1.
Forging
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Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer or a die, Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed, cold forging, warm forging, or hot forging. For the latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge, forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons. Forging has been done by smiths for millennia, the products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged weapons, cymbals. Today, forging is a worldwide industry. Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes, the smithy or forge has evolved over centuries to become a facility with engineered processes, production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of modern industry. In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with powered by compressed air, electricity. These hammers may have reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds, smaller power hammers,500 lb or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well. Some steam hammers remain in use, but they became obsolete with the availability of the other, more convenient, Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part. As the metal is shaped during the process, its internal grain deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, additionally, forgings can target a lower total cost when compared to a casting or fabrication. Some metals may be forged cold, but iron and steel are almost always hot forged, hot forging prevents the work hardening that would result from cold forging, which would increase the difficulty of performing secondary machining operations on the piece. Also, while work hardening may be desirable in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such as heat treating, are more economical. Alloys that are amenable to precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and titanium, production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling, facilities and personnel. In the case of hot forging, a furnace is required to heat ingots or billets. In the case of drop forging operations, provisions must be made to absorb the shock, most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and carefully heat-treated to correctly shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the tremendous forces involved. The main advantage of hot forging is that it can be more quickly and precisely. Cold forging typically results in work hardening of the piece, drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then dropped onto the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die
2.
East Meon
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East Meon is a village and civil parish in the East Hampshire district of Hampshire, England. It is 4.4 miles west of Petersfield, the nearest railway station is 4 miles east of the village, at Petersfield. The village is located in the Meon Valley approximately 31 km north of Portsmouth and 98 km southwest of London, on the headwaters of the River Meon, ¬The parish has an acreage of 11,370 acres. The boundaries of the present Parish of East Meon date back to 1894, about a mile to the west rises the prominent hill of Henwood Down. The South Downs Way passes over the spur of the hill. There are bronze age burial barrows within the parish of East Meon which date back to around 2000 BC, there is also an iron age fort, situated just outside the parish boundaries on Old Winchester Hill, constructed approximately 500 years before the Romans invaded Britain. There is also evidence of Roman occupation in and around the village, East Meon itself may have started life somewhere between 400 and 600 AD. Then it was part of a Royal Manor belonging first to King Alfred the Great who left it in his will to his youngest son Aethelweard. The Domesday Survey of 1086 shows that the Manor then belonged to William the Conqueror, it records six mills and land for 64 ploughs. About 1280 a family from East Meon, who took the name de Meones, moved to Dublin, opposite the church is the old Court House, with a mediaeval hall dating from the late 15th century. At this time, and for centuries, East Meon belonged to successive Bishops of Winchester. The Court House was its centre and home to a number of monks who played host to the Bishop when he visited East Meon. They also recorded all manorial imports and exports, East Meon has played its part in the English Civil War of the 1640s. The Parliamentarians camped near the village before the Battle of Cheriton in 1644 and this turned out to be the turning point in the War. During the Second World War, Hitlers Luftwaffe dropped 38 high explosive bombs and an estimated 3,500 incendiary bombs in the Parish, the only loss of life, however, was a pig. The village church, named All Saints, was built after the Norman Conquest and it resembles Winchester Cathedral in style, and like the Cathedral, it contains a black marble baptismal font created at Tournai, in what is now Belgium, c. The Tournai font is one four such fonts in the county of Hampshire, inside the church there is a stone, which has the words Amens Plenty carved into it, which is said to sit atop the graves of four men buried in the standing position. There are many groups, available for a variety of interests within the local area
3.
Hampshire
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Hampshire is a county on the southern coast of England in the United Kingdom. The county town of Hampshire is Winchester, the capital city of England. The larger South Hampshire metropolitan area has a population of 1,547,000, Hampshire is notable for housing the birthplaces of the Royal Navy, British Army, and Royal Air Force. It is bordered by Dorset to the west, Wiltshire to the north-west, Berkshire to the north, Surrey to the north-east, the southern boundary is the coastline of the English Channel and the Solent, facing the Isle of Wight. At its greatest size in 1890, Hampshire was the fifth largest county in England and it now has an overall area of 3,700 square kilometres, and measures about 86 kilometres east–west and 76 kilometres north–south. Hampshires tourist attractions include many seaside resorts and two parks, the New Forest and the South Downs. Hampshire has a maritime history and two of Europes largest ports, Portsmouth and Southampton, lie on its coast. The county is famed as home of writers Jane Austen and Charles Dickens, Hampshire takes its name from the settlement that is now the city of Southampton. Southampton was known in Old English as Hamtun, roughly meaning village-town, the old name was recorded in the Domesday book as Hantescire, and it is from this spelling that the modern abbreviation Hants derives. From 1889 until 1959, the county was named the County of Southampton and has also been known as Southamptonshire. The region is believed to have continuously occupied since the end of the last Ice Age about 12,000 BCE. At this time Britain was still attached to the European continent and was covered with deciduous woodland. The first inhabitants came overland from Europe, these were anatomically and behaviourally modern humans, notable sites from this period include Bouldnor Cliff. Agriculture had arrived in southern Britain by 4000 BCE, and with it a neolithic culture, some deforestation took place at that time, although it was during the Bronze Age, beginning in 2200 BCE, that this became more widespread and systematic. Hampshire has few monuments to show from early periods, although nearby Stonehenge was built in several phases at some time between 3100 BCE and 2200 BCE. It is maintained that by this period the people of Britain predominantly spoke a Celtic language, hillforts largely declined in importance in the second half of the second century BCE, with many being abandoned. Julius Caesar invaded southeastern England briefly in 55 and again in 54 BCE, notable sites from this period include Hengistbury Head, which was a major port. There is a Museum of the Iron Age in Andover, the Romans invaded Britain again in 43 CE, and Hampshire was incorporated into the Roman province of Britannia very quickly
4.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
5.
Courland
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Courland or Kurzeme is one of the historical and cultural regions of Latvia. The regions of Semigallia and Selonia are sometimes considered as part of Courland as they were held by the same duke. Situated in western Latvia, Courland roughly corresponds to the former Latvian districts of Kuldīga, Liepāja, Saldus, Talsi, Tukums, when combined with Semigallia and Selonia, Courlands northeastern boundary is the river Daugava, which separates it from the regions of Latgale and Vidzeme. To the north, Courlands coast lies along the Gulf of Riga, on the west it is bordered by the Baltic Sea, and on the south by Lithuania. It lies between 55° 45′ and 57° 45′ North and 21° and 27° East, the area comprises 27,286 km², of which 262 km² is made up of lakes. The landscape generally has a low and undulating character, with flat, the interior features wooded dunes, covered with pine, spruce, birch, and oak, with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches between. Courlands elevation never rises more than 213 m above sea level, the Jelgava plain divides Courland into two parts, the western side, which is fertile and densely inhabited, except in the north, and the eastern side, less fertile and thinly inhabited. Nearly one hundred rivers drain Courland, but only three of these rivers – the Daugava, the Lielupe and the Venta – are navigable and they all flow northwestward and discharge into the Baltic Sea. Owing to its numerous lakes and marshes, Courland has a damp, often foggy, in ancient times the Curonians, a pagan tribe, inhabited Courland. The Brethren of the Sword, a German military order, subdued the Curonians, in 1237 the area passed into the rule of the Teutonic Knights owing to the amalgamation of this order with that of the Brethren of the Sword. The Livonian Confederation was a loosely organized confederation formed by the German-led Livonian Order and it existed from 1228 to the 1560s, when it was dismembered during the Livonian Wars. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was a semi-independent duchy that existed from 1561 until 1795, encompassing the areas of Courland, although nominally a vassal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the dukes operated autonomously. In the 18th century Russia acquired great influence over the Duchy, in 1795, the last Duke, Peter von Biron, ceded the Duchy to the Russian Empire. The former Bishopric of Courland was directly incorporated into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as the Piltyń County of the Wenden, after annexation by the Russian Empire, the territory of the former Duchy formed the Courland Governorate. From the time of the Northern Crusades in the early 13th century, in 1863, the Russian authorities issued laws to enable Latvians, who formed the bulk of the population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were founded to help them. By this means, some occupants bought their farms, but the mass of the population remained landless. Agriculture was the occupation, with the principal crops being rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax. The large estates conducted agriculture with skill and scientific knowledge, excellent breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs were kept
6.
