1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
U.S. state
–
A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
3.
Jefferson County, New York
–
Jefferson County is a county in the U. S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 116,229, the county is named after Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States of America. It is adjacent to Lake Ontario, southeast from the Canada–US border of Ontario, Jefferson County comprises the Watertown-Fort Drum, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area. Tenth Mountain Division is based at Fort Drum, when counties were established in the Province of New York in 1683, the present Jefferson County was part of Albany County. This was a county, including the northern part of New York State as well as all of the present State of Vermont and, in theory. This county was reduced in size on July 3,1766 by the creation of Cumberland County, on March 12,1772, what was left of Albany County was split into three parts, one remaining under the name Albany County. One of the pieces, Tryon County, contained the western portion. The area then designated as Tryon County now includes 37 counties of New York State, the county was named for William Tryon, colonial governor of New York. In the years subsequent to 1776, most of the Loyalists in Tryon County fled to Canada, in 1789, the size of Montgomery County was reduced by the splitting off of Ontario County from Montgomery. Jefferson County is part of Macombs Purchase of 1791, in 1791, Herkimer County was one of three counties split off from Montgomery. This was much larger than the present county, however, and was reduced by a number of subsequent splits, the first one of these, in 1794, produced Onondaga County. This county was larger than the current Onondaga County, including the present Cayuga, Cortland, Oneida County, was split off from Herkimer County in 1798. Jefferson County was split off from Oneida County in 1805, in 1817, Carleton Island, captured from the British in the War of 1812, was annexed to the county. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,857 square miles. It is the fourth-largest county in New York by total area, Jefferson County is located in the northern lobe of New York State, adjacent to the area where the Saint Lawrence River exits Lake Ontario. It is northeast of Syracuse, and northwest of Utica, the county is at the international border with Canada. The Black River, which empties into Lake Ontario, is an important waterway in the county, part of the Tug Hill Plateau is in the southern part of the county. The county contains part of the Thousand Islands in the St. Lawrence River, including such large islands as Carleton Island, Grindstone Island, the population density was 88 people per square mile
4.
2010 United States Census
–
The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
5.
Eastern Time Zone
–
Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
6.
UTC-5
–
UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
7.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
8.
ZIP Code
–
ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
9.
Area codes 315 and 680
–
Area codes 315 and 680 are telephone area codes in upstate New York. They stretch from the side of Wayne County to Little Falls, north to the Canada–United States border, east to Massena. Most of its population lives in Syracuse and its suburbs, other major population centers include Utica and Watertown. One of the area codes created in 1947, it has been split once. In 1954, its portion was combined with the eastern portion of area code 716 to form area code 607. New York State regulators announced that 315 had been projected to become exhausted in the quarter of 2010. The New York State Public Service Commission at the time weighed two options, an area code, or a split into two codes. A split would have included an arrangement, splitting Oswego County. Regulators met to discuss a second code in the 315 region, because of economic conditions, the revised projected exhaustion date was March 11,2017, at which point the 680 area code was introduced, creating the first overlay in the upstate region. Cayuga, Chenango, Cortland, Fulton, Hamilton, Herkimer, Jefferson, Lewis, Madison, Oneida, Onondaga, Ontario, Oswego, Otsego, Saint Lawrence, Seneca, Wayne, and Yates. List of New York area codes List of NANP area codes North American Numbering Plan NANPA Area Code Map of New York List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload. com,315 Area Code
10.
United States Army
–
The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
11.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
12.
