1.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
2.
Eastern Norway
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Eastern Norway is the geographical region of the south-eastern part of Norway. It consists of the counties Telemark, Vestfold, Østfold, Akershus, Oslo, Buskerud, Oppland, eastern Norway is by far the most populous region of Norway. It contains the capital, Oslo, which is Norways most populous city. In Norwegian, the region is called Østlandet and Austlandet in contrast to Vestlandet, as of 2010, the region had 2,454,700 inhabitants. In 2014, Norways population was 5,156,450, the region is bounded by mountains in the north and west, the Swedish border to the east and by Viken and Skagerrak to the south. The border towards Sørlandet is less obvious, the mountains reach a height of 2469 metres in the Jotunheimen mountain range, the highest point in the Nordic countries. Other prominent mountain ranges include part of the Dovrefjell in the far north of the region, the high plateau of Hardangervidda extends into Western Norway. Valleys cut deep into the mountains, from east to west the valleys are Østerdal, Gudbrandsdal, Valdres, Hallingdal, Numedal. Østerdalen is surrounded by mostly flat areas of forests. The population density in the flatlands is the highest in the nation, numerous islands shelter the coasts, creating a paradise for swimmers and boaters in the summer. The Norwegian dialects spoken in the south-east share a common intonation, the dialects of the interior mountainous areas are all distinct. The dialects of the areas are more similar to the written language. The eastern forests of Finnskogen were the home of an ethnic minority and their language and culture was preserved into the 20th century, but now only folk tunes and food specialities remain. The southernmost group of Norways Sami population is to be found in the north-eastern corner, the culture of mountain valleys is preserved to a greater degree than the more urbanized metropolitan areas. The area is distinguished with traditional architecture, like churches and lafting, folk music. Some are concerned for the loss of culture in the face of modernization. It is common to see moose warning signs missing from their posts and this is of course illegal, and can result in a fine. The coastal region is populated both by Norwegian and European standards
3.
Counties of Norway
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Norway is divided into 19 administrative regions, called counties, until 1918, they were known as amter. The counties form the first-level subdivisions of Norway and are divided into 428 municipalities. Svalbard and Jan Mayen are outside the county division and ruled directly on national level, the capital Oslo is considered both a county and a municipality. In 2017 the government decided to abolish the current counties and to them with fewer, larger administrative regions. Below is a list of the Norwegian counties as they have been since 1919, note that the counties are administered both by appointees of the national government and to a lesser extent by their own elected bodies. The county numbers are from the numbering system ISO 3166-2, NO. The number 13 was dropped from the system when the city of Bergen was merged into Hordaland in 1972, from the consolidation to a single kingdom, Norway was divided into a number of geographic regions that had its own legislative assembly or Thing, such as Gulating and Frostating. The second-order subdivision of these regions was into fylker, such as Egdafylke and Hordafylke, in 1914, the historical term fylke was brought into use again to replace the term amt introduced during the union with Denmark. Current day counties often, but not necessarily, correspond to the historical areas. Finnmark, the Faroe Islands, the Orkney Islands, Shetland, the Hebrides, Isle of Man, Iceland and Greenland were Norwegian skattland, from the end of the 12th century, Norway was divided into several syssel. The head of the various syssel was the syslemann, who represented the king locally, the following shows a reconstruction of the different syssel in Norway c. 1300, including sub-syssel where these seem established, from 1308, the term len in Norway signified an administrative region roughly equivalent to todays counties. The historic len was an important administrative entity during the period of Dano-Norwegian unification after their amalgamation as one state, which lasted for the period 1536–1814. At the beginning of the 16th century the political divisions were variable, up to 1660 the four principal len were headquartered at the major fortresses Bohus Fortress, Akershus Fortress, Bergenhus Fortress and the fortified city of Trondheim. The sub-regions corresponded to the districts for the Lutheran church in Norway. Båhus len Akershus len Trondheim len Bergenhus len These four principal len were in the 1530s divided into approximately 30 smaller regions. From that point forward through the beginning of the 17th century the number of subsidiary len was reduced, from 1660 Norway had nine principal len comprising 17 subsidiary len, Len written as län continues to be used as the administrative equivalent of county in Sweden to this day. Each len was governed by a lenman, with the royal decree of February 19,1662, each len was designated an amt and the lenmann was titled amtmann, from German Amt, reflecting the bias of the Danish court of that period
4.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
5.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
6.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
7.