Latvia
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Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, one of the three Baltic states. It is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Latvia has 1,957,200 inhabitants and a territory of 64,589 km2. The country has a seasonal climate. Latvia is a parliamentary republic established in 1918. The capital city is Riga, the European Capital of Culture 2014, Latvia is a unitary state, divided into 119 administrative divisions, of which 110 are municipalities and 9 are cities. Latvians and Livs are the people of Latvia. Latvian and Lithuanian are the two surviving Baltic languages. Despite foreign rule from the 13th to 20th centuries, the Latvian nation maintained its identity throughout the generations via the language, Latvia and Estonia share a long common history. Until World War II, Latvia also had significant minorities of ethnic Germans, Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant Lutheran, except for the Latgale region in the southeast, which has historically been predominantly Roman Catholic. The Russian population has brought a significant portion of Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Republic of Latvia was founded on 18 November 1918, however, its de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II. The peaceful Singing Revolution, starting in 1987, called for Baltic emancipation of Soviet rule and it ended with the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia on 4 May 1990, and restoring de facto independence on 21 August 1991. Latvia is a democratic and developed country and member of the European Union, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, CBSS, the IMF, NB8, NIB, OECD, OSCE, and WTO. For 2014, Latvia was listed 46th on the Human Development Index and it used the Latvian lats as its currency until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2014. The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes, henry of Latvia coined the Latinisations of the countrys name, Lettigallia and Lethia, both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the name in Romance languages from Letonia. Around 3000 BC, the ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals, by 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia, Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians, as well as the Livonians speaking a Finnic language
7.
Hearth
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In historic and modern usage, a hearth /ˈhɑːrθ/ is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace, with or without an oven, used for heating and originally also used for cooking food. In a medieval hall, the hearth commonly stood in the middle of the hall, later, such hearths were moved to the side of the room and provided with a chimney. In fireplace design, the hearth is the part of the fireplace where the fire burns, usually consisting of masonry at floor level or higher, the word hearth derives from an Indo-European root, *ker-, referring to burning, heat, and fire. In archaeology, a hearth is a firepit or other feature of any period. Hearths are common features of many eras going back to prehistoric campsites and they were used for cooking, heating, and the processing of some stone, wood, faunal, and floral resources. Farming or excavation—deform or disperse hearth features, making difficult to identify without careful study. Lined hearths are easily identified by the presence of fire-cracked rock, often present are fragmented fish and animal bones, carbonized shell, charcoal, ash, and other waste products, all embedded in a sequence of soil that has been deposited atop the hearth. Unlined hearths, which are easily identified, may also include these materials. Because of the nature of most of these items, they can be used to pinpoint the date the hearth was last used via the process of radiocarbon dating. Although carbon dates can be affected if the users of the hearth burned old wood or coal. This was the most common way to cook, and to interior spaces in cool seasons. Kapnikon was a tax raised on households without exceptions for the poor, in England, a tax on hearths was introduced on 19 May 1662. Householders were required to pay a charge of two shillings per annum for each hearth, with half the payment due at Michaelmas and half at Lady Day. Exemptions to the tax were granted, to those in receipt of relief, those whose houses were worth less than 20 shillings a year. Also exempt were charitable institutions such as schools and almshouses, and industrial hearths with the exception of smiths forges, the returns were lodged with the Clerk of the Peace between 1662 and 1688. A revision of the Act in 1664 made the tax payable by all who had more than two chimneys The tax was abolished by William III in 1689 and the last collection was for Lady Day of that year and it was abolished in Scotland in 1690. Hearth tax records are important to historians as they provide an indication of the size of each assessed house at the time. The numbers of hearths are generally proportional to the size of the house, the assessments can be used to indicate the numbers and local distribution of larger and smaller houses
8.
Metal
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A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable—that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking—as well as fusible and ductile, about 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids. Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms, astrophysicists use the term metal to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen and helium, the simplest two, in a star. The star fuses smaller atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, to larger ones over its lifetime. In that sense, the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of all chemical elements. Many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures, the atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures, namely body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed. In bcc, each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others, in fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature, atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons, resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement. This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat, while this flow of electrons occurs, the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud. This type of bond is called a metallic bond, Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales. Examples,4 Na + O2 →2 Na2O2 Ca + O2 →2 CaO4 Al +3 O2 →2 Al2O3, the transition metals are slower to oxidize because they form a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior. Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all, some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades. The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3, Mn2O7, and OsO4, which have strictly acidic reactions. Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion, however, a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the coating is expected. Water and the two form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee. Metals in general have high conductivity, high thermal conductivity. Typically they are malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving, in terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and lustrous. Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque, although most metals have higher densities than most nonmetals, there is wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense solid element and osmium the densest
9.
Metalsmith
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A metalsmith or simply smith is a craftsman fashioning useful items out of various metals. Smithing is one of the oldest metalworking occupations, shaping metal with a hammer is the archetypical component of smithing. Often the hammering is done while the metal is hot, having been heated in a forge, smithing can also involve the other aspects of metalworking, such as refining metals from their ores, casting it into shapes, and filing to shape and size. The prevalence of metalworking in the culture of recent centuries has led Smith, as a suffix, -smith connotes a meaning of a specialized craftsman—for example, wordsmith and tunesmith are nouns synonymous with writer or songwriter, respectively. In pre-industrialized times, smiths held high or special social standing since they supplied the tools needed for farming. This was especially true in some West African cultures, a metalsmith is one who works with or has the knowledge and the capacity of working with all metals. Today, this tool is still used by blacksmiths as it was traditionally. The term, metalsmith, often refers to artisans and craftpersons who practice their craft in many different metals, including gold, machinists are metalsmiths who produce high-precision parts and tools. The most advanced of these tools, CNC machines, are computer controlled and largely automated
10.
Work hardening
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Work hardening, also known as strain hardening or cold working, is the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the structure of the material. Many non-brittle metals with a high melting point as well as several polymers can be strengthened in this fashion. Alloys not amenable to treatment, including low-carbon steel, are often work-hardened. Some materials cannot be work-hardened at low temperatures, such as indium, however others can only be strengthened via work hardening, such as pure copper, Work hardening may be desirable or undesirable depending on the context. An example of work hardening is during machining when early passes of a cutter inadvertently work-harden the workpiece surface. Certain alloys are prone to this than others, superalloys such as Inconel require machining strategies that take it into account. An example of work hardening is that which occurs in metalworking processes that intentionally induce plastic deformation to exact a shape change. These processes are known as working or cold forming processes. They are characterized by shaping the workpiece at a temperature below its recrystallization temperature, cold forming techniques are usually classified into four major groups, squeezing, bending, drawing, and shearing. Applications include the heading of bolts and cap screws and the finishing of cold rolled steel, in cold forming, metal is formed at high speed and high pressure using tool steel or carbide dies. The cold working of the increasing the hardness, yield strength. Copper was the first metal in use for tools and containers since it is one of the few metals available in non-oxidized form. Copper is easily softened by heating and then cooling, in this annealed state it may then be hammered, stretched and otherwise formed, progressing toward the desired final shape, but becoming harder and less ductile as work progresses. If work continues beyond a certain hardness the metal will tend to fracture when worked, annealing is stopped when the workpiece is near its final desired shape, and so the final product will have a desired stiffness and hardness. The technique of repoussé exploits these properties of copper, enabling the construction of durable jewelry articles and sculptures, for this reason modern aluminum aircraft will have an imposed working lifetime, after which the aircraft must be retired. Before work hardening, the lattice of the material exhibits a regular, the defect-free lattice can be created or restored at any time by annealing. As the material is work hardened it becomes saturated with new dislocations
11.
Tongs
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Tongs are a tool used to grip and lift objects, of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use. Tongs consisting of a band of metal bent round one or two bands joined at the head by a spring, as in sugar-tongs, asparagus-tongs and the like. Tongs in which the pivot or joint is placed close to the ends, such as a drillers round tongs. Tongs are commonly used as a utensil, as they provide a way to move, rotate. According to Pirkei Avot, a classical Jewish text of the century of the common era. The reasoning is that a blacksmith must use a pair of tongs in order to fashion a new pair of tongs, accordingly, God must have provided humankind with the first pair of tongs. Fire iron Food preparation utensils Forceps Trongs Tweezers Food portal
12.