10th Mountain Division
–
The 10th Mountain Division is a light infantry division in the United States Army based at Fort Drum, New York. Originally constituted as a mountain warfare unit, the division was the one of its size to receive intense specialized training for fighting in mountainous. Today, the 10th honors that legacy by retaining the Mountain designation, on 5 May 1945 the Division reached Nauders, Austria, beyond the Resia Pass, where it made contact with German forces being pushed south by the U. S. A status quo was maintained until the enemy headquarters involved had completed their surrender to the Seventh, on the 6th, 10th Mountain troops met the 44th Infantry Division of Seventh Army. Following the war, the division was inactivated, only to be reactivated and redesignated as the 10th Infantry Division in 1948. The division first acted as a division and, in 1954, was converted to a full combat division. Reactivated again in 1985, the division was designated the 10th Mountain Division to historically tie it to the World War II division, since its reactivation, the division or elements of the division have deployed numerous times. Since 2001, the division and its four combat brigades have seen over 20 deployments to both Iraq and Afghanistan in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom, respectively. The 10th Division was originally organized in 1918 as a Regular Army, however, it did not go overseas and demobilized in February 1919 at Camp Funston, Kansas. It was redesignated the Panama Canal Division after the war and shares no connection with the 10th Mountain Division activated during World War II. In November 1939, during the Soviet Unions invasion of Finland, the U. S. Army authorized the formation of the platoon sized Army Ski Patrol in November 1940. The first Patrol was formed at Camp Murray as part of the 41st Infantry Division under Lt. Ralph S. Phelps and this required an overhaul of U. S. military doctrine, as the concept of winter warfare had not been tested in the army since 1914. At first, planners envisioned ten mountain divisions, but personnel shortages revised the goal to three, eventually, the 10th Mountain Division would be the only one brought to active duty. The Italian military had lost a disastrous 25,000 men in the campaign because of their lack of preparedness to fight in the mountains, on 22 October 1941, General Marshall decided to form the first battalion of mountain warfare troops for a new mountain division. The Ski Patrol would assist in its training, on 8 December 1941, the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the army activated its first mountain unit, the 87th Mountain Infantry Battalion at Fort Lewis, Washington, south of Tacoma. It was the first mountain warfare unit in U. S. military history, the National Ski Patrol took on the unique role of recruiting for the 87th Infantry Regiment and later the division, becoming the only civilian recruiting agency in military history. The 87th trained in harsh conditions, including Mount Rainiers 14, 411-foot peak, initial training was conducted by Olympian Rolf Monsen. A new garrison was built for the division in central Colorado at Camp Hale, the U. S. Army Mountain Warfare School was eventually established at nearby Camp Carson in late 1942, and began to oversee mountain warfare training
13.
Sackets Harbor, New York
–
Sackets Harbor is a village in Jefferson County, New York, United States. The population was 1,450 at the 2010 census, the village was named after land developer and owner Augustus Sackett, who founded it in the early 19th century. The Village of Sackets Harbor is within the part of the Town of Hounsfield and is west of Watertown. To support the War of 1812, the US Navy built a major shipyard, within a short period, more than 3,000 men worked at the shipyard. The Army constructed earthworks, forts, barracks and supporting infrastructure to defend the village and navy shipyard, the thousands of military personnel made it seem like a city. By the fall of 1814, this was the third-largest population center in the state, after Albany. With its strategic protected harbor on Lake Ontario and military installations, soon after the war, the Army strengthened its defenses on the northern frontier by constructing Madison Barracks. The village also developed a shipyard and many business connections to communities around the Great Lakes. Its businessmen were also connected to bases in the markets of Louisville, Kentucky. In 1817 a consortium of local businessmen supported construction of the 240-ton Ontario, in July 1834, the commercial schooner Illinois from Sackets Harbor was the first to enter the harbor of the new settlement of Chicago. Sackets Harbor Battlefield State Historic Site commemorates a battle during the War of 1812, prior to the American Revolutionary War, this area had been inhabited for thousands of years by differing cultures of indigenous peoples. The historic tribes were the Iroquoian-speaking Onondaga, part of the Haudenosaunee, long trading with the French and English, most of the Six Nations allied with the British during the Revolution, hoping to dislodge the American colonists. Following the war, they were forced to make major cessions of most of their land in New York to the United States, most of the Iroquois went to Canada and settled on land granted by Great Britain. In the large-scale sales of 5 million acres of lands in the postwar period, Sackets Harbor was founded in 1801 by Augustus Sackett. He and others had high hopes for trade across Lake Ontario with Kingston, Sackets Harbor was the most significant community in the area until the founding of the City of Watertown. The area attracted migrants from New England, as well as immigrants from Great Britain, the latter were fleeing the turmoil of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. They cleared heavy forest and gradually constructed houses for a village center, Edmund Luff, a young English immigrant, constructed a non-denominational meetinghouse, where all Christians met until they built their own churches in later decades. By the 1810 census, there were 943 qualified voters in the village, during the War of 1812, Sackets Harbor incorporated as a village in 1814
14.
