Downing Street, to reform the Treasury. The Treasury was first put in commission in May or June 1660, the first commissioners were the Duke of Albermarle, Lord Ashley, W. Coventry, J. Duncomb, and T. Clifford. After 1714, the Treasury was always in commission, the commissioners were referred to as the Lords of the Treasury and were given a number based on their seniority. Until 1827, the First Lord of the Treasury, when a commoner, also held the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer, while if the First Lord was a peer, since 1827, however, the Chancellor of the Exchequer has always been Second Lord of the Treasury. During the time when the Treasury was under commission, the junior Lords were each paid £1600 a year, some of the other whips are nominally Lord Commissioner of HM Treasury, though they are all members of the House of Commons. Whip is a party, rather than a government, position and this has led to the Government front bench in the Commons being known as the Treasury Bench. However, since the no longer have any effective ministerial roles in the Treasury. Lord Young of Cookham, who serves currently as a government whip in the House of Lords, has named as Treasury spokesman. Ramsden is now sole Head of the GES, the previous Head of the GES was Sir Nick Stern. Management support for GES members is provided by the Economists in Government team, banknotes in the UK are normally issued by the Bank of England and a number of commercial banks. Treasury notes had full legal status and were not convertible for gold through the Bank of England. They replaced the coin in circulation to prevent a run on sterling
22.
Dutch elm disease
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Dutch elm disease is caused by a member of the sac fungi affecting elm trees, and is spread by elm bark beetles. It has also reached New Zealand, the disease affects species in the genera Ulmus and Zelkova, therefore it is not specific to the Dutch elm hybrid. The causative agents of DED are ascomycete microfungi, three species are now recognized, Ophiostoma ulmi, which afflicted Europe from 1910, reaching North America on imported timber in 1928. Ophiostoma himal-ulmi, an endemic to the western Himalaya. Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, an extremely virulent species from Japan which was first described in Europe, DED is spread in North America by three species of bark beetles, The native elm bark beetle, Hylurgopinus rufipes. The European elm bark beetle, Scolytus multistriatus, the banded elm bark beetle, Scolytus schevyrewi. In Europe, while S. multistriatus still acts as a vector for infection, it is less effective than the large elm bark beetle. H. rufipes can be a vector for the disease, but is inefficient compared to the other vectors, S. schevyrewi was found in 2003 in Colorado and Utah. Other reported DED vectors include Scolytus sulcifrons, S. pygmaeus, S. laevis, Pteleobius vittatus, other elm bark beetle species are also likely vectors. In an attempt to block the fungus from spreading farther, the tree reacts by plugging its own xylem tissue with gum and tyloses, bladder-like extensions of the xylem cell wall. As the xylem delivers water and nutrients to the rest of the plant, the first sign of infection is usually an upper branch of the tree with leaves starting to wither and yellow in summer, months before the normal autumnal leaf shedding. This progressively spreads to the rest of the tree, with further dieback of branches, eventually, the roots die, starved of nutrients from the leaves. Often, not all the roots die, the roots of some species, notably the English elm Ulmus procera, put up suckers which flourish for approximately 15 years, after which they too succumb. Dutch elm disease was first noticed in continental Europe in 1910, the disease was isolated in The Netherlands in 1921 by Bea Schwarz, a pioneering Dutch phytopathologist, and this discovery would lend the disease its name. Circa 1967, a new, far more virulent strain arrived in Britain on a shipment of rock elm U, the disease is still migrating northwards through Scotland, reaching Edinburgh in the late 1970s, and Inverness in 2006. By 1990, very few mature elms were left in Britain or much of continental Europe, one of the most distinctive English countryside trees, the English elm U. procera Salisb. is particularly susceptible. Thirty years after the outbreak of the epidemic, nearly all these trees, the species still survives in hedgerows, as the roots are not killed and send up root sprouts. These suckers rarely reach more than 5 m tall before succumbing to a new attack of the fungus, however, established hedges kept low by clipping have remained apparently healthy throughout the nearly 40 years since the onset of the disease in the UK
23.