Anvil
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An anvil is a block with a hard surface on which another object is struck. The block is as massive as is practical, because the higher the inertia of the anvil, on a quality anvil the smiths hammer should rebound with almost as much energy as the smith puts into the downward stroke, ultimately making the smiths job easier and less physically strenuous. In most cases the anvil is used as a forging tool, before the advent of modern welding technology, it was a primary tool of metal workers. The great majority of modern anvils are made of cast or forged steel that has been heat treated, inexpensive anvils have been made of cast iron and low quality steel, but are considered unsuitable for serious use as they deform and lack rebound when struck. Because anvils are very ancient tools and were at one time very commonplace, the primary work surface of the anvil is known as the face. It is generally made of hardened steel and should be flat, any marks on the face will be transferred to the work. Also, sharp edges tend to cut into the metal being worked, the face is hardened and tempered to resist the blows of the smiths hammer, so the anvil face does not deform under repeated use. A hard anvil face also reduces the amount of force lost in each hammer blow. Hammers, tools, and work pieces of hardened steel should never directly strike the face with full force, as they may damage it. The horn of the anvil is a conical projection used to form various shapes and is generally unhardened steel or iron. The horn is used mostly in bending operations and it also is used by some smiths as an aid in drawing down stock. Some anvils, mainly European, are made with two horns, one square and one round, also, some anvils are made with side horns or clips for specialized work. The step is that area of the anvil between the horn and the face, the hardie hole is a square hole into which specialized forming and cutting tools, called Hardy tools, are placed. It is also used in punching and bending operations, the pritchel hole is a small round hole that is present on most modern anvils. Some anvils have more than one and it is used mostly for punching. At times, smiths will fit a second tool to this hole to allow the more flexibility when using more than one anvil tool. An anvil needs to be placed upon a base made from an impact. It requires being fastened firmly to the base, so it not move when struck with a hammer
13.
Bituminous coal
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Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called glutius. It is of quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite. Formation is usually the result of pressure being exerted on lignite. Its coloration can be black or sometimes brown, often there are well-defined bands of bright. These distinctive sequences, which are classified according to either dull, bright-banded or bright, bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed by diagenetic and sub metamorphic compression of peat bog material. Its primary constituents are macerals, vitrinite, and liptinite, the carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80%, the rest is composed of water, air, hydrogen, and sulphur, which have not been driven off from the macerals. Bank density is approximately 1346 kg/m³, bulk density typically runs to 833 kg/m³. The heat content of coal ranges from 24 to 35 MJ/kg on a moist. Within the coal mining industry, this type of coal is known for releasing the largest amounts of firedamp, extraction of bituminous coal demands the highest safety procedures involving attentive gas monitoring, good ventilation and vigilant site management. Bituminous coals are graded according to vitrinite reflectance, moisture content, volatile content, plasticity, generally, the highest value bituminous coals have a specific grade of plasticity, volatility and low ash content, especially with low carbonate, phosphorus, and sulphur. Plasticity is vital for coking as it represents its ability to form specific plasticity phases during the coking process. Low phosphorus content is vital for these coals, as phosphorus is a highly damaging element in steel making, cooking coal is best if it has a very narrow range of volatility and plasticity. This is measured by the free swelling index test, volatile content and swelling index are used to select coals for coke blending as well. Volatility is also critical for steel-making and power generation, as this determines the rate of the coal. High volatile content coals, while easy to ignite often are not as prized as moderately volatile coals, the smelter must balance the volatile content of the coals to optimize the ease of ignition, burn rate, and energy output of the coal. Carbonates are deleterious as they stick to the boiler apparatus. Smithing coal is a type of high-quality bituminous coal ideally suited for use in a coal forge and it is as free from ash, sulphur, and other impurities as possible. The constituents of the coal should be as follows, Cannel coal is a coal which ignites easily producing a bright flame, the name may derive from northern English pronunciation of candle coal
14.
Coke (fuel)
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Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made from coal. It is the carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash. Cokes made from coal are grey, hard, and porous, while coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The form known as coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes. Coke is used in preparation of producer gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide, producer gas is produced by passing air over red-hot coke. Coke is also used to water gas. Historical sources dating to the 4th century describe the production of coke in ancient China, the Chinese first used coke for heating and cooking no later than the ninth century. By the first decades of the century, Chinese ironworkers in the Yellow River valley began to fuel their furnaces with coke. In 1589 a patent was granted to Thomas Proctor and William Peterson for making iron and steel and melting lead with earth-coal, sea-coal, turf, the patent contains a distinct allusion to the preparation of coal by cooking. In 1590 a patent was granted to the Dean of York to purify pit-coal, in 1620 a patent was granted to a company composed of William St. John, Robert Follensbee and other knights, mentioning the use of coke in smelting ores and manufacturing metals. In 1627 a patent was granted to Sir John Hacket and Octavius de Strada for a method of rendering sea-coal and pit-coal as useful as charcoal for burning in houses, without offense by smell or smoke. In 1603 Hugh Plat suggested that coal might be charred in an analogous to the way charcoal is produced from wood. In 1709 Abraham Darby I established a coke-fired blast furnace to produce cast iron, cokes superior crushing strength allowed blast furnaces to become taller and larger. The ensuing availability of iron was one of the factors leading to the Industrial Revolution. Before this time, iron-making used large quantities of charcoal, produced by burning wood, in the late 18th century, brick beehive ovens were developed, which allowed more control over the burning process. In 1768 John Wilkinson built a more practical oven for converting coal into coke, with greater skill in the firing, covering and quenching of the heaps, yields were increased from about 33 per cent to 65 per cent by the middle of the 19th century. The Scottish iron industry expanded rapidly in the second quarter of the 19th century. In 1802 a battery of beehives was set up near Sheffield, by 1870, there were 14,000 beehive ovens in operation on the West Durham coalfields, capable of producing 4.2 million tons of coke
15.
Charcoal
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Charcoal is a lightweight, black residue, consisting of carbon and any remaining ash, obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis- the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen, the whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, the success of the operation depends upon the rate of the combustion. The operation is so delicate that it was left to colliers. They often lived alone in small huts in order to tend their wood piles, for example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany, charcoal burners lived in conical huts called Köten which are still much in evidence today. The massive production of charcoal was a cause of deforestation. The increasing scarcity of easily harvested wood was a factor behind the switch to fossil fuel equivalents, mainly coal. Charcoal made at 300 °C is brown, soft and friable, and readily inflames at 380 °C, made at higher temperatures it is hard and brittle, in Finland and Scandinavia, the charcoal was considered the by-product of wood tar production. The best tar came from pine, thus pinewoods were cut down for tar pyrolysis, the residual charcoal was widely used as substitute for metallurgical coke in blast furnaces for smelting. Tar production led to deforestation, it has been estimated all Finnish forests are younger than 300 years. The end of tar production at the end of the 19th century resulted in rapid re-forestation, the charcoal briquette was first invented and patented by Ellsworth B. A. Zwoyer of Pennsylvania in 1897 and was produced by the Zwoyer Fuel Company. The process was popularized by Henry Ford, who used wood. Ford Charcoal went on to become the Kingsford Company, Charcoal has been made by various methods. The traditional method in Britain used a clamp and this is essentially a pile of wooden logs leaning against a chimney. The chimney consists of 4 wooden stakes held up by some rope, the logs are completely covered with soil and straw allowing no air to enter. It must be lit by introducing some burning fuel into the chimney, if the soil covering gets torn by the fire, additional soil is placed on the cracks. Once the burn is complete, the chimney is plugged to prevent air from entering, the true art of this production method is in managing the sufficient generation of heat, and its transfer to wood parts in the process of being carbonised. A strong disadvantage of this method is the huge amount of emissions that are harmful to human health
16.