Embargo Act of 1807
–
The Embargo Act of 1807 was a general embargo enacted by the United States Congress against Great Britain and France during the Napoleonic Wars. The embargo was imposed in response to violations of the United States neutrality, in which American merchantmen, the British Royal Navy, in particular, resorted to impressment, forcing thousands of American seamen into service on their warships. Britain and France, engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, rationalized the plunder of U. S. shipping as incidental to war, Americans saw the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair as a particularly egregious example of a British violation of American neutrality. Perceived diplomatic insults and unwarranted official orders issued in support of actions by European powers were widely recognized as grounds for a U. S. declaration of war. President Thomas Jefferson acted with restraint as these antagonisms mounted, weighing public support for retaliation and he recommended that Congress respond with commercial warfare, rather than with military mobilization. The Embargo Act was signed into law on December 22,1807. S, neutrality, and cease the policy of impressment. British merchant marine appropriated the lucrative trade routes relinquished by U. S. shippers due to the embargo, demand for English goods rose in South America, offsetting losses suffered as a result of Non-Importation Acts. The embargo undermined national unity in the U. S. provoking bitter protests, the issue vastly increased support for the Federalist Party and led to huge gains in their representation in Congress and in the electoral college in 1808. Thomas Jeffersons doctrinaire approach to enforcing the embargo violated a key Democratic-Republican precept, at the end of 15 months, the embargo was revoked on March 1,1809, in the last days of Jeffersons presidency. After the short truce in 1802–1803 the European wars resumed and continued until the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, the war caused American relations with both Britain and France to deteriorate rapidly. There was grave risk of war with one or the other, with Britain supreme on the sea, and France on the land, the war developed into a struggle of blockade and counterblockade. This commercial war peaked in 1806 and 1807, britains Royal Navy shut down most European harbors to American ships unless they first traded through British ports. France declared a blockade of Britain and seized American ships that obeyed British regulations. The Royal Navy needed large numbers of sailors, and saw the U. S. merchant fleet as a haven for British sailors, the British system of impressment humiliated and dishonored the U. S. because it was unable to protect its ships and their sailors. On June 21,1807 the American warship USS Chesapeake was attacked and boarded on the seas off the coast of Norfolk. Three Americans were dead and 18 wounded, the British impressed four seamen with American papers as alleged deserters, the outraged nation demanded action, President Jefferson ordered all British ships out of American waters. Passed on December 22,1807, the Act, laid an embargo on all ships, Ports, and exempted warships from the embargo provisions. The Embargo Act of 1807 is codified at 2 Stat.451 and formally titled An Embargo laid on Ships and Vessels in the Ports and Harbours of the United States
15.
Canada
–
Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
16.
War of 1812
–
Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
17.