Early 1980s recession
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The early 1980s recession describes the severe global economic recession affecting much of the developed world in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The United States and Japan exited the recession relatively early, in the early 1980s, Canada experienced higher inflation, interest rates, and underemployment than the United States did. The Bank of Canada rate hit 21% in August 1981, the inflationary period made Canadians seek to protect themselves through investment in the housing market. Some saw an advantage to high interest rates by speculation in real estate, the increase in transactions was financed through borrowing and ultimately caused debt levels to rise. Canadian firms, preoccupied with prospective investment opportunities because of inflation, no longer focused on innovation. In addition, high inflation was partly responsible for government spending. The overall tax burden rose from 27% of income in 1951, to 34% in 1969, from 1975 to 1992 national debt more than tripled to 8% of GDP. The resulting high interest rates caused more Canadian income to be out to foreign holders of Canadian public. Canada changed from a producing and exporting mainly primary products to one producing and exporting more manufactured goods. Jobs were lost to mechanization in industry, moreover, globalization meant that Canadian firms had to downsize their workforce in order to stay efficient and compete internationally. In early 1980s, Canada’s unemployment rate peaked at 12% and it took almost four years for the number of full-time jobs to be restored. A slowdown in productivity also emerged during the recession, real GDP declined by 5% between June 1981 and December 1982 and average output per worker slowed to 1%. The U. S. decision to switch to an exchange rate devalued the Canadian dollar. By 1979, the Canadian dollar was worth 85 cents U. S. which made U. S. imports more expensive, on the other hand, Canada’s major exports declined in price. Combined with high inflation, and interest rates, these high commodity prices reduced the standard of living, as with most of the rest of the developed world, recession hit the United Kingdom at the beginning of the 1980s. This followed a string of crises that plagued the British economy for most of the 1970s, consequently, unemployment had gradually increased since the mid-1960s. Inflation was about 10% and some 1.5 million people were unemployed, compared to some 1 million in 1974,580,000 in 1970, Thatcher set about controlling inflation with monetarist policies and changing trade union legislation in an attempt to reduce the strikes of public-sector workers. Thatchers battle against inflation resulted in the closure of many inefficient factories, shipyards, inflation fell below 10% by the turn of 1982 and by spring 1983, it had fallen to a 15-year low of 4%
24.
Great Storm of 1987
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Forests, parks, roads and railways were strewn with fallen trees as well as schools being closed. The British National Grid suffered heavy damage, leaving thousands without power, at least 22 people were killed in England and France. The apparent suggestion by the BBCs Michael Fish of an alarm is celebrated as a classic gaffe. Major improvements were implemented in atmospheric observation, relevant computer models. On the Sunday before the storm struck, the farmers forecast had predicted bad weather on the following Thursday or Friday, by midweek, however, guidance from weather prediction models was somewhat equivocal. Instead of stormy weather over a part of the UK. During the afternoon of 15 October, winds were very light over most parts of the UK, a depression was drifting slowly northwards over the North Sea off eastern Scotland. A trough lay over England, Wales and Ireland, over the Bay of Biscay, a depression was developing. The first gale warnings for sea areas in the English Channel were issued at 0630 UTC on 15 October and were followed, four hours later, by warnings of severe gales. At 1200 UTC on 15 October, the depression which originated in the Bay of Biscay was centred near 46° N, 9° W, by 1800 UTC, it had moved north-east to about 47° N, 6° W, and deepened to 964 mb. At 2235 UTC, winds of Force 10 were forecast, by midnight, the depression was over the western English Channel, and its central pressure was 953 mb. At 0140 on 16 October, warnings of Force 11 were issued, the depression now moved rapidly north-east, filling a little as it did, reaching the Humber estuary at about 0530 UTC, by which time its central pressure was 959 mb. Dramatic increases in temperature were associated with the passage of the warm front. In the sea areas, warnings of weather were both timely and adequate, although forecasts for land areas left much to be desired. During the evening of 15 October, radio and TV forecasts mentioned strong winds, by the time most people went to bed, exceptionally strong winds had not been mentioned in national radio and TV weather broadcasts. Warnings of severe weather had been issued, however, to various agencies and emergency authorities, perhaps the most important warning was issued by the Met Office to the Ministry of Defence at 0135 UTC,16 October. It warned that the consequences of the storm were such that civil authorities might need to call on assistance from the military. A highest gust of 119 kn is estimated from satellite data at Quimper, Brittany, with the highest measured gust at 117 kn at Pointe du Roc, Granville Normandy
25.