Fireplace
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A fireplace is a structure made of brick, stone or metal designed to contain a fire. Fireplaces are used for the relaxing ambiance they create and for heating a room, modern fireplaces have variable heat efficiency, depending on the sophistication of the design. Historically they were used for heating a dwelling, cooking, and heating water for laundry, a fire is contained in a firebox or firepit, a chimney or other flue allows exhaust to escape. On the exterior there is often a brick crown, in which the projecting courses of brick act as a drip course to keep rainwater from running down the exterior walls. Some chimneys have a spark arrestor incorporated into the crown or cap, organizations like the Environmental Protection Agency and the Washington Department of Ecology warn that, according to various studies, fireplaces can pose a significant health risk. The EPA writes Smoke may smell good, but its not good for you, manufactured fireplaces are made with sheet metal fire boxes. Electric fireplaces can be built-in replacements for wood or gas or retrofit with log inserts or electric fireboxes, Masonry and prefabricated fireplaces can be fueled by wood, natural gas, biomass and propane fuel sources. Ventless Fireplaces are fueled by either gel, liquid propane, bottled gas or natural gas, in the United States, some states and local counties have laws restricting these types of fireplaces. They must be sized to the area to be heated. There are also air quality issues due to the amount of moisture they release into the room air. Direct vent fireplaces are fueled by either liquid propane or natural gas and they are completely sealed from the area that is heated, and vent all exhaust gasses to the exterior of the structure. Chimney and flue types, Masonry with or without tile-lined flue, fundamental design flaws bankrupted the US manufacturers and made the design obsolete. These chimneys often show vertical cracks on the exterior, metal-lined flue, Double or triple walled metal pipe running up inside a new or existing wood-framed or masonry chase. Newly constructed flues may feature a cover, a cap. All fireplaces require trained gas service members to carry out installations, a wide range of accessories are used with fireplaces, which range between countries, regions, and historical periods. For the interior, common in recent Western cultures include grates, fireguards, log boxes, andirons, pellet baskets, a grate is a frame, usually of iron bars, to retain fuel for a fire. Heavy metal firebacks are sometimes used to capture and re-radiate heat, to protect the back of the fireplace, fenders are low metal frames set in front of the fireplace to contain embers, soot and ash. For fireplace tending, tools include pokers, bellows, tongs, shovels, brushes, ancient fire pits were sometimes built in the ground, within caves, or in the center of a hut or dwelling
17.
Annealing (metallurgy)
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It involves heating a material to above its recrystallization temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature, and then cooling. In annealing, atoms migrate in the lattice and the number of dislocations decreases, leading to the change in ductility. In the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, copper, silver and brass can be cooled slowly in air, or quickly by quenching in water, unlike ferrous metals, such as steel, which must be cooled slowly to anneal. In this fashion, the metal is softened and prepared for further work—such as shaping, stamping, annealing occurs by the diffusion of atoms within a solid material, so that the material progresses towards its equilibrium state. Heat increases the rate of diffusion by providing the energy needed to break bonds, the movement of atoms has the effect of redistributing and eradicating the dislocations in metals and in ceramics. This alteration to existing dislocations allows an object to deform more easily. The amount of process-initiating Gibbs free energy in a metal is also reduced by the annealing process. In practice and industry, this reduction of Gibbs free energy is termed stress relief, the relief of internal stresses is a thermodynamically spontaneous process, however, at room temperatures, it is a very slow process. The high temperatures at which annealing occurs serve to accelerate this process, the creation of lattice vacancies is governed by the Arrhenius equation, and the migration/diffusion of lattice vacancies are governed by Fick’s laws of diffusion. The three stages of the process that proceed as the temperature of the material is increased are, recovery, recrystallization. The first stage is recovery, and it results in softening of the metal through removal of primarily linear defects called dislocations, recovery occurs at the lower temperature stage of all annealing processes and before the appearance of new strain-free grains. The grain size and shape do not change, the second stage is recrystallization, where new strain-free grains nucleate and grow to replace those deformed by internal stresses. If annealing is allowed to continue once recrystallization has completed, then grain growth occurs, in grain growth, the microstructure starts to coarsen and may cause the metal to lose a substantial part of its original strength. This can however be regained with hardening, the high temperature of annealing may result in oxidation of the metal’s surface, resulting in scale. If scale must be avoided, annealing is carried out in a special atmosphere, annealing is also done in forming gas, a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen. The magnetic properties of mu-metal are introduced by annealing the alloy in a hydrogen atmosphere, typically, large ovens are used for the annealing process. The inside of the oven is large enough to place the workpiece in a position to receive exposure to the circulating heated air. For high volume process annealing, gas fired conveyor furnaces are often used, for large workpieces or high quantity parts, car-bottom furnaces are used so workers can easily move the parts in and out
18.
Tempering (metallurgy)
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Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness of iron-based alloys. The exact temperature determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends on both the composition of the alloy and on the desired properties in the finished product. For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at low temperatures, tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, tempering is usually performed after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest state. Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched work-piece to a temperature below its critical temperature. Heating above this temperature is avoided, so as not to destroy the very-hard, quenched microstructure, precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is crucial to achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low tempering temperatures may only relieve the stresses, decreasing brittleness while maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher tempering temperatures tend to produce a reduction in the hardness, sacrificing some yield strength. In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the martensite, tempering is also performed on normalized steels and cast irons, to increase ductility, machinability, and impact strength. Tempering is an ancient heat-treating technique, the oldest known example of tempered martensite is a pick axe which was found in Galilee, dating from around 1200 to 1100 BC. The process was used throughout the ancient world, from Asia to Europe, tempering was often confused with quenching and, often, the term was used to describe both techniques. I shall employ the word tempering in the sense as softening. In metallurgy, one may encounter many terms that have specific meanings within the field. Terms such as hardness, impact resistance, toughness, and strength can carry many different connotations, some of the terms encountered, and their specific definitions are, Strength, also called rigidity, this is resistance to permanent deformation and tearing. Strength, in metallurgy, is still a vague term, so is usually divided into yield strength, tensile strength, shear strength. Toughness, Resistance to fracture, as measured by the Charpy test, toughness often increases as strength decreases, because a material that bends is less likely to break. Hardness, Hardness is often used to strength or rigidity but, in metallurgy. In conventional metal alloys, there is a relation between indentation hardness and tensile strength, which eases the measurement of the latter
19.
Hot working
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Hot working refers to processes where metals are plastically deformed above their recrystallization temperature. Being above the recrystallization temperature allows the material to recrystallize during deformation and this is important because recrystallization keeps the materials from strain hardening, which ultimately keeps the yield strength and hardness low and ductility high. Many kinds of working, including rolling, forging, extrusion, the lower limit of the hot working temperature is determined by its recrystallization temperature. As a guideline, the limit of the hot working temperature of a material is 60% its melting temperature. The upper limit for hot working is determined by various factors, such as, excessive oxidation, grain growth, or an undesirable phase transformation. In practice materials are heated to the upper limit first to keep forming forces as low as possible. The most important aspect of any hot working process is controlling the temperature of the workpiece, 90% of the energy imparted into the workpiece is converted into heat. Therefore, if the process is quick enough the temperature of the workpiece should rise, however. Most of the heat is lost through the surface of the workpiece into the cooler tooling and this causes temperature gradients in the workpiece, usually due to non-uniform cross-sections where the thinner sections are cooler than the thicker sections. Ultimately, this can lead to cracking in the cooler, less ductile surfaces, one way to minimize the problem is to heat the tooling. The hotter the tooling the less heat lost to it, but as the temperature rises. Therefore the tooling temperature must be compromised, commonly, hot working tooling is heated to 500–850 °F, the microstructure of cast items does not optimize the engineering properties, from a microstructure standpoint. Hot working improves the properties of the workpiece because it replaces the microstructure with one that has fine spherical shaped grains. These grains increase the strength, ductility, and toughness of the material, the engineering properties can also be improved by reorienting the inclusions. In the cast state the inclusions are randomly oriented, which, when the material is hot worked the inclusions tend to flow with the contour of the surface, creating stringers. As a whole the strings create a structure, where the properties are anisotropic. With the stringers oriented parallel to the surface it strengthens the workpiece, the stringers act as crack-arrestors because the crack will want to propagate through the stringer and not along it. Paul, Black, J T. Kohser, Ronald A, materials and Processes in Manufacturing, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4
20.
Tuyere
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A tuyere or tuyère is a tube, nozzle or pipe through which air is blown into a furnace or hearth. Air or oxygen is injected into a hearth under pressure from bellows or an engine or other devices. This causes the fire to be hotter in front of the blast than it would otherwise have been and this applies to any process where a blast is delivered under pressure to make a fire hotter. The term was introduced to England from French with the new technology of the blast furnace and finery forge in around 1500, following the introduction of hot blast, tuyeres are often water-cooled. A bloomery normally had one tuyere, early blast furnaces also had one tuyere, but were fed from bellows perhaps 12 feet long operated by a waterwheel. During the Industrial Revolution, the blast began to be provided using steam engines, improvements in foundry practice enabled gas-tight cast iron pipes to be produced, enabling one engine to deliver blast to several sides of a furnace, through multiple tuyeres. A finery forge contained finery and chafery hearths, usually one of the latter, each hearth was equipped with its own set of bellows, blowing into it through a tuyere. The blacksmiths hearth at their forge has a tuyere, often blown by foot-operated bellows, tuyeres were also used in smelting lead and copper in smeltmills. Modern blast furnaces may have up to 42 tuyeres, through which the hot blast is injected in the furnace and they are usually made from copper and cooled with a water jacket to withstand the extreme temperatures
21.