Oslo Airport, Fornebu
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Oslo Airport, Fornebu was the main airport serving Oslo and Eastern Norway from 1 June 1939 to 7 October 1998. It was then replaced by Oslo Airport, Gardermoen and the area has since been redeveloped, the airport was located at Fornebu in Bærum,8 kilometres from the city center. Fornebu had two runways, one 2, 370-metre 06/24 and one 1,800 metres 01/19, in 1996, the airport had 170,823 aircraft movements and 10,072,054 passengers. The airport served as a hub for Scandinavian Airlines System, Braathens SAFE, in 1996, they and 21 other airlines served 28 international destinations. Due to limited terminal and runway capacity, intercontinental and charter airlines used Gardermoen, the Royal Norwegian Air Force retained offices at Fornebu. The airport opened as a sea and land airport, serving both domestic and international destinations. It replaced the airport at Kjeller and the sea airport at Gressholmen. In 1940, it was taken over by the German Luftwaffe, the airport at first had three runways, each at 800 metres, but these were gradually expanded, first the north–south runway and finally the east–west one to the current length in 1962. The same year the terminal moved south to the final location, a large-scale expansion to the terminal was made during the 1980s. At the time of closing, the airport consisted of a terminal with three satellites, two domestic and one international. The service building had three stories, one for arrival, one for departure and one for administration. Airplane capacity at the airport was 20 craft, five planes parked at the terminal could be served with jetbridges. The airport terminals were 36,000 square metres, of which 16,000 square metres were for the public, in the main hall of the terminal were two murals made by Kai Fjell, both which have been preserved. The largest was the 310-square-metre Arrival and Departure which was completed in 1968, at the north part of the airport, located where the former main terminal was until 1964, were the offices of the Air Force and Fred. Olsen Airtransport, the hangar for Braathens SAFE, as well as mechanical facilities for SAS. The fire station and snowplowing facilities were located there, along with the main radar center. All the terminal buildings built until the early 1960s were still intact until the closing of the airport, in 1989, about 5,500 people worked at Fornebu. Of these,3,600 worked for the airlines, including ground services, the airport administration had 350 employees, including administration, air control, fire fighters, meteorology and maintenance
8.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
9.
Oslo Airport, Gardermoen
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Oslo Airport is the main international airport serving Oslo, the capital of and most populous city in Norway. Oslo is also served by the low-cost Torp airport, Oslo Airport is the main domestic hub and international airport for Norway, and is the second-busiest airport in the Nordic countries. A hub for Scandinavian Airlines, a base for Norwegian Air Shuttle. Almost 26 million passengers traveled through the airport in 2016, making it the nineteenth-busiest airport in Europe, the airport is located 19 nautical miles northeast of Oslo, at Gardermoen in the municipality of Ullensaker, in Akershus county. It has two parallel roughly north–south runways measuring 3,600 metres and 2,950 metres and 71 aircraft stands, the airport is connected to the city center by the high-speed railway Gardermoen Line served by mainline trains and Flytoget. The percentage of using public transport to get to and from the airport is one of the highest in the world at nearly 70%. The ground facilities are owned by Oslo Lufthavn AS, a subsidiary of the state-owned Avinor, also at the premises is Gardermoen Air Station, operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force. An expansion with a new building and a third pier is scheduled to open in 2017. Oslo Airport is the largest and busiest of three international airports located around Oslo. The airport location was first used by the Norwegian Army from 1940, the Norwegian army started using Gardermoen as a camp in 1740, although it was called Fredericksfeldt until 1788. It was first used by the cavalry, then by the dragoons, the base was also taken into use by the infantry from 1834 and by the artillery from 1860. Tents were solely used until 1860, when the first barracks, insulated buildings were built around 1900, allowing the camp to be used year-round. By 1925, the base had eleven camps and groups of buildings, the first flight at Gardermoen happened in 1912, and Gardermoen became a station for military flights. However, only fields and dirt surfaces were used, during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe took over Gardermoen, and built the first proper airport facilities with hangars and two crossing runways, both 2,000 metres long. After World War II, the airport was taken over by the Norwegian Air Force, three fighter and one transport squadron were stationed at the Gardermoen. In 1946, Braathens SAFE established their base at the airport. Gardermoen also became the airport for Oslo Airport, Fornebu. From 1946 to 1952, when a runway was built at Fornebu
10.
Information technology
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Information technology is the application of computers to store, study, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. IT is considered a subset of information and communications technology, the term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are associated with technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that the new technology not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology, based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development, pre-mechanical, mechanical, electromechanical, electronic. This article focuses on the most recent period, which began in about 1940, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick. Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s, the electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the worlds first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. Colossus, developed during the Second World War to decrypt German messages was the first electronic digital computer, although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory, programming was carried out using plugs, the first recognisably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948. The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, by comparison the first transistorised computer, developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version. Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes. IBM introduced the first hard drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system. Most digital data today is stored magnetically on hard disks. Until 2002 most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007 almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally, 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007. Database management systems emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly, one of the earliest such systems was IBMs Information Management System, which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later
11.
Telecommunication
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Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
12.