Saint Lawrence River
–
The Saint Lawrence River is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. The Saint Lawrence River flows in a roughly north-easterly direction, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean and forming the primary drainage outflow of the Great Lakes Basin. It traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and is part of the boundary between Ontario, Canada, and the U. S. state of New York. This river also provides the basis of the commercial Saint Lawrence Seaway, the estuary begins at the eastern tip of Île dOrléans, just downstream from Quebec City. The river becomes tidal around Quebec City, the St. Lawrence River runs 3,058 kilometres from the farthest headwater to the mouth and 1,197 km from the outflow of Lake Ontario. The farthest headwater is the North River in the Mesabi Range at Hibbing, the average discharge below the Saguenay River is 16,800 cubic metres per second. At Quebec City, it is 12,101 m3/s, the average discharge at the rivers source, the outflow of Lake Ontario, is 7,410 m3/s. The St. Lawrence River includes Lake Saint-Louis south of Montreal, Lake Saint Francis at Salaberry-de-Valleyfield, pierre Archipelago and the smaller Mingan Archipelago. Other islands include Île dOrléans near Quebec City and Anticosti Island north of the Gaspé and it is the second longest river in Canada. Lake Champlain and the Ottawa, Richelieu, Saguenay, and Saint-François rivers drain into the St. Lawrence. The St. Lawrence River is in an active zone where fault reactivation is believed to occur along late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic normal faults related to the opening of Iapetus Ocean. The faults in the area are related and are called the Saint Lawrence rift system. According to the United States Geological Survey, the St. Lawrence Valley is a province of the larger Appalachian division, containing the Champlain. However, in Canada, where most of the valley is, it is considered part of a distinct Saint Lawrence Lowlands physiographic division. Lawrence River itself was Jacques Cartier, at that time, the land along the river was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, at the time of Cartiers second voyage in 1535. Because Cartier arrived in the estuary on St. Lawrences feast day, the St. Lawrence River is partly within the U. S. and as such is that countrys sixth oldest surviving European place-name. The earliest regular Europeans in the area were the Basques, who came to the St Lawrence Gulf, the Basque whalers and fishermen traded with indigenous Americans and set up settlements, leaving vestiges all over the coast of eastern Canada and deep into the Saint Lawrence River. Basque commercial and fishing activity reached its peak before the Armada Invencibles disaster, initially, the whaling galleons from Labourd were not affected by the Spanish defeat
18.
Lake Ontario
–
Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Ontario, Canadas most populous province, was named for the lake, in the Wyandot language, ontarío means “Lake of Shining Waters”. Its primary inlet is the Niagara River from Lake Erie, the last in the Great Lakes chain, Lake Ontario serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence River. Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area and it is the 14th largest lake in the world. When its islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712 miles long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean elevation of the lakes at 243 feet above sea level,326 feet lower than its neighbor upstream. Its maximum length is 193 statute miles and its width is 53 statute miles. The lakes average depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot, with a depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet. The lakes primary source is the Niagara River, draining Lake Erie, the drainage basin covers 24,720 square miles. As with all the Great Lakes, water levels both within the year and among years. These water level fluctuations are a part of lake ecology. The lake also has an important freshwater fishery, although it has negatively affected by factors including over-fishing, water pollution. Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number of lagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near Prince Edward County, Ontario, perhaps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen as the site of the Upper Canada capital for its strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presquile Bay, the bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy Island Beach State Park. These sand bars are associated with large wetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species. Presquile, on the shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard. The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian-age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age, the action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as todays basin. As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence valley outlet and this stage is known as Lake Iroquois
19.
Lower Canada Rebellion
–