Bellows
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A bellows or pair of bellows is a device constructed to furnish a strong blast of air. It has many applications, in particular blowing on a fire to supply it with air, the term bellows is used by extension for a flexible bag whose volume can be changed by compression or expansion, but not used to deliver air. For example, the light-tight bag allowing the distance between the lens and film of a photographic camera to be varied is called a bellows. Bellows is only used in plural, the Old English name for bellows was blǽstbęlg, blást-bęlg blast-bag, blowing-bag, the prefix was dropped and by the eleventh century the simple bęlg, bylg, bylig was used. The word is cognate with belly, there are similar words in Old Norse, Swedish, and Danish, but the derivation is not certain. Bellows appears not to be cognate with the apparently similar Latin follis, several processes, such as metallurgical iron smelting and welding, require so much heat that they could only be developed after the invention, in antiquity, of the bellows. The bellows are used to deliver air to the fuel, raising the rate of combustion. Various kinds of bellows are used in metallurgy, Box bellows were and are used in Asia. Pot bellows were used in ancient Egypt, accordion bellows, with the characteristic pleated sides, have been used in Europe for many centuries. Piston bellows were developed in the middle of the 18th century in Europe, however, the double action piston bellows were utilised by the Han rulers in ancient China as early as the 3rd century BC. Metal bellows were made to absorb axial movement in a dynamic condition, often referred to as Axial Dynamics bellows types. The Han Dynasty Chinese mechanical engineer Du Shi is credited with being the first to apply power, through a waterwheel. His invention was used to operate piston bellows of blast furnaces in order to forge cast iron, the ancient Greeks, ancient Romans, and other civilizations used bellows in bloomery furnaces producing wrought iron. Bellows are also used to send pressurized air in a manner in a fired heater. In modern industry, reciprocating bellows are usually replaced with motorized blowers and these bellows blow a more constant, and thus stronger, blast than simple bellows. Such bellows existed in China at least since the 5th century BC, when it was invented, a piston is enclosed in a rectangular box with a handle coming out one side. The piston edges are covered with feathers, fur, or soft paper to ensure that it is airtight and lubricated. As the piston is pulled, air from one side enters and flows through the nozzle and as it is pushed air enters from the opposite side, the middle leave is fixed in place
22.
Adobe
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Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
23.
Fan (machine)
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A fan is a machine used to create flow within a fluid, typically a gas such as air. The fan consists of an arrangement of vanes or blades which act on the fluid. The rotating assembly of blades and hub is known as an impeller, usually, it is contained within some form of housing or case. This may direct the airflow or increase safety by preventing objects from contacting the fan blades, most fans are powered by electric motors, but other sources of power may be used, including hydraulic motors and internal combustion engines. Fans produce flows with high volume and low pressure, as opposed to compressors which produce high pressures at a low volume. A fan blade will often rotate when exposed to a fluid stream, thus, fans may become ineffective at cooling the body if the surrounding air is near body temperature and contains high humidity. During periods of high heat and humidity, governments actually advise against the use of fans. The word fan comes from Middle English, winnowing fan, from Old English fann, the punkah fan was used in India about 500 BCE. It was a fan made from bamboo strips or other plant fibre. During British rule, the word came to be used by Anglo-Indians to mean a large swinging flat fan, fixed to the ceiling, and pulled by a servant, called the punkawallah. In the 17th century, the experiments of scientists like Otto von Guericke, Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle, established the principles of vacuum. The English architect Sir Christopher Wren applied an early system in the Houses of Parliament that used bellows to circulate air. Wrens design would be the catalyst for much improvement and innovation. The first rotary fan used in Europe was for mine ventilation during the 16th century, good ventilation was particularly important in coal mines to reduce casualties from asphyxiation. The civil engineer John Smeaton, and later John Buddle installed reciprocating air pumps in the mines in the North of England, however, this arrangement was not ideal as the machinery was liable to breaking down. With the advent of steam power, fans could finally be used for ventilation. In 1837 William Fourness of England installed a fan at Leeds. In 1849 a 6 m radius steam driven fan, designed by William Brunton, was operational in the Gelly Gaer Colliery of South Wales
24.
Auchentiber
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The hamlet of Auchentiber is in North Ayrshire, Parish of Kilwinning, Scotland. Auchentiber is 4 miles NE of Kilwinning on the Lochlibo Road,2.2 miles from the hamlet of Burnhouse and 2.6 miles from the village of Barrmill, some new housing has been built, but the settlement is still very much a hamlet. The settlement is on the Lugton Water, which runs into the River Garnock after running through Montgreenan, a lane branches off at Bloak Road Bridge which runs via several farms, past Clonbeith and thence to Irvine via Sevenacres. Spelt Auchintibber in 1879, Ainslies map of 1822 marks the site of the settlement with the spelling of Auchentiber. The name Achertybry is marked on Ponts map of 1604, and another similar name, the Stewarton area farms of this name are still extant and Pont states that the Achin-Tybers are the inheritance of the Earls of Cassillis. Armstrongs map of 1775, shows Auchentiber, Wardlaw and Redwells and this continued with Alexander Cunninghame, the commendator of the abbey in 1571 and third son of Alexander, fifth Earl of Glencairn. John Dene or Deyne is recorded on the date as heir to his father John of the 20s lands of Over-Auchentiber for 41 stone of cheese. On 4 October 1671, Janet and Agnes Murchland, are recorded as heirs of their grandfather, John Murchland in Cavan Miln, in 1640 Hew Montgomerie is recorded as owning Over-Auchentyber, with John Dean and his mother, Andro Mure and Robert Mure residing there. In 1876 the Auchentibers belonged to Robert Bruce Robertson Glasgow of Montgreenan, William Gemmell, Hugh Fleming, steven lists John & Alexander Ferguson, Alexander Wylie and Robert Duncan in 1842 as owners of the Auchentibers. An Inn with this name is marked on the 1860 OS map on the hand side of the road near Bentfauld farm. The 1895 does not name it as an inn, but does mark the inn at the position of the present day Blair Tavern, the 1925 OS marks the inn and this may explain why the name was taken up by many inns throughout the country. The name is derived from a ceremony the “Cleikum Celebrations. ”. A boy takes the part of the Patron Saint, a Cleik in Scots is a metal pole from which a pot was hung to heat over a fire. Mistress Dods was the landlady of the Cleikum Inn near Peebles which hosted the gatherings of the Cleikum Club, the aim of the club, which counted Sir Walter Scott among its members, was to celebrate our Scottish national literature. They certainly were among the first organisations to celebrate a Burns Night, mistress Dods was a superb cook and rigorous task-master. Staff and guests trembled before her and her major publication The Cooks and Housewifes Manual had the same iconic relationship to Scottish cuisine as that of Mrs Beaton to households south of the border. The name of the inn may reflect the popularity of Sir Walter Scotts novels at the time, the inn may have lost out to competition from the Blair Tavern or to Burnhouse which had several inns at one time. James Samuel Wyper was born on 24 October 1920, at Shettleston in Glasgow, jamess sister Margaret remained at the Inn nursing both her parents until their death
25.
Blacksmith
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A blacksmith is a metalsmith who creates objects from wrought iron or steel by forging the metal, using tools to hammer, bend, and cut. Blacksmiths produce objects such as gates, grilles, railings, light fixtures, furniture, sculpture, tools, agricultural implements, decorative and religious items, cooking utensils and weapons. The black in blacksmith refers to the black fire scale, a layer of oxides that forms on the surface of the metal during heating. The origin of smith is debated, it may come from the old English word smythe meaning to strike or it may have originated from the Proto-German smithaz meaning skilled worker. Blacksmiths work by heating pieces of iron or steel until the metal becomes soft enough for shaping with hand tools, such as a hammer, anvil. Heating generally takes place in a forge fueled by propane, natural gas, coal, charcoal, some modern blacksmiths may also employ an oxyacetylene or similar blowtorch for more localized heating. Induction heating methods are gaining popularity among modern blacksmiths, color is important for indicating the temperature and workability of the metal. As iron heats to higher temperatures, it first glows red, then orange, yellow, the ideal heat for most forging is the bright yellow-orange color that indicates forging heat. Because they must be able to see the color of the metal, some blacksmiths work in dim, low-light conditions. The key is to have consistent lighting, but not too bright, the techniques of smithing can be roughly divided into forging, welding, heat-treating, and finishing. Forging—the process smiths use to shape metal by hammering—differs from machining in that forging does not remove material, instead, the smith hammers the iron into shape. Even punching and cutting operations by smiths usually re-arrange metal around the hole, drawing lengthens the metal by reducing one or both of the other two dimensions. As the depth is reduced, or the width narrowed, the piece is lengthened or drawn out, as an example of drawing, a smith making a chisel might flatten a square bar of steel, lengthening the metal, reducing its depth but keeping its width consistent. Drawing does not have to be uniform, a taper can result as in making a wedge or a woodworking chisel blade. If tapered in two dimensions, a point results, drawing can be accomplished with a variety of tools and methods. Two typical methods using only hammer and anvil would be hammering on the anvil horn, another method for drawing is to use a tool called a fuller, or the peen of the hammer, to hasten the drawing out of a thick piece of metal. Fullering consists of hammering a series of indentations with corresponding ridges, the resulting effect looks somewhat like waves along the top of the piece. Then the smith turns the hammer over to use the face to hammer the tops of the ridges down level with the bottoms of the indentations
26.