Telenor
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Telenor Group is a Norwegian mostly government-owned multinational telecommunications company headquartered at Fornebu in Bærum, close to Oslo. It is one of the worlds largest mobile telecommunications companies with operations in Scandinavia, Eastern Europe and it has extensive broadband and TV distribution operations in four Nordic Countries, and a 10-year-old research and business line for Machine-to-Machine technology. Telenor owns networks in 13 countries, and has operations in 29 countries if their 33% ownership in VimpelCom Ltd is included, Telenor started off in 1855 as a state-operated monopoly provider of telegraph services named Telegrafverket. Televerket began by connecting Christiania to Sweden as well as Christiania, by 1857 the telegraph had reached Bergen on the west coast via Sørlandet on the south coast, and by 1871 it had reached Kirkenes on the far north coast. Cable connections were opened to Denmark in 1867 and to Great Britain in 1869, the telegraph was most important for the merchant marine who now could use the electric telegraph to instantly communicate between different locations, and get a whole new advantage within logistics. The first telephone service in Norway was offered in 1878 between Arendal and Tvedestrand, while the first international service between Christiania and Stockholm was offered in 1893. Automation of the system was started in 1920 and completed in 1985. In 1946 the first Telex service was offered, and in 1976 satellite telephone connections to oil platforms in the North Sea were installed, in 1980 the first steps to digitalise the telephone network were taken. Televerket opened its first manual telephone system in 1966, being replaced with the automatic NMT system in 1981. Norway was the first country in Europe to get a mobile telephone system. The digital GSM system came into use in 1993, the third generation of mobile technology with UMTS system began full operation 2004. The Opera web browser was created in 1994 by Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner, Opera Software was established in 1995 after the pair went on to continue development of their browser. Telenor and Huawei Conducted a Successful Test of 5G with 70 Gbps Speeds in Lab environment. The corporation changed its name to Televerket in 1969, in 1994, the then Norwegian Telecom was established as a public corporation. The authorities wanted to deregulate the telecom sector in Norway, an attempt to merge Telenor with its counterpart in Sweden, Telia, failed in 1999, while both still were owned by their respective governments. On December 4,2000 the company was privatised and listed on Oslo Stock Exchange. The privatisation gave the company NOK15,6 billion in new capital, as of 2014, the Norwegian government holds 53. 97% of the Telenor shares directly and another 4. 66% through the Pension Fund. Operations in Greece, Ireland and Germany were sold in 1999/2000, in October 2005 Telenor acquired Vodafone Sweden, changing the name to Telenor in April 2006. On 31 July 2006, Telenor acquired 100 per cent share of mobile operator Mobi 63, Telenor offers a full range of telecommunication services in Norway, including mobile and fixed telephony as well as Internet access and content
13.
Scandinavian Airlines
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Scandinavian Airlines, often shortened to SAS is the flag carrier of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, and the largest airline in Scandinavia. Part of the SAS Group and headquartered at the SAS Frösundavik Office Building in Solna, Sweden, the airlines main hub is at Copenhagen-Kastrup Airport, with connections to over 50 cities in Europe. Stockholm-Arlanda Airport and Oslo Airport, Gardermoen are the major hubs. Minor hubs also exist at Bergen Airport, Flesland, Göteborg Landvetter Airport, Stavanger Airport, Sola and Trondheim Airport, SAS Cargo is an independent, wholly owned subsidiary of Scandinavian Airlines and its main office is at Copenhagen Airport. In 2012, SAS carried 25.9 million passengers, achieving revenues of SEK36 billion and this makes it the eighth-largest airline in Europe. The SAS fleet consists of Airbus A319, A320, A321, A330 and A340, Boeing 737 Next Generation, in addition, SAS also wetleases ATR72, Saab 2000 and Bombardier CRJ900 aircraft. The airline was founded in 1946 as a consortium to pool the operations of Svensk Interkontinental Lufttrafik, Det Norske Luftfartselskap. The consortium was extended to cover European and domestic cooperation two years later, in 1951, all the airlines were merged to create SAS. SAS is also one of the members of the worlds largest alliance. Operations started on 17 September 1946, in 1948 the Swedish flag carrier AB Aerotransport joined SAS and the companies coordinated European operations and finally merged to form the SAS Consortium in 1951. When established, the airline was divided between SAS Danmark, SAS Norge and SAS Sverige, all owned 50% by private investors, in 1954 SAS was the first airline to start scheduled flights on a polar route. The DC-6B flew from Copenhagen to Los Angeles, California, United States with stops in Søndre Strømfjord, Greenland, by summer 1956 frequency had increased to three flights per week. It was popular with Hollywood celebrities and film people. Thanks to a structure that allowed free transit to other European destinations via Copenhagen. In 1957 SAS started a second polar route when a DC-7C flew from Copenhagen to Tokyo, Japan, SAS publicized this service as round-the-world service over the North Pole. SAS entered the jet age in 1959 when the Caravelle entered service, in 1971, SAS put its first Boeing 747 jumbo jet into service. In 1989, SAS acquired 18. 4% of Texas Air Corporation, parent company of Continental Airlines, during the 1990s, SAS also bought a 20% stake in British Midland. SAS bought 95% of Spanair, the second largest airline in Spain, in May 1997 SAS formed the global Star Alliance network with Air Canada, Lufthansa, Thai Airways International and United Airlines
14.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
15.