Devolution in the United Kingdom
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Devolution differs from federalism in that the devolved powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government, thus the state remains, de jure, a unitary state. Legislation creating devolved parliaments or assemblies can be repealed or amended by central government in the way as any statute. The issue of Irish home rule was the dominant political question of British politics at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. In contrast to this, demands for home rule called for autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom and this issue was first introduced by the Irish Parliamentary Party led by Isaac Butt, William Shaw and Charles Stewart Parnell. Over the course of four decades, four Irish Home Rule Bills were introduced into the British Parliament, following intense opposition in Ulster and the departure of Unionists from Gladstones Liberal Party, the bill was defeated in the House of Commons. The Second Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1893 by Prime Minister Gladstone, the Third Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1912 by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith based on an agreement with the Irish Parliamentary Party. After a prolonged parliamentary struggle was passed under the provisions of the Parliament Act of 1911, again, this bill was fiercely opposed by Ulster Unionists who raised the Ulster Volunteers and signed the Ulster Covenant to oppose the bill, thereby raising the spectre of civil war. The act received royal assent shortly after the outbreak of World War I, attempts at implementation failed in 1916 and 1917 and the subsequent Irish War of Independence resulted in it never coming into force. The Fourth Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1920 by Prime Minister David Lloyd George and it divided Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, which each had their own parliament and judiciary but which also shared some common institutions. The Act was implemented in Northern Ireland, where it served as the basis of government until its suspension in 1972 following the outbreak of the Troubles, Home Rule came into effect for Northern Ireland in 1921 under the Fourth Home Rule Act. The Parliament of Northern Ireland established under that act was prorogued on 30 March 1972 owing to the destabilisation of Northern Ireland upon the onset of the Troubles in late 1960s. This followed escalating violence by state and paramilitary organisations following the suppression of civil rights demands by Northern Ireland Catholics, the Northern Ireland Parliament was abolished by the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973, which received royal assent on 19 July 1973. A Northern Ireland Assembly was elected on 28 June 1973 and following the Sunningdale Agreement and this collapsed on 28 May 1974, due to the Ulster Workers Council strike. The Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention and second Northern Ireland Assembly were unsuccessful at restoring devolution, more progress was made after the ceasefires by the Provisional IRA in 1994 and 1997. The 1998 Belfast Agreement, resulted in the creation of a new Northern Ireland Assembly, a British-Irish Council covering the whole British Isles and a British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference were also established. The Executive was restored on 8 May 2007, several policing and justice powers were transferred to the Assembly on 12 April 2010. The fifth Assembly convened in May 2016. That assembly dissolved on 26 January 2017, ever since the Parliament of Scotland adjourned in 1707 as a result of the Acts of Union, individuals and organisations had advocated the return of a Scottish Parliament. The drive for home rule first took shape in the 19th century
26.
House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
27.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
28.
Caroline Lucas
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Caroline Patricia Lucas is a British politician, and since 2 September 2016, Co-Leader of the Green Party of England and Wales, a position she shares with Jonathan Bartley. She has been the Member of Parliament for Brighton Pavilion since the 2010 general election and she was re-elected in the 2015 general election with an increased majority. Born in Malvern in Worcestershire, Lucas graduated from the University of Exeter and she joined the Green Party in 1986 and held various party roles, also serving on Oxfordshire County Council from 1993 to 1997. Lucas was elected the first Leader of the Green Party in 2008 and was elected to represent the constituency of Brighton Pavilion in the 2010 general election. She stood down as party leader in 2012 to devote time to her parliamentary duties. She returned to a party leadership role in September 2016, when she was elected as Co-Leader as part of an arrangement with Jonathan Bartley. She is known as a campaigner and writer on economics, localisation, alternatives to globalisation, trade justice, animal welfare. Lucas was born in Malvern in Worcestershire, to middle-class, Conservative parents Peter and she is one of three children, her father ran a small central heating company, and sold solar panelling. Lucas was educated at Malvern Girls College, a independent school in Great Malvern. She then went to the University of Exeter, where she gained a first-class BA in English Literature, while at university, Lucas went on many trips to Greenham Common Womens Peace Camp and Molesworth peace camp when involved