Together with the simultaneous Upper Canada Rebellion in the neighbouring colony of Upper Canada, it formed the Rebellions of 1837. The rebellion of Lower Canada continued in 1838 and in Quebec is often called Les rébellions de 1837–38, the appointed Legislative Council was dominated by a small group of businessmen known as the Château Clique, the equivalent of the Family Compact in Upper Canada. Activists in Lower Canada began to work for reform in a period of economic disfranchisement of the French-speaking majority, the rebellion protested the injustice of colonial governing as such, in which the governor and upper house of the legislature were appointed by the Crown. Many of its leaders and participants were English-speaking citizens of Lower Canada, the French speakers felt that Anglophones were disproportionately represented in the lucrative fields of banking, the timber trade, and transportation industry. The unification of the colony was favoured by the British-appointed Governor, George Ramsey, in Lower Canada, the growing sense of nationalism among English and the French-speaking citizens was organized into the Parti canadien. In 1811, James Stuart became leader of the Parti Canadien in the Assembly and in 1815, the elected Assembly had little power, its decisions could be vetoed by the Legislative Council and Governor, all of whom were appointed by the British government. Governor Dalhousie and Papineau were soon at odds over the issue of uniting the Canadas, Dalhousie forced an election in 1827 rather than accept Papineau as Assembly Speaker. Sympathizers to the movement in England had Dalhousie forced from his position. But the Legislative Council and the Assembly were not able to reach a compromise, after hearing about the 99 grievances submitted by Robert Gourlay, Papineau wrote the Ninety-two Resolutions while secretly coordinating with Upper Canada. After protestors were shot in Montreal in 1832, Papineau had no choice but to submit the list of resolutions to the governor himself. By 1834, the Assembly had passed the Ninety-Two Resolutions, outlining its grievances against the Legislative Council, at that point, the Patriote movement was supported by an overwhelming majority of the Lower Canada population of all origins. Later in 1834, the Parti Patriote swept the election, gaining more than three-quarters of the popular vote, but, the reformers in Lower Canada were divided over several issues. A moderate reformer named John Neilson had quit the party in 1830, lartigue called on all Catholics to reject the reform movement and support the authorities, forcing many to choose between their religion and their political convictions. Papineau continued to push for reform and he petitioned the British government but in March 1837, the government of Lord Melbourne rejected all of Papineaus requests. Papineau organized protests and assemblies, and eventually approved formation of the paramilitary Société des Fils de la Liberté during the Assemblée des six-comtés, Papineau escaped to the United States, and other rebels organized in the countryside. Led by Wolfred Nelson, they defeated a British force at Saint-Denis on November 23,1837, the British troops soon beat back the rebels, defeating them at Saint-Charles on November 25 and at Saint-Eustache on December 14. The troops pillaged and ransacked Saint-Eustache, on December 5, the government declared martial law in Montreal. When news of the arrest of the Patriote leaders reached Upper Canada, in the meantime, filibusters from the United States, the Hunter Patriots, formed a small militia and attacked Windsor, Upper Canada, to support the Canadian Patriots
20.
Madison Barracks
–
Madison Barracks was a military installation at Sackets Harbor that was built for occupation by 600 U. S. troops, a few years after the War of 1812. It was named for James Madison who had just completed his presidency in 1817, construction began under the name Fort Pike. The facility is a National Historic Landmark and a district located at in Jefferson County. The district includes 86 contributing buildings and two contributing structures, Madison Barracks was the U. S. Armys primary post in upstate New York until Pine Camp was opened in 1908. Madison Barracks remained a military installation through the end of World War II. It is now operated as a residential community and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. Madison Barracks, Live In The Historical Buildings Madison Barracks, A Historic Residential Community
21.
Major general
–
Major general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the rank of sergeant major general. In the Commonwealth, major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral. In some countries, including much of Eastern Europe, major general is the lowest of the officer ranks. In the old Austro-Hungarian Army, the general was called a Generalmajor. Todays Austrian Federal Army still uses the same term, see also Rank insignias of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces General de Brigade is the lowest rank amongst general officers in the Brazilian Army. AGeneral de Brigada wears two-stars as this is the level for general officers in the Brazilian Army. In tha Brazilian Air Force, the two-star, three-star and four-star rank are known as Brigadeiro, Major-Brigadeiro, see Military ranks of Brazil and Brigadier for more information. In the Canadian Armed Forces, the rank of major-general is both a Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force rank equivalent to the Royal Canadian Navys rank of rear-admiral, a major-general is a general officer, the equivalent of a naval flag officer. The major-general rank is senior to the ranks of brigadier-general and commodore, prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal, instead. In the Canadian Army, the insignia is a wide braid on the cuff. It is worn on the straps of the service dress tunic. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Major-generals are initially addressed as general and name, as are all general officers, major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars. In the Estonian military, the general rank is called kindralmajor. The Finnish military equivalent is kenraalimajuri in Finnish, and generalmajor in Swedish and Danish, the French equivalent to the rank of major general is général de division. In the French military, major général is not a rank but an appointment conferred on some generals, usually of général de corps darmée rank, the position of major général can be considered the equivalent of a deputy chief of staff. In the French Army, Major General is a position and the general is normally of the rank of corps general
22.