Shed
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A shed is typically a simple, single-storey roofed structure in a back garden or on an allotment that is used for storage, hobbies, or as a workshop. Sheds used on farms or in industry can be large structures, the main types of shed construction are metal sheathing over a metal frame, plastic sheathing and frame, all-wood construction, and vinyl-sided sheds built over a wooden frame. A culture of shed enthusiasts exists in countries for people who enjoy building sheds. In Australia and New Zealand there are magazines called The Shed, an association for shed hobbyists, depending on the region and type of use, a shed may also be called an outhouse, outbuilding or shack. The simplest and least-expensive sheds are available in kit form and these kits are designed for regular people to be able to assemble themselves using commonly available tools. Both shed kits and DIY plans are available for wooden and plastic sheds, Sheds are used to store home and garden tools and equipment such as lawn tractors, and gardening supplies. In addition, sheds can be used to store items that are not suitable for storage, such as petrol, pesticides. For homes with gardens or modest storage needs, there are several types of very small sheds. The sheds not only use less ground area but also have a low profile less likely to obstruct the view or clash with the landscaping and these small sheds include corner sheds, which fit into a corner, vertical sheds, horizontal sheds, and tool sheds. When a shed is used for storage, shelves and hooks are often used to maximize the storage space. Gambrel-style roofed sheds, which resemble a Dutch-style barn, have a sloping roofline which increases storage space in the loft area. Some Gambrel-styles have no loft and offer the advantage of reduced overall height, another style of small shed is the saltbox-style shed. Many sheds have either a pent or apex roof shape, a pent shed features a single roof section which is angled downwards to let rainwater run off, with more headroom at the front than the back. This is a simple, practical design that will fit particularly well next to a wall or fence and it is also usually lower than the typical apex shed, so could be a better choice if there are any height restrictions. A pent shed may be free-standing or attached to a wall, an apex shed has a pointed roof in an inverted V shape similar to the roof line of many houses. Two roof sections meet at a ridge in the middle, providing more headroom in the centre than at the sides and this type is generally regarded as a more attractive and traditional design, and may be preferable if the shed is going to be visible from the house. A twist on the standard apex shape is the reverse apex shed, in this design, the door is set in a side wall instead of the front. The main advantage of the reverse design is that the door opens into the widest part of the shed instead of the narrowest
16.
Diamanten
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Diamanten or Oksenøyveien 3 is an office building located at Fornebu in Bærum, Norway. It was built in 1985 as the office of the airline Braathens SAFE. As of April 1,2010, it has been the office of Norwegian Air Shuttle. The building is 12,900 square metres, of office space accounts for 10,200 square metres. It runs over three stories and has 177 parking spaces and it has a glass façade and is built in a postmodernist style, with the various annexes shaped like diamonds. When Braathens SAFE was informed they had to leave their offices at Ruseløkkveien 26. Diamanten was taken into use on 16 December 1985 and was opened in January 1986 by Minister of Transport. The building was expanded in 1997, after Scandinavian Airlines System and Braathens merged to create SAS Braathens, Diamanten became the new companys headquarters. From 2007, when SAS Braathens was merged into SAS, it became SAS head office in Norway, SAS rented the building for NOK1,300 per square meter per month, giving a rental cost of NOK17.4 million in 2009. After SAS decided to reduce its Norwegian administration from 300 to 100 people, on 24 February 2010, Norwegian Property announced that they had sold the building to HKB Invest, which is 84% owned by Bjørn Kjos, the largest owner and CEO of Norwegian Air Shuttle. The building cost NOK175 million, giving a yield of 8%, at the same time, Norwegian Air Shuttle announced that they would move their head office from various offices at Fornebu to Diamanten. The rental agreement has a duration of ten years, with an option to extend for five years
17.