Propane
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Propane is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8, a gas, at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is used as a fuel for engines, oxy-gas torches, portable stoves. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases, the others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof. Propane was first identified as a component in gasoline by Walter O. Snelling of the U. S. Bureau of Mines in 1910. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as wild because of the vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, the New York Times reported on Snellings work with liquefied gas and that a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks. It was during this time that Snelling, in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, together, they established American Gasol Co. the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25,1913, a separate method of producing LP gas through compression was created by Frank Peterson and its patent granted on July 2,1912. The 1920s saw increased production of LP gas, with the first year of recorded production totaling 223,000 US gallons in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached 1 million US gallons, and by 1935, major industry developments in the 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons, by 1947, 62% of all U. S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking. In 1950,1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority, in 2004 it was reported to be a growing $8-billion to $10-billion industry with over 15 billion US gallons of propane being used annually in the U. S. The prop- root found in propane and names of compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from propionic acid. Propane is produced as a by-product of two processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil. The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, about 90% of U. S. propane is domestically produced. The United States imports about 10% of the propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline, the remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport. After it is produced, North American propane is stored in salt caverns
27.
Natural gas
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It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
28.
Refractory
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A refractory material is a material that retains its strength at high temperatures. Refractory materials are used in linings for furnaces, kilns, incinerators and they are also used to make crucibles and moulds for casting glass and metals and for surfacing flame deflector systems for rocket launch structures. Today, the iron- and steel-industry uses approximately 70% of all refractories produced, refractory materials must be chemically and physically stable at high temperatures. Depending on the environment, they must be resistant to thermal shock, be chemically inert, and/or have specific ranges of thermal conductivity. The oxides of aluminium, silicon and magnesium are the most important materials used in the manufacturing of refractories, another oxide usually found in refractories is the oxide of calcium. Fire clays are also used in the manufacture of refractories. Refractories must be according to the conditions they face. Some applications require special refractory materials, zirconia is used when the material must withstand extremely high temperatures. Silicon carbide and carbon are two other materials used in some very severe temperature conditions, but they cannot be used in contact with oxygen, as they will oxidize. Binary compounds such as tungsten carbide or boron nitride can be very refractory, hafnium carbide is the most refractory binary compound known, with a melting point of 3890 °C. The ternary compound tantalum hafnium carbide has one of the highest melting points of all known compounds, Refractories can be classified on the basis of chemical composition, method of manufacture, physical form or according to their applications, fusion temperature. Acidic refractories consist of acidic materials like alumina and silica. They are generally not attacked or affected by acidic materials, and they include substances such as silica, alumina, and fire clay brick refractories. Notable reagents that can attack both alumina and silica are hydrofluoric acid, phosphoric acid, and fluorinated gases, at high temperatures, acidic refractories may also react with limes and basic oxides. These are used in areas where slags and atmosphere are either acidic or basic and are stable to both acids and bases. The main raw materials belong to, but are not confined to, common examples of these materials are alumina, chromia and carbon. These are used in areas where slags and atmosphere are basic, they are stable to alkaline materials, the main raw materials belong to the RO group to which magnesia is a very common example. Other examples include dolomite and chrome-magnesia, for the first half of the twentieth century, the steel making process used artificial periclase as a lining material for the furnace
29.
Ceramic
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A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic, solid material comprising metal, non-metal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. This article gives an overview of ceramic materials from the point of view of materials science, the crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, vitrified, and often completely amorphous. Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, varying crystallinity and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators. With such a range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic, the breadth of the subject is vast. Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family. The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects or figurines made from clay, either by itself or mixed with materials like silica, hardened, sintered. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products, as well as a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering. The word ceramic comes from the Greek word κεραμικός, of pottery or for pottery, from κέραμος, potters clay, tile, the earliest known mention of the root ceram- is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, workers of ceramics, written in Linear B syllabic script. The word ceramic may be used as an adjective to describe a material, product or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular, or, more commonly, as the plural noun ceramics. A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material, some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and they withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C. Glass is often not considered a ceramic because of its amorphous character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials. Traditional ceramic raw materials include minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide, both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are used in the medicine, electrical, electronics industries. Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a range of processing
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Venturi effect
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The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a constricted section of a pipe. The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista Venturi, an Italian physicist, thus any gain in kinetic energy a fluid may accrue due to its increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in pressure. By measuring the change in pressure, the rate can be determined, as in various flow measurement devices such as venturi meters, venturi nozzles. The limiting case of the Venturi effect is when a fluid reaches the state of choked flow, when a fluid system is in a state of choked flow, a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment will not lead to an increase in the mass flow rate. However, mass flow rate for a fluid can increase with increased upstream pressure. This is the principle of operation of a de Laval nozzle, the simplest apparatus, as shown in the photograph and diagram, is a tubular setup known as a Venturi tube or simply a venturi. Fluid flows through a length of pipe of varying diameter, to avoid undue aerodynamic drag, a Venturi tube typically has an entry cone of 30 degrees and an exit cone of 5 degrees. Venturi tubes are used in processes where permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, Venturi tubes are more expensive to construct than a simple orifice plate which uses the same principle as a tubular scheme, but the orifice plate causes significantly more permanent energy loss. Venturis are used in applications and in scientific laboratories for measuring the flow rate of liquids. A venturi can be used to measure the flow rate. At the end of the system, a mixture of liquid, see aspirator and pressure head for discussion of this type of siphon. As fluid flows through a venturi, the expansion and compression of the cause the pressure inside the venturi to change. This principle can be used in metrology for gauges calibrated for differential pressures and this type of pressure measurement may be more convenient, for example, to measure fuel or combustion pressures in jet or rocket engines. In fact, some gusts were so high that travel had to be aided by ropes. Venturi tubes are used to measure the speed of a fluid. Placing a liquid in a U-shaped tube and connecting the ends of the tubes to both ends of a Venturi is all that is needed. When the fluid flows though the Venturi the pressure in the two ends of the tube will differ, forcing the liquid to the low pressure side, the amount of that move can be calibrated to the speed of the fluid flow
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Coffee
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Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried, dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and brewed with boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage. Coffee is slightly acidic and can have an effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served, the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former, yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, from there, it spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Coffee is an export commodity, it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and is among the worlds largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing countries, green coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding. The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua, equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and coffee both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè and it has also been proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, the expression coffee break was first attested in 1952. The term coffee pot dates from 1705, other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle, Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab
32.
Fire brick
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A fire brick, firebrick, or refractory brick is a block of refractory ceramic material used in lining furnaces, kilns, fireboxes, and fireplaces. A refractory brick is built primarily to high temperature. In other, less harsh situations, such as in an electric or natural gas fired kiln, more porous bricks and they are weaker, but they are much lighter, easier to form, and insulate far better than dense bricks. In any case, firebricks should not spall, and their strength should hold up well during rapid temperature changes, in the making of firebrick, fireclay is fired in the kiln until it is partly vitrified, and for special purposes may also be glazed. There are two sizes of fire-brick, one is 9×4 1⁄2×3 inches and the other is 9×4 1⁄2×2 1⁄2 inches. Also available are firebrick splits which are half the thickness and are used to line wood stoves. The dimensions of a split are usually 9×4 1⁄2×1 1⁄4 inches, fire bricks have an Aluminium oxide content that can be as high as 50-80%. The silica firebricks that line steel-making furnaces are used at temperatures up to 1648°C, which would melt many other types of ceramic, high-temperature Reusable Surface Insulation, a material with the same composition, was used in the insulating tiles of the Space Shuttle. Non-ferrous metallurgical processes use basic refractory bricks because the used in these processes readily dissolve the acidic silica bricks. The most common basic refractory bricks using in smelting non-ferrous metal concentrates are chrome–magnesite or magnesite-chrome bricks, a range of other materials find use as firebricks for lower temperature applications. Magnesium oxide is used as a lining for furnaces. Silica bricks are the most common type of bricks used for the lining of furnaces. As the inner lining is usually of sacrificial nature, fire bricks of higher alumina content may be employed to lengthen the duration between re-linings, very often cracks can be seen in this sacrificial inner lining shortly after being put into operation. They revealed more expansion joints should have put in the first place. Silicon carbide, with high strength, is a popular material for hearths of incinerators and cremators. Common red clay brick are used for chimneys and wood-fired ovens
33.