with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Lucas was an activist in CND and was involved in the Snowball Campaign against US military bases in the UK which involved the cutting of fences with the expectation of being arrested, after her doctorate, Lucas worked as a press officer for Oxfam from 1989. Later, she worked for the charity in other roles, remaining active in the Green Party, after being utterly inspired by Jonathon Porritts book Seeing Green, Lucas joined the Green Party in 1986. She recalled in 2007, I thought, right, Im going there now to the Greens main office on Clapham High Street, near where she lived. Im just going to dedicate the rest of my life to this party, soon afterwards she became the partys National Press Officer and Co-Chair. Lucas has a reputation as a party moderniser, in terms of internal slang, but I do genuinely think that has changed, a lot. Its a recognition, not that some kind of terrible compromise about putting on a tie. When the Green Party became three separate parties in 1990 for the constituent parts of the United Kingdom, she joined the Green Party of England, Lucas served as their General Election Speaker from 1991 and a Regional Council Member from 1997. Lucass first success in an election came when she gained the Green Partys second council seat in the UK on Oxfordshire County Council, which she held between 1993 and 1997
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The Ramblers
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The Ramblers, formerly known as the Ramblers Association, is the largest walkers rights organisation in Great Britain and aims to represent the interests of walkers. It is a charity registered in England and Wales and in Scotland, in 1931, the National Council of Ramblers Federations was formed because walkers felt that a national body to represent their interests was needed. During the mass trespass, the protesters present scuffled with the Duke of Devonshires gamekeepers, the National Council of Ramblers Federations did not endorse the tactics of the trespassers. This mass trespass is often seen as the turning point in the history of the Ramblers. In 1934 the Council decided to change its name, leading to the founding of the Ramblers Association on 1 January 1935. On 21 and 22 April 2007, the Ramblers celebrated the 75th anniversary of the trespass of Kinder Scout. Ramblers Association Services Ltd eventually became an entity from the Ramblers Association. From 1948 onwards its secretary was Tom Stephenson, who was a campaigner for open-country access and for the first British long-distance footpath. Labour politician Hugh Dalton, an outdoorsman, served a term as president of the Ramblers Association. Dalton was an environmentalist before the term came into fashion, the Ramblers Association and its members long felt that there was a need for a change of image following on from the last change in 1987. London-based brand agency Spencer du Bois, which specialises in not-for-profit organisations, was commissioned to create, the rebranding targeted this new and evolving demographic. In 2009, the Ramblers Association was rebranded as the Ramblers a new logo emerged incorporating a younger and it also argues that Britains network of public paths is an invaluable part of its national heritage and that the relevant authorities have a duty to invest in them. Since its inception, The Ramblers have campaigned for full rights of access to all of Britains green spaces. There are 550 Ramblers groups in about 50 areas, and around 350 other affiliated bodies, such as societies especially interested in walking and pedestrianism, each area sends representatives to an area committee. Once a year a council is held, whereby representatives from each area meet to discuss the priorities of The Ramblers for the forthcoming year. The trustees that are responsible for The Ramblers are also elected at this time. Increased emphasis on walking has also resulted in a number of specialised groups being formed, including the London Strollers who specialise in short, leisurely urban. The organisation also hopes that such initiatives will also attract more members from ethnic, another initiative is The Gay City Strollers, a collaboration between The Ramblers and the Lesbian and Gay Foundation of Manchester
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Hands off our Forest
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Hands off our Forest is a campaign group formed in 2010 to fight the UK Governments proposed sale of publicly owned land in the Forest of Dean. Hands off our Forest describe themselves as an alliance of groups. The Forest of Dean has a history of struggle between commoners and the Crown, Government and private landowners. The Dean Forest Timber Act resulted in areas of the Forest being enclosed, depriving commoners of their customary privileges. In 1981, Parliament passed the Forestry Act, amending an earlier act of 1967 to allow the sale of land managed by the Forestry Commission, following a sustained campaign, the Forest of Dean was specifically exempted from the act. The Public Bodies Bill, introduced to Parliament in October 2010, proposed to amend the Forestry Act 1967, towards the end of October,2010, newspaper reports emerged, claiming that the Government was planning to sell off public forests in England. Following discussions with Dean Forest Voice, Baroness Royall and other individuals, Forest of Dean newspaper, The Forester and his letter confirmed the Government was exploring new ownership options for forestry land currently managed by the Forestry Commission, which include large areas of the Forest