Norwegian Air Shuttle
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The airline is known for its distinctive livery of white with a red nose, with individual portraits of noteworthy Scandinavians on the tail fins of its aircraft. Norwegian launched its operation in May 2013. Norwegian Air Shuttle was founded on 22 January 1993 to take over the regional airline services produced by Busy Bee for Braathens in Western Norway, Busy Bee, founded in 1966, was a subsidiary of Braathens that operated a fleet of Fokker 50 aircraft on charter services. This included the network of services between cities on the west coast of Norway operated on wet lease for the mother company. The company was established and owned by former Busy Bee employees and it was based in Bergen, but later established a technical base in Stavanger. From 1 April 1994, the airline began service from Bergen to Ålesund Airport. In 1995, the received its fourth Fokker 50s, and had a revenue of NOK86.6 million. By 1999, the company had six Fokker 50s and flew 500,000 passengers on 20,000 flights, the company had a revenue of NOK172 million and a profit of NOK13 million. On 2 June 2000, NAS bought the helicopter operator Lufttransport from Helikopter Service, in 2000, the NAS fleet was expanded to seven Fokker 50s. From 2 January 2001, several Braathens routes were terminated, including the NAS-operated services from Kristiansund to Trondheim, the route from Bergen to Haugesund, and Bergen–Molde–Trondheim were reduced. On 7 January 2002, NAS took over the responsibility for the route from Stavanger to Newcastle and this was the first route on which the airline did not wet lease the aircraft to Braathens, but instead operated the route in its own right. NAS had an 18-month cancellation period in its contract with Braathens, however this was not respected by SAS, from 1 September 2002, the airline re-branded as Norwegian. The airline opened its hub at Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport in Poland. There were two Boeing 737 operating from Warsaw, the base was closed in 2010. Norwegian Air Shuttle ASA announced 24 April 2007 that it had bought 100% of the Swedish low-cost airline FlyNordic from Finnair plc, as payment for the shares in FlyNordic, Finnair received a 5% share stake in Norwegian. On 30 August 2007, Norwegian ordered 42 new Boeing 737-800 aircraft, with options for 42 more and this order was later increased by six aircraft in November 2009. In July 201015 of the options were converted to orders, additionally, Norwegian introduced leased Boeing 737-800 aircraft into the fleet. The first leased 737-800 arrived at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, Norway, in April 2010, Norwegian started flights from Oslo-Gardermoen and Stockholm to Helsinki-Vantaa Airport
18.
Statoil
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Statoil ASA, is a Norwegian multinational oil and gas company headquartered in Stavanger, Norway. It is a fully integrated petroleum company operations in thirty-six countries. By revenue, Statoil is ranked by Forbes Magazine as the eleventh largest oil and gas company. The company has about 23,000 employees, Statoil was formed by the 2007 merger of Statoil with the oil and gas division of Norsk Hydro. As of 2013, the Government of Norway is the largest shareholder in Statoil with 67% of the shares, the ownership interest is managed by the Norwegian Ministry of Petroleum and Energy. The company is headquartered and led from Stavanger, while most of their operations are currently led from Fornebu. Statoil is the largest operator on the Norwegian continental shelf, with 60% of the total production, the company also has processing plants at Kolsnes, Kårstø, Mongstad, Tjeldbergodden, and Melkøya. Statoil has offices that are looking for possible ventures in the countries of Mexico, Qatar, the company has processing plants in Belgium, Denmark, France, and Germany. In 2006, Statoil was given approval to implement the worlds largest carbon sequestration project as a means to mitigate carbon emissions to the atmosphere, in September 2007, Statoil and the Brazilian oil company Petrobras signed a deal aimed at expanding exploration, sub-sea, and biofuels cooperation. After the merger with Hydro, Statoil became a partner in Brazils offshore Peregrino oil field, under the agreement Statoil became a partner on six offshore licenses, as well as expanding biofuels production. Petrobras and Statoil announced plans to create dozens of refineries in Brazil, on 4 March 2008, Statoil bought Anadarko Petroleum Corporations 50% share of the Peregrino oil field for 1.8 billion USD. At the time of acquiring the license, the recovery factor was estimated to be 9%. However, with the current reservoir depletion plan of the calling for the use of produced water injection and rock compaction. On 24 May 2010, Statoil sold a 40% stake in the Peregrino field to Sinochem, the Chinese state-controlled oil company, for a sum of $3.07 billion, but retained 60%. On 7 April 2010, Statoil announced finding oil and gas reserves in the Fossekall prospect just north of the Norne oil field in the Norwegian Sea. In May 2010, Noble Energy, Inc. operator of the Deep Blue exploration well on Green Canyon 723 in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico successfully reached a depth of 32,684 feet, Statoil holds a 15.625 per cent interest in the Deep Blue well. In April 2011, Statoil announced a new find at the Skrugard prospect in the northern Norwegian Sea north of the Snøhvit field off Hammerfest. The find was seen as a key find as it could lead to more finds in the region, in September 2011 the company announced a large new find at its Aldous Major South prospect on the Norwegian continental shelf
19.