Welding
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In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten material that cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than the base material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, although less common, there are also solid state welding processes such as friction welding or shielded active gas welding in which metal does not melt. Some of the best known welding methods include, Oxy-fuel welding - also known as oxyacetylene welding or oxy welding, uses fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals. Shielded metal arc welding – also known as stick welding or electric welding, the electrode holder holds the electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from atmospheric contamination, gas tungsten arc welding – also known as TIG, uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from contamination by an inert shielding gas such as argon or helium. Flux-cored arc welding – almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a special tubular wire filled with flux, it can be used with or without shielding gas, submerged arc welding – uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and a blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from contamination by being submerged under the flux blanket. Electroslag welding – a highly productive, single pass welding process for thicker materials between 1 inch and 12 inches in a vertical or close to vertical position. Electric resistance welding - a welding process that produces coalescence of laying surfaces where heat to form the weld is generated by the resistance of the material. In general, an efficient method, but limited to relatively thin material, many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often a process, welding may be performed in many different environments, including in open air, under water. Welding is an undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes. Until the end of the 19th century, the welding process was forge welding. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as the world wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Developments continued with the invention of laser welding, electron beam welding, magnetic pulse welding. Today, the continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods, the history of joining metals goes back several millennia
34.
Finery forge
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A finery forge is a hearth used to fine wrought iron, through the decarburization of the pig iron. The fining process involved liquifying cast iron in a fining hearth, Finery forges were used as early as 3rd century BC, based on archaeological evidence found at a site in Tieshengguo, China. The finery forge process was replaced by puddling process and the roller mill, in Europe, the concept of the finery forge may have been evident as early as the 13th century. The finery forge process began to be replaced in Europe from the late 18th century by others, of which puddling was the most successful, the new methods used mineral fuel, and freed the iron industry from its dependence on wood to make charcoal. There were several types of finery forges, the dominant type in Sweden was the German forge, which had a single hearth that was used for all processes. Its purity depended on the use of ore from the Dannemora mine, the Walloon forge was virtually the only kind used in Great Britain. The forge had two kinds of hearths, the finery to finish the product and the chafery to reheat the bloom that was the raw material of the process, in the finery, a workman known as the finer remelted pig iron so as to oxidise the carbon. This produced a lump of iron known as a bloom and this was consolidated using a water-powered hammer and returned to the finery. The next stages were undertaken by the hammerman, who in some iron-making areas such as South Yorkshire was also known as the stringsmith, in order to do this, he had to reheat the iron, for which he used the chafery. The fuel used in the finery had to be charcoal, as impurities in any mineral fuel would affect the quality of the iron, the waste product was allowed to cool in the hearth and removed as a mosser. In the Furness district they were left as the capstone of a wall, particularly near Spark Bridge. H. Schubert, History of British Iron and Steel Industry c.450 BC to AD1775, a. den Ouden, The Production of Wrought Iron in Finery Hearths, Historical Metallurgy 15, 63–87 and 16, 29–33. Hildebrand, Swedish Iron in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, Export Industry Before Industrialization, P. King, The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron, Trading in the Raw Material for Steel During the 18th century, Journal of Industrial History 6, 25–48. Media related to Finery forges at Wikimedia Commons
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Pig iron
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Pig iron is an intermediate product of the iron industry. Pig iron is made by smelting iron ore into an ingot of impure high carbon-content iron in a blast furnace as an ingredient for further processing steps. When the metal had cooled and hardened, the ingots were simply broken from the runner. As pig iron is intended for remelting, the size of the ingots. Smelting and producing pig iron and other products was known to the Ancient Egyptians. The Roman Empire and later the Muslim caliphates of the Middle Ages inherited and refined these technologies, because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe did not rediscover the process until the Late Middle Ages. The phase transition of the iron into liquid in the furnace was an avoided phenomenon, the Chinese were also making pig iron by the later Zhou Dynasty. Traditionally pig iron was worked into wrought iron in forges, later puddling furnaces. In these processes, pig iron is melted and a current of air is directed over it while it is stirred or agitated. This causes the dissolved impurities to be thoroughly oxidized, an intermediate product of puddling is known as refined pig iron, finers metal, or refined iron. Pig iron can also be used to produce gray iron and this is achieved by remelting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of steel and scrap iron, removing undesirable contaminants, adding alloys, and adjusting the carbon content. Some pig iron grades are suitable for producing ductile iron and these are high purity pig irons and depending on the grade of ductile iron being produced these pig irons may be low in the elements silicon, manganese, sulfur and phosphorus. These types of pig irons are used to all the elements in a ductile iron charge which may be harmful to the ductile iron process. Earlier processes for this included the finery forge, the furnace, the Bessemer process. Modern pig casting machines produce stick pigs, which break into smaller 4–10 kg piglets at discharge
36.
Wrought iron
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Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to cast iron. It is a mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions which gives it a grain resembling wood. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily welded, before the development of effective methods of steelmaking and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the most common form of malleable iron. A wrought product is one that has been worked by forging, extruding, rolling, hammering, etcetera, to change its form. Wrought iron is a worked iron product that is seldom produced today as other cheaper. Historically, a modest amount of iron was refined into steel. The demand for wrought iron reached its peak in the 1860s with the adaptation of ironclad warships, however, as properties such as brittleness of mild steel improved, it became less costly and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined. Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, many products described as wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture and gates, are actually made of mild steel. They retain that description because they are made to resemble objects which in the past were wrought by hand by a blacksmith, the word wrought is an archaic past participle of the verb to work, and so wrought iron literally means worked iron. Wrought iron is a term for the commodity, but is also used more specifically for finished iron goods. It was used in that sense in British Customs records. Cast iron, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold, Cast iron can break if struck with a hammer. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a variety of terms according to its form, origin. While the bloomery process produced wrought iron directly from ore, cast iron or pig iron were the materials used in the finery forge. Pig iron and cast iron have higher content than wrought iron. Cast and especially pig iron have excess slag which must be at least partially removed to produce quality wrought iron, at foundries it was common to blend scrap wrought iron with cast iron to improve the physical properties of castings. Fusion eventually became accepted as relatively more important than composition below a given low carbon concentration. Another difference is that steel can be hardened by heat treating, historically, wrought iron was known as commercially pure iron, however, it no longer qualifies because current standards for commercially pure iron require a carbon content of less than 0.008 wt%
37.