of Dean. According to The Guardian, the met with near-universal disgust. The same newspaper also quoted Caroline Lucas MP, leader of the Green Party, an online petition opposing the sale, titled Save Our Forests has so far received more than 500,000 signatories. The member of Parliament for the Forest of Dean, Mark Harper, defended the proposals and he also said James Paices letter assured him everything the public holds dear about the Forest of Dean would be protected under any new ownership. She described Mark Harper as fundamentally wrong and his views on the subject as utter nonsense, concern within the local community resulted in a number of Forest of Dean organisations joining to form an alliance, adopting Hands off our Forest as its name. On 27 January 2011, the Government published a consultation document. at no cost to the new owner, having waited for the consultation document to be published, Mark Harper held a public meeting in Coleford, on 4 February. Despite being given only 2 days notice,400 people turned up, but the venue chosen could only accommodate around 150 and he had to be rescued by police. She announced the process had been halted and that the Government would remove the forestry clauses from the Public Bodies Bill. An independent panel would also be set up to consult on the issue of the direction of forestry and woodland. However, HOOF pledged to fight on until it had confirmation the Government had abandoned its privatisation policy, the group also said it would campaign against cuts within the Forestry Commission and woodland within the Forest of Dean not protected in the 1981 Act. National newspapers report that the Government is planning to sell off public forests, Forest of Dean weekly newspaper, The Forester, launches a Hands off our Forest campaign. On the same day, the Public Bodies Bill is introduced to The House of Lords by Lord Taylor of Holbeach
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Sir John Stirling-Maxwell, 10th Baronet
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Sir John Maxwell Stirling-Maxwell, 10th Baronet, of Pollok, KT was a Scottish Tory politician and philanthropist. He succeeded his father to the baronetcy in 1878 and he was Conservative Member of Parliament for the College Division of Glasgow between 1895 and 1906, and later served as Chairman of the Forestry Commission from 1929–1932. He was also Chairman of the Royal Fine Art Commission for Scotland, and he was a Lieutenant in the Royal Company of Archers and an active Freemason. He was a member of the National Trust for Scotland, becoming one of its first Vice-Presidents. He realised the importance of green spaces within a city, in this context, he was determined to protect the Pollok Estate and give the people of Glasgow access to it, which he undertook in 1911. Stirling Maxwell was also involved in trying to resolve the problem of finding a home for the art treasures presented to Glasgow in 1944 by Sir William Burrell. After his death, his daughter gave Pollok House, a proportion of the estate. This gift of land allowed the Glasgow city fathers to erect a building to hold the Burrell Collection. In 1929 he was appointed a Knight of the Thistle and he held the honorary degree of LLD from the University of Glasgow, the University of Aberdeen and Edinburgh University. Hon. RSA, Hon. RIBA, Hon. RWS, Hon. RSW, Sir John and Lady Stirling-Maxwell were both elected Fellows of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1902. In 1901 he married Ann Christian Maxwell, daughter of The Rt, the couple had one daughter, Dame Anne Maxwell Macdonald, 11th Baronetess. New York, St Martins Press,1990, Leigh Rayments list of baronets Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Sir John Stirling-Maxwell
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Philip Snowden, 1st Viscount Snowden
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Philip Snowden, 1st Viscount Snowden PC was a British politician. A strong speaker, he became popular in trade union circles for his denunciation of capitalism as unethical and he was the first Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer, a position he held in 1924 and again between 1929 and 1931. He was succeeded as Chancellor by Neville Chamberlain, Snowden was born in Cowling in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His father John Snowden had been a weaver and a supporter of Chartism, Snowden later wrote in his autobiography, I was brought up in this Radical atmosphere, and it was then that I imbibed the political and social principles which I have held fundamentally ever since. Although his parents and sisters were involved in weaving at the Ickornshaw Mill he did not join them, when he was 15 he became an insurance office clerk in Burnley. During his seven years as a clerk he studied and then passed the civil service entry examination, Snowden moved on to other posts around Scotland and then to Devon. In August 1891 in Devon when he was aged 27, Snowden severely injured his back in an accident and was paralysed from the waist down. He learned to walk again with the aid of sticks within two years, following the accident his Inland Revenue job was kept open for him for two years but due to his condition he decided to resign from the civil service. While he was convalescing at his mothers house at Cowling he began to study Socialist theory and history, Snowden joined the Liberal Party and followed his parents in becoming a Methodist and a teetotaller. In 1893 Snowden was asked to give a speech for the Cowling Liberal Club on the dangers of socialism in the aftermath of the formation of the Independent