NorgesGruppen
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NorgesGruppen ASA is a Norwegian grocery wholesaling group which also runs various retail outlets. With a 38, 5% market share in 2012, NorgesGruppen was the largest player in the Norwegian grocery retail market, the business dates back to 1866 when the wholesale activity started up in the name of Joh. ASKO is the branch of NorgesGruppen. ASKO also supplies groceries to Horeca customers in Norway, ASKO distributes a portfolio of 18,000 products and serves 12,000 clients from 13 warehouses, covering all parts of Norway. There are approximately 1,750 grocery stores and 500 convenience stores in NorgesGruppen, either as wholly owned stores, NorgesGruppen operates various retail formats, including Kiwi, Meny, Centra, Ultra, Jacobs and SPAR, Joker and Mix. NorgesGruppen owns various private labels, developed and managed by its subsidiary Unil AS, the private labels include, Aware First Price Eldorado Jacobs utvalgte Fiskemannen Ferskt og ferdig Go Eco Unik Smart Seidel
20.
Evry
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Evry A/S is a Norwegian information technology company that supplies services relating to computing, including operation, outsourcing and online banking. The company is headquartered in Oslo and it was established through a merger between EDB Business Partner and ErgoGroup in 2010 and has 10,000 employees at 135 offices in 16 countries. EDB ErgoGroup ASA was formed in 2010 with the merger of EDB Business Partner, telenor owned most of the shares of ErgoGroup. The company subsequently changed its name to EVRY ASA in April 2012, in August 2014, EVRY announced that it was initiating a process to investigate strategic opportunities. This was motivated by their assessment of the IT sector in the Nordic countries, in March 2015 Apax Partners became the majority owner of the company, a new board was appointed and it decided to apply for a de-listing from the stock exchange. On 29 October 2015, the company was delisted from the Oslo Stock Exchange, in August 2015, following the loss of a contract with Norwegian bank DNB, EVRY announced it would lay off 500-550 workers in Norway and Sweden to increase profits, saving NOK 400–500 million. In October 2015 it announced the transfer of a further 600 employees to IBM in a deal worth USD1 billion. In 2016 it announced it would double the manpower at its Indian subsidiary, then at 600 in Mohali and 1,500 in Bengaluru, EVRY had a total workforce of 9,400 in 2016. EVRY acquired Span Infotech, an Indian IT company, which was renamed EVRY India to be coherent with its parent company
21.
Partnair
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Partnair A/S was a Norwegian charter airline which operated from 1971 to 1989. During the later 1980s it was Norways fifth-largest airline by revenue, the airline was based at Oslo Airport, Fornebu, as well as operating a base at Stavanger Airport, Sola. The airline was established as Paralift in 1968 to allow a group of friends to operate a Cessna 182 for parachuting, the company went commercial in 1971 and acquired four Cessna twin-props by 1975. The airline focused on business charters, during the late 1970s the fleet was replace with Piper PA-31 Navajos. The Partnair name was adopted in the mid 1970s, the first of what would eventually be eight Beechcraft King Air and the later Super models was bought in 1978. Partnair briefly operated two Cessna 550 Citation II corporate jets in 1983, the airline merged with Nor-Fly Charter in 1984, acquiring two CV-580s. A third was added in 1986 and it built a new hangar and office complex in 1985. The only spell of scheduled traffic, out of Notodden Airport, Tuven, the company went into a period with severe financial difficulties and went bankrupt in 1987, but soon revived. The crash of Partnair Flight 394 on 8 September 1989 was the blow for the company. Operations were restarted in what became Air Stord, the airline has its background in a group of parachuters who in 1968 established Paralift Air Service. The intension was to establish a company to own and operate an aircraft to they did not have to rent an aircraft each time they were parachuting and it took delivery of a Cessna 180 in February 1969, which it kept until August. It then took over a Cessna 182 and these aircraft were both tailored as parachute-only aircraft. The following year the fleet was doubled with the arrival of a Cessna 310, the company was incorporated on 30 June 1971 and received a commercial air operators certificate in the fall. The airline took delivery of a de Havilland Dragon Rapide in August, the aircraft was kept until 1973. Until the 1975 retirement of the Cessna 182, Paralift continued to operate parachuting flights, however, it increasingly focused on ad hoc and corporate charter. It targeted a market for executive charters using smaller twin-prop aircraft. Although slightly slower, they were more economical that corporate jets. Paralift was able to operate many routes cheaper than scheduled services given that the aircraft was filled up
22.