Frederick Dent Grant
–
Frederick Dent Grant was a soldier and United States minister to Austria-Hungary. Grant was the first son of General of the Army and President of the United States Ulysses S. Grant and he was named after his uncle, Frederick Tracy Dent. The Grant family came from a line of Scottish and Irish heritage and his father was in the United States Army when Frederick was born in St. Louis, Missouri. The family moved as the senior Grant was assigned to posts in Michigan, Frederick spent his early childhood at his paternal grandparents house while his father was stationed on the West Coast. After his fathers resignation from the army, the family lived in St. Louis and in Galena and he attended public school in Galena until the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861. Grants father organized a regiment and was made colonel. Frederick accompanied his father when the regiment was sent to northern Missouri and he then rejoined his father off and on at several campaigns during the war. Grant was appointed to West Point in 1866 and graduated in 1871 and he was assigned to the 4th U. S. Cavalry Regiment. He took a leave of absence to work with the Union Pacific Railroad as a civil engineer, late in 1871, he was aide-de-camp to General William Tecumseh Sherman in Europe. He rejoined the 4th Cavalry in Texas in 1872, in 1873, he was assigned to the staff of General Philip Sheridan and promoted to lieutenant colonel. He was on the Yellowstone Expedition and was with George Armstrong Custer during the Black Hills expedition, in 1874, Grant married Ida Marie Honoré, the daughter of Henry Hamilton Honoré, who made his fortune in Chicago real estate. They were married in Chicago and had two children, Julia Dent Cantacuzène Spiransky-Grant and Ulysses S. Grant III and his daughter Julia was born on June 6,1876. Grant received leave to travel to Washington, D. C. for her birth, in 1877, he took a leave of absence to accompany his father on a trip around the world. In 1878, Grant was in the Bannock War and was in the fight against Victorio in New Mexico, on June 1,1870, the first black cadet, James Webster Smith, from South Carolina, was admitted into the United States Military Academy. Smith was sponsored by Senator Adelbert Ames of Mississippi and nominated by Representative Solomon L. Hoge of South Carolina, Smith was hand picked for his outstanding character and scholarly ability by David Clark, a northern philanthropist. While at West Point, Smith was forced to endure immense racism, violence, smiths harassers included Frederick Dent Grant, a fellow cadet. The instigators, including Fred, were intent on driving Smith from the Academy, Smith wrote to Clark about the racial hazing, whereupon Clark went to the White House to talk with President Grant. Fred was also at the meeting between Clark and the President, Clark advocated that Grant stop the hazing
23.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
24.
Ulysses S. Grant
–
Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
25.
Buffalo, New York
–
Buffalo is a city in western New York state and the county seat of Erie County, on the eastern shores of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River. As of 2014, Buffalo is New York states 2nd-most populous city after New York City, the metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million. After an economic downturn in the half of the 20th century, Buffalos economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering. Residents of Buffalo are called Buffalonians, the citys nicknames include The Queen City, The Nickel City and The City of Good Neighbors. The city of Buffalo received its name from a creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to Buffalo Creek in his journal of 1764, there are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name. In 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nations capital. Although Ellicott named the settlement New Amsterdam, the name did not catch on, during the War of 1812, on December 30,1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces. The George Coit House 1818 and Samuel Schenck House 1823 are currently the oldest houses within the limits of the City of Buffalo, on October 26,1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward. At the time, the population was about 2,400, the Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832. In 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement, Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom. During the 1840s, Buffalos port continued to develop, both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor, in 1843, the worlds first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar. Darts Elevator enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, by 1850, the citys population was 81,000. At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River, the city got the nickname City of Light at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6,1901, McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States. The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially working class men
26.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
27.