Labour Party in neighbouring Bradford, in his research on socialism Snowden instead became convinced by the ideology. He eventually joined the committee of the Keighley ILP in 1899. He became a prominent speaker for the party and wrote a popular Christian socialist pamphlet with Keir Hardie entitled The Christ that is to Be in 1903. His strident rhetoric, well-laced with statistics and evangelical themes, contrasted the evil conditions under capitalism with the moral and he condemned as bloodsuckers and parasites local textile company executives. In 1898 he launched the Keighley Labour Journal, using it to waste, pettiness. However, he ignored the concerns of the unions, which he judged to be conservative. By 1902 he moved his base to Leeds and toured Britain as a lecturer on politics and corruption, with his own syndicated column, in 1905 Snowden married Ethel Annakin, a campaigner for womens suffrage. Snowden supported his wifes ideals and he became a speaker at suffragette meetings. Snowden unsuccessfully contested the Wakefield constituency in West Yorkshire in a by-election in March 1902, in 1906 he became the Labour Party MP for Blackburn
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Winston Churchill
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
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Chairman
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The chairman is the highest officer of an organized group such as a board, a committee, or a deliberative assembly. The person holding the office is elected or appointed by the members of the group. The chair presides over meetings of the group and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. When the group is not in session, the officers duties include acting as its head, its representative to the outside world. In some organizations, this position is called president, in others, where a board appoints a president. Other terms sometimes used for the office and its holder include chair, chairperson, chairwoman, presiding officer, president, moderator, facilitator, the chairman of a parliamentary chamber is often called the speaker. The term chair is used in lieu of chairman, in response to criticisms that using chairman is sexist. In his 1992 State of the Union address, then-U. S, president George H. W. Bush used chairman for men and chair for women. A1994 Canadian study found the Toronto Star newspaper referring to most presiding men as chairman, the Chronicle of Higher Education uses chairman for men and chairperson for women. An analysis of the British National Corpus found chairman used 1,142 times, chairperson 130 times, the National Association of Parliamentarians does not approve using chairperson. In World Schools Style debating, male chairs are called Mr. Chairman, the FranklinCovey Style Guide for Business and Technical Communication, as well as the American Psychological Association style guide, advocate using chair or chairperson, rather than chairman. The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style suggests that the forms are gaining ground. It advocates using chair to refer both to men and to women, the word chair can refer to the place from which the holder of the office presides, whether on a chair, at a lectern, or elsewhere. During meetings, the person presiding is said to be in the chair and is referred to as the chair. Major dictionaries state that the word derives from chair and man, some authorities, however, including Riddicks Rules of Procedure, suggest that the second part of chairman derives from the Latin manus, and thus claim gender-neutrality for the word. Vladimir Lenin, for example, officially functioned as the head of Soviet Russia not as tsar or as president, note in particular the popular standard method for referring to Mao Zedong, Chairman Mao. In the absence of the chairman and vice chairman, groups sometimes elect a chairman pro tempore to fill the role for a single meeting. In some organizations that have titles, deputy chairman ranks higher than vice chairman, as there are often multiple vice chairs
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Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
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Parliament of the United Kingdom
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It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, the parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house and a lower house. The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature, prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. The House of Commons is an elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in London, most cabinet ministers are from the Commons, whilst junior ministers can be from either House. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The UK parliament and its institutions have set the pattern for many throughout the world. However, John Bright – who coined the epithet – used it with reference to a rather than a parliament. In theory, the UKs supreme legislative power is vested in the Crown-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union. The principle of responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an electoral system. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century, in 1909, the Commons passed the so-called Peoples Budget, which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, on the basis of the Budgets popularity and the Lords consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, in the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster
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