Fornebu Airport
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Oslo Airport, Fornebu was the main airport serving Oslo and Eastern Norway from 1 June 1939 to 7 October 1998. It was then replaced by Oslo Airport, Gardermoen and the area has since been redeveloped, the airport was located at Fornebu in Bærum,8 kilometres from the city center. Fornebu had two runways, one 2, 370-metre 06/24 and one 1,800 metres 01/19, in 1996, the airport had 170,823 aircraft movements and 10,072,054 passengers. The airport served as a hub for Scandinavian Airlines System, Braathens SAFE, in 1996, they and 21 other airlines served 28 international destinations. Due to limited terminal and runway capacity, intercontinental and charter airlines used Gardermoen, the Royal Norwegian Air Force retained offices at Fornebu. The airport opened as a sea and land airport, serving both domestic and international destinations. It replaced the airport at Kjeller and the sea airport at Gressholmen. In 1940, it was taken over by the German Luftwaffe, the airport at first had three runways, each at 800 metres, but these were gradually expanded, first the north–south runway and finally the east–west one to the current length in 1962. The same year the terminal moved south to the final location, a large-scale expansion to the terminal was made during the 1980s. At the time of closing, the airport consisted of a terminal with three satellites, two domestic and one international. The service building had three stories, one for arrival, one for departure and one for administration. Airplane capacity at the airport was 20 craft, five planes parked at the terminal could be served with jetbridges. The airport terminals were 36,000 square metres, of which 16,000 square metres were for the public, in the main hall of the terminal were two murals made by Kai Fjell, both which have been preserved. The largest was the 310-square-metre Arrival and Departure which was completed in 1968, at the north part of the airport, located where the former main terminal was until 1964, were the offices of the Air Force and Fred. Olsen Airtransport, the hangar for Braathens SAFE, as well as mechanical facilities for SAS. The fire station and snowplowing facilities were located there, along with the main radar center. All the terminal buildings built until the early 1960s were still intact until the closing of the airport, in 1989, about 5,500 people worked at Fornebu. Of these,3,600 worked for the airlines, including ground services, the airport administration had 350 employees, including administration, air control, fire fighters, meteorology and maintenance
23.
Busy Bee of Norway
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Busy Bee was an airline which operated in Norway between 1966 and 1992. Entirely based around wet lease, in conducted a mix of services for larger airlines. Established as Busy Bee Air Service A/S by Bjørn G. Braathen, after a near-bankruptcy in 1973, the company fell under the ownership of Braganza and was renamed Airexecutive Norway A/S. It focused on operating Short Skyvans and later Fokker F27 Friendships, from 1975 it operated regional services for its sister company Braathens SAFE and increasingly flew charter for the Norwegian Armed Forces. The airline took the name Busy Bee of Norway A/S in 1980, regional services were introduced with Scandinavian Airlines Systems, followed by Fokker 50s entering service from 1988. Reduced military charters and a loss of a contract in 1991 caused the foundation to fall out of the airline. Key people and assets reestablished the airline as Norwegian Air Shuttle, Busy Bee was founded by Bjørn G. Braathen, son of Braathens SAFEs founder and owner Ludvig G. Braathen. It rested on two niches—providing feeder services to Braathens SAFEs services and providing corporate charter flights, Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi alone was in such high demand for corporate charter that the airline could nearly fill one plane with that group alone. The company was incorporated as Busy Bee Air Service A/S in 1966, the name was inspired by a pub in London with the same name. Initially it operated a fleet of a Piper Aztec turboprop and a Learjet 23, in December the Learjet was painted in zebra stripes and leased to a film company for the shooting of The Last Safari in Kenya. The Learjet was sold already in September 1967, later that year the airline took delivery of the first of what would be three Piper PA-31 Navajos. A Cessna 185 was also bought, which remained in use until 1974, the airline followed up with a second Piper Aztec in 1968, but sold them both by 1969. A Cessna 206 was used between 1972 and 1974, both the Cessnas were seaplanes, which operated out of the water airport at Fornebu. Busy Bee launched its first Hawker Siddeley HS.125 in April 1968, and added a second aircraft in December 1968. By 1968 Busy Bee was the largest private charter operator out of Norway, in addition to business executives, the airline derived a significant portion of its business from Norways significant shipping industry. A typical task would involve flying spare parts and technicians to a port to make crucial repairs to ships. The airline took into use an air-supported hangar at Oslo Airport, Fornebu in February 1969 and this was caused by zoning restrictions at Fornebu, which banned the construction of permanent structures. The three HS. 125s were sold in 1972, the company came under financial distress in 1973
24.