Labor Day
–
Labor Day in the United States is a public holiday celebrated on the first Monday in September. It honors the American labor movement and the contributions that workers have made to the strength, prosperity, laws and it is the Monday of the long weekend known as Labor Day Weekend and it is considered the unofficial end of summer. The holiday is also a federal holiday, beginning in the late 19th century, as the trade union and labor movements grew, trade unionists proposed that a day be set aside to celebrate labor. Labor Day was promoted by the Central Labor Union and the Knights of Labor, in 1887, Oregon was the first state of the United States to make it an official public holiday. By the time it became a federal holiday in 1894. Canadas Labour Day is also celebrated on the first Monday of September, more than 80 countries celebrate International Workers Day on May 1 – the ancient European holiday of May Day – and several countries have chosen their own dates for Labour Day. Beginning in the late 19th century, as the union and labor movements grew. In the United States a September holiday called Labor Day was first proposed in the 1880s, an early history of the holiday dates the events origins to a General Assembly of the Knights of Labor convened in New York City in September 1882. In conjunction with this clandestine Knights assembly a public parade of various organizations was held on September 5 under the auspices of the Central Labor Union of New York. In 1887 Oregon became the first state of the United States to make Labor Day an official public holiday, by the time it became an official federal holiday in 1894, thirty U. S. states officially celebrated Labor Day. Thus by 1887 in North America, Labor Day was an established, cleveland supported the creation of the national holiday in an attempt to shore up support among trade unions following the Pullman Strike. All U. S. states, the District of Columbia, and this became the pattern for Labor Day celebrations. Speeches by prominent men and women were introduced later, as emphasis was placed upon the civil significance of the holiday. Labor Day is called the end of summer because it marks the end of the cultural summer season. Many take their two-week vacations during the two weeks ending Labor Day weekend, many fall activities, such as school and sports begin about this time. In the United States, many school districts resume classes around the Labor Day holiday weekend, many districts across the Midwest are opting to begin school after Labor Day. The relevant statute has been nicknamed the Kings Dominion law after one such park, in U. S. sports, Labor Day weekend marks the beginning of many fall sports. National Collegiate Athletic Association teams usually play their first games that weekend, the Southern 500 NASCAR auto race has been held on Labor Day weekend at Darlington Raceway in Darlington, South Carolina from 1950 to 2003 and since 2015
28.
4th Armored Division (United States)
–
The 4th Armored Division of the United States Army was an Armored Division that earned distinction while spearheading General Pattons Third Army in the European theater of World War II. The 4th Armored Division, unlike most other U. S. armored divisions during World War II, didnt officially adopt a nickname for the division during the war. However, their unofficial nickname Name Enough came into use postwar, the 4th was named the Breakthrough division in 1954, but that name was eventually discontinued. The 4th Armored Division was activated during World War II on 15 April 1941 with 3,800 men from other units, at Pine Camp. The division was organized as a full Armored Division in May and it left Pine Camp for Camp Forrest for the Tennessee maneuvers in the Cumberland Mountains held in September and October. On 29 December, the 4th AD departed Boston to conduct training in England in preparation for the invasion of Normandy, the 4th AD then swung south to take Nantes, cutting off the Brittany Peninsula,12 August 1944. Turning east, it drove swiftly across France north of the Loire, smashed across the Moselle 11–13 September, flanked Nancy and captured Lunéville,16 September. The 4th Armored Division received the unit awards from France, Croix de Guerre with Palm, Croix de Guerre with Palm. Two days after the Germans launched their Ardennes Offensive, the 4th AD entered the fight, racing northwest into Belgium, covering 150 miles in 19 hours. The 4th AD, spearheading Pattons Third Army, attacked the Germans at Bastogne and, on 26 December, was the first unit to breakthrough at Bastogne and relieve the besieged 101st Airborne Division. Six weeks later the 4th AD jumped off from Luxembourg City in a plunge that carried it across the Moselle River at Trier, south and east to Worms. Advancing all night, the 4th AD crossed the Main River the next day, south of Hanau, lauterbach fell 29 March, Creuzburg across the Werra on 1 April, Gotha on 4 April. Where the 4th AD liberated Ohrdruf concentration camp, and by 12 April the 4TH AD was across the Saale River. Pursuit of the continued and by 6 May the division had crossed into Czechoslovakia, established a bridgehead across the Otava River at Strakonice. The 4th AD was reassigned to the XII Corps on 30 April 1945, on 1 August, General George Pattons U. S. Third Army became operational and the 4th AD became the spearhead of the Third Army, the British military armor theorist and historian, Captain Basil Henry Liddell Hart, once referred to General Wood as the Rommel of the American armored forces. Like Rommel, Wood commanded from the front, and preferred staying on the offensive, using speed, on 3 December 1944, General Wood was relieved as division commander. The division was led by Major General Hugh Gaffey through the Battle of the Bulge
29.