Hammer
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A hammer is a tool or device that delivers a blow to an object. Most hammers are hand tools used to drive nails, fit parts, forge metal, hammers vary in shape, size, and structure, depending on their purposes. Hammers are basic tools in many trades, the usual features are a head and a handle. Although most hammers are hand tools, powered versions exist, they are known as powered hammers, types of power hammer include steam hammers and trip hammers, often for heavier uses, such as forging. Some hammers have other names, such as sledgehammer, mallet, the term hammer also applies to devices that deliver blows, such as the hammer of a firearm or the hammer of a piano or the hammer ice scraper. The use of simple hammers dates to about 2,600,000 BCE when various shaped stones were used to strike wood, bone, or other stones to break them apart and shape them. Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used as hammers with handles by about 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic Stone Age. The hammers archeological record shows that it may be the oldest tool for which evidence exists of its early existence. A traditional hand-held hammer consists of a head and a handle, fastened together by means of a special wedge made for the purpose, or by glue. This two-piece design is used, to combine a dense metallic striking head with a non-metallic mechanical-shock-absorbing handle. If wood is used for the handle, it is often hickory or ash, rigid fiberglass resin may be used for the handle, this material does not absorb water or decay, but does not dissipate shock as well as wood. A loose hammer head is hazardous because it can fly off the handle when in use. Wooden handles can often be replaced when worn or damaged, specialized kits are available covering a range of sizes and designs. Some hammers are one-piece designs made primarily of a single material, a one-piece metallic hammer may optionally have its handle coated or wrapped in a resilient material such as rubber, for improved grip and reduced user fatigue. The hammer head may be surfaced with a variety of materials, including brass, bronze, wood, plastic, rubber, some hammers have interchangeable striking surfaces, which can be selected as needed or replaced when worn out. A large hammer-like tool is a maul, a wood- or rubber-headed hammer is a mallet, the essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver a blow to the intended target without itself deforming. The impacting surface of the tool is usually flat or slightly rounded, some upholstery hammers have a magnetized face, to pick up tacks. In the hatchet, the hammer head may be secondary to the cutting edge of the tool
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Ball-peen hammer
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A ball-peen hammer, also known as a machinists hammer, is a type of peening hammer used in metalworking. It is distinguished from a hammer, diagonal-peen hammer, point-peen hammer. It is commonly used as a tool for metalworking, though the process of peening has become rarer in metal fabrication, the ball-peen hammer remains useful for many tasks, such as striking punches and chisels. The peening face is useful for rounding off edges of metal pins and fasteners, the ball face of the hammer can also be used to make gaskets for mating surfaces. A suitable gasket material is held over the surface where a corresponding gasket is desired, variants include the straight-peen, diagonal-peen, and cross-peen hammer. These hammers have a wedge-shaped head instead of a ball-shaped head and this wedge shape spreads the metal perpendicular to the edge of the head. The straight-peen hammer has the wedge oriented parallel to the handle, while the cross-peen hammers wedge is oriented perpendicular. The diagonal-peen hammers head, as the name implies, is at a 45° angle from the handle and they are commonly used by blacksmiths during the forging process to deliver blows for forging or to strike other forging tools. Ball-peen hammer heads are made of heat treated forged high-carbon steel or alloy steel. Softer brass heads are sometimes used, related soft-faced hammers have heads faced with materials such as brass, lead, tightly wound rawhide, or plastic, although these faces are usually flat, not in a ball or wedge peen shape. These hammers usually have replaceable heads or faces, because they will deform, wear out and they are used to prevent damage to a struck surface, and are graded by the weight of the head and by hardness of the striking face. Benford, Tom, Garage and Workshop Gear Guide, MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company, szymborska, Walter, The Big Book of Self-Reliant Living, Advice and Information on Just About Everything You Need to Know to Live on Planet Earth, Globe Pequot, ISBN 1-59228-043-9
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Chisel
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The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or of wood with a sharp edge in it. Chiselling use involves forcing the blade into some material to cut it, the driving force may be applied by pushing by hand, or by using a mallet or hammer. In industrial use, a ram or falling weight drives a chisel into the material. A gouge, one type of chisel, serves - particularly in woodworking, woodturning, gouges most frequently produce concave surfaces. A gouge typically has a U-shaped cross-section, chisel comes from the Old French cisel, modern ciseau, Late Latin cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut. Chisels have a variety of uses. Many types of chisel have been devised, each suited to its intended use. Different types of chisel may be constructed differently, in terms of blade width or length, as well as shape. They may have a wooden or plastic handle attached using a tang or socket, woodworking chisels range from small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used to remove big sections of wood, in roughing out the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, one of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. There are many types of woodworking chisels used for specific purposes, such as, Butt chisel, short chisel with beveled sides and straight edge for creating joints. Carving chisels, used for designs and sculpting, cutting edges are many, such as gouge, skew, parting, straight, paring. Corner chisel, resembles a punch and has an L-shaped cutting edge, cleans out square holes, mortises and corners with 90 degree angles. Bevel edge chisel, can get into acute angles with its bevelled edges, flooring chisel, cuts and lifts flooring materials for removal and repair, ideal for tongue-and-groove flooring. Framing chisel, usually used with mallet, similar to a chisel, except it has a longer. Slick, a large chisel driven by pressure, never struck. Mortise chisel, thick, rigid blade with cutting edge and deep, slightly tapered sides to make mortises. Paring chisel, has a long blade ideal for cleaning grooves, skew chisel, has a 60 degree cutting angle and is used for trimming and finishing
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Fuller (metalworking)
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In metalworking, a fuller is a tool used to form metal when hot. The fuller has a rounded, either cylindrical or parabolic, nose, the shank of the lower fuller allows the fuller to be inserted into the hardy hole of the anvil. Upper fullers furthermore come in straight or cross varieties, depending on the orientation of the relative to the face. The fuller is used mainly to spread the metal, the fuller is placed against the metal stock, and then either the fuller or the stock is struck with a hammer. The rounded nose of the fuller spreads the metal more efficiently than the face of the hammer. The process leaves ridges in the stock, which may then be flattened out later with the hammer or other tools, fuller, a groove on a blade often created by fullering Fullers and fullering
41.
Hardy tool
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Hardy tools, also known as anvil tools or bottom tools, are metalworking tools used in anvils. A hardy has a shank, which prevents it from rotating when placed in the anvils hardy hole. The term hardy, used alone, refers to a hot cutting chisel used in the hole of the anvil. Other bottom tools are identified by function, typical hardy tools include chisels and bending drifts. They are generally used with a matching top tool, different hardy tools are used to form and cut metal. The swage is used to make metal round for use as nails, bolts. The fuller is used to bend metal, and make dents. The Complete Bladesmith, Forging Your Way to Perfection
42.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
43.
Quenching
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In materials science, quenching is the rapid cooling of a workpiece to obtain certain material properties. A type of heat treating, quenching prevents undesired low-temperature processes, such as phase transformations, in steel alloyed with metals such as nickel and manganese, the eutectoid temperature becomes much lower, but the kinetic barriers to phase transformation remain the same. This allows quenching to start at a temperature, making the process much easier. High speed steel also has added tungsten, which serves to raise kinetic barriers, even cooling such alloys slowly in air has most of the desired effects of quenching. Extremely rapid cooling can prevent the formation of all crystal structure, if the percentage of carbon is less than 0.4 percent, quenching is not possible. Quench hardening is a process in which steel and cast iron alloys are strengthened and hardened. These metals consist of metals and alloys. This is done by heating the material to a certain temperature and this produces a harder material by either surface hardening or through-hardening varying on the rate at which the material is cooled. The material is often tempered to reduce the brittleness that may increase from the quench hardening process. Items that may be quenched include gears, shafts, and wear blocks, pearlite is not an ideal material for many common applications of steel alloys, as it is quite soft. Steels with this Martensitic structure are used in applications when the workpiece must be highly resistant to deformation. The process of quenching is a progression, beginning with heating the sample, most materials are heated to between 815 and 900 °C, with careful attention paid to keeping temperatures throughout the workpiece uniform. Minimizing uneven heating and overheating is key to imparting desired material properties, the second step in the quenching process is soaking. Workpieces can be soaked in air, a bath, or a vacuum. The recommended time allocation in salt or lead baths is up to 6 minutes, soaking times can range a little higher within a vacuum. As in the step, it is important that the temperature throughout the sample remains as uniform as possible during soaking. Once the workpiece has finished soaking, it moves on to the cooling step, during this step, the part is submerged into some kind of quenching fluid, different quenching fluids can have a significant effect on the final characteristics of a quenched part. Water is one of the most efficient quenching media where maximum hardness is desired, when hardness can be sacrificed, mineral oils are often used
44.
Oil
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An oil is any neutral, nonpolar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at ambient temperatures and is both hydrophobic and lipophilic. Oils have a carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable. The general definition of oil includes classes of compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin and they are used for food, fuel, medical purposes, lubrication, and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in religious ceremonies and rituals as purifying agents. First attested in English 1176, the oil comes from Old French oile, from Latin oleum, which in turn comes from the Greek ἔλαιον, olive oil, oil. The earliest attested forms of the word are the Mycenaean Greek
45.
Brine
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Brine is a solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3. 5% up to about 26%, fahrenheit could reliably reproduce by freezing brine. By reference, seawater usually freezes at −2 °C, at 100 °C, saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At 0 °C, brine can only hold about 26% salt, the thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C. The majority of hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine. 2 NaCl +2 H2O →2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2 Brine is a fluid used in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy from place to place. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine is −21.1 °C at 23. 3wt% NaCl and this is called the eutectic point. In lower temperatures, a solution can be used to de-ice or reduce freezing temperatures on roads. In cooking, brine is used for food brining and salting, in hydrology, brine is a form of salt water, namely, water with relatively high concentration of salt. Brine mining Saline water Brackish water
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