Braathens
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For most of its history, Braathens was the largest domestic airline in Norway, but did not operate an international network for many years. Its main hubs were Oslo Airport, Fornebu and later Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, the airline operated 118 aircraft of 15 models, the majority of aircraft which have been variations of the Boeing 737. Braathens served 53 airports and 50 cities with scheduled services through its history, the airline was founded in 1946 by Ludvig G. Braathen and originally used a fleet of Douglas DC-4 aircraft on routes to the Far East and South Africa. From 1954 the airline was forced to operate all its scheduled flights domestically, Braathens SAFE retained an international charter service using the DC-3 and DC-6. As new domestic airports were built, Braathens SAFE and SAS were awarded each their share of monopoly route concessions, the Fokker F-27 was introduced in 1958, but was phased out with the delivery of the Fokker F-28 and Boeing 737-200 jets from 1969. The last F-27 was phased out in 1975, after a two-year use of Boeing 767 aircraft, Braathens operated an all-Boeing 737 fleet from 1986. Increased domestic competition on routes started from 1987, along with Braathens SAFE again starting international routes, by 1994 the fleet had been replaced with Boeing 737-400 and -500 and domestic deregulation of the airline market was introduced. Braathens followed up by listing itself on the Oslo Stock Exchange, joining an alliance with Dutch airline KLM and expanding its operations to Sweden through purchasing Transwede and Malmö Aviation. The 1998 opening of Gardermoen resulted in a price war with SAS and Color Air. Braathens was controlled by Braganza until 2001, when it was sold to the SAS Group, Braathens merged with SAS Norway on 1 May 2004. Braathens South American & Far East Airtransport A/S was founded on 26 March 1946 by Ludvig G. Braathen through his shipping company Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi, Braathens had made good money during World War II with the participation in the Norwegian Shipping and Trade Mission. His initial intentions were to fly crew and supplies to his, Braathen traveled to the United States, where he bought several used 44-passenger Douglas C-54 aircraft from the United States Air Force. Twenty pilots were recruited and sent to Fort Worth for certification, the first plane, LN-HAV Norse Explorer, landed at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen on 26 December 1946. The first service run from Oslo to Cairo via Copenhagen and Paris on 30 January 1947, various charter services were provided, such as evacuating French and British personnel prior to the creation of Israel. Total flight time was 46 hours, the only other services to the Far East from Europe were operated by KLM and British Overseas Airways Corporation. The regular services could be done with a trip time of nine to ten days, including overnighting in Cairo, Karachi and Bangkok. In 1947, Braathens SAFE flew twenty-five trips to Hong Kong, five to New York City, Douglas DC-3 aircraft were introduced the same year for shorter charters. The following year, Braathens SAFE started the first trial flights to South America, by 1948 the airline had weekly trips to the Far East
25.
SAS Braathens
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SAS Braathens was the name of Norways largest airline, created by a merger between Scandinavian Airlines Norwegian division and Braathens in 2004. On June 1,2007, the airline was integrated into mainline SAS, the airline operated from its hub at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, and was also the largest national branch of Scandinavian Airlines. SAS Braathens had its office in Diamanten on the grounds of Fornebu Airport in Fornebu, Bærum. SAS Braathens was a wholly owned subsidiary of the Scandinavian Airlines System Group and was established in the spring of 2004, based on SAS Norway, SAS Braathens operated routes in Norway, and also between Norway and the rest of Europe. The airline was the largest in Norway, and had 440 departures daily, SAS Braathens carried around 9 million passengers in 2006. Profit for the first half of 2005 came to NOK206 million, SAS Braathens had a route network covering 40 destinations from Longyearbyen in the north to Las Palmas in the south. The route network was operated by a total of 57 aircraft,51 Boeing 737s and 6 Fokker 50s, through its parent Scandinavian Airlines, SAS Braathens was a member of the global Star Alliance network. Since it was established in April 2004, SAS Braathens has created or announced a total of 18 new international routes, around 3,750 employees work for the airline, which is based in Fornebu, close to Oslo. Scandinavian Airlines was founded on 1 August 1946 when the carriers of Denmark, Sweden. Operations started on 17 September 1946, det Norske Luftfartselskab is the former Norwegian flag carrier which was founded in 1927. The companies embarked on coordination of European operations in 1948 and finally merged to form the current SAS Consortium in 1951, upon foundation the airline was divided between SAS Danmark, SAS Norge and SAS Sweden, all owned 50% by private investors and 50% by their respective governments. SAS gradually acquired control of the markets in all three countries by acquiring full or partial control of several local airlines. Braathens was founded on March 26,1946, for many years, Braathens was known as Braathens S. A. F. E, the latter part being an acronym standing for South American and Far East, for the destinations Braathens originally served. The company was founded by Norwegian ship owner Ludvig G. Braathen, in 2001 Braathens formed an alliance with KLM and Northwest Airlines. Alitalia was supposed to join that alliance, but later decided not to. Braathens also dropped the SAFE from their name, and the company was known as Braathens until 2004, the first months of 2006 were marked by conflict, and ill pilots caused several flights to be cancelled. Negotiations between cabin personnel and management failed on 6 April, leading to a strike grounding most of the flights, the April 2006 strike benefitted SAS Braathens main competitor, Norwegian Air Shuttle. However, in 2007 the airline was rebranded as SAS Norge, all SAS Braathens flight were operated with the IATA code BU, but all of the SAS Braathens flights were sold and screened at airports as SK flights
26.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
27.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
28.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