Creighton Abrams
–
Creighton Williams Abrams, Jr. was a United States Army general who commanded military operations in the Vietnam War from 1968–72. He served as Chief of Staff of the United States Army from 1972 until shortly before his death in 1974, in 1980, the U. S. Army named its new main battle tank, the M1 Abrams, after General Abrams. The IG Farben building in Germany was also named after him from 1975 to 1995, Creighton Williams Abrams Jr. graduated from West Point in 1936 and served with the 1st Cavalry Division from 1936 to 1940, being promoted to first lieutenant in 1939 and temporary captain in 1940. Abrams became an armor officer early in the development of that branch, during World War II, he served in the 4th Armored Division, initially as regimental adjutant, battalion commander, and regiment executive officer with the 37th Armor Regiment. During this time he was promoted to the ranks of major, lieutenant colonel. Abrams was promoted to lieutenant colonel only 11 days before his 28th birthday, during much of this time, the 4th Armored Division was the spearhead for General Pattons Third Army, and he was consequently well known as an aggressive armor commander. He was twice decorated with the Distinguished Service Cross, second only to the Medal of Honor, for heroism on September 20. On April 23,1945, Will Lang Jr. wrote a biography called Colonel Abe for Life, Abrams was known as an aggressive and successful armor commander. General George Patton said of him, Im supposed to be the best tank commander in the Army, in April,1945 he was promoted to colonel but reverted to lieutenant colonel during World War II demobilization. He commanded the 63rd Tank Battalion, part of the 1st Infantry Division and he was again promoted to colonel and commanded the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment. These units were important assignments due to the Cold War concern for potential invasion of western Europe by the Soviet Union and he then attended and graduated from the Army War College in 1953. Due to his service in Europe and his War College tour and he successively served as chief of staff of the I, X, and IX Corps in Korea. Upon return from Korea he served as Chief of Staff of the Armor Center and he was promoted to brigadier general and appointed deputy chief of staff for reserve components at the Pentagon. He was assistant division commander of 3rd Armored Division and then commanded the division upon his promotion to major general and he was then transferred to the Pentagon as deputy Chief of Staff for Operations, then was promoted to lieutenant general and commanded V Corps in Europe. During his tenure in Germany he was on the cover of Time Magazine on October 13,1961 and he was to grace the covers again on April 19,1968, and February 15,1971. Abrams was promoted to general in 1964 and appointed Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Army, while Westmoreland had for years run the war using search-and-destroy tactics, these gave way to the clear-and-hold strategies that Abrams was keen to implement. Abrams also devoted more time than his predecessor had to expanding, training. In contrast to Westmoreland, Abrams implemented counterinsurgency tactics that focused on winning the hearts, a joint military-civilian organization named CORDS under CIA official William Colby carried out the hearts and minds programs
30.
45th Infantry Division (United States)
–
The 45th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army, part of the Oklahoma Army National Guard, from 1920 to 1968. Headquartered mostly in Oklahoma City, the fought in both World War II and the Korean War. They trace their lineage from frontier militias that operated in the Southwestern United States throughout the late 1800s, the 45th Infantry Division guardsmen saw no major action until they became one of the first National Guard units activated in World War II in 1941. They took part in fighting during the invasion of Sicily. Slowly advancing through Italy, they fought in Anzio and in Monte Cassino, after landing in France during Operation Dragoon, they joined the 1945 drive into Germany that ended the War in Europe. After brief inactivation and subsequent reorganization as a unit restricted to Oklahomans, the division remained on the front lines in such engagements as Old Baldy Hill and Hill Eerie until the end of the war, returning to the U. S. in 1954. The division remained a National Guard formation until its inactivation in 1968 as part of a downsizing of the Guard, several units were activated to replace the division and carry on its lineage. These units were attached to the 40th Infantry Division and deployed to France where they were used as depot forces to provide replacements for front-line units and they returned home at the end of the war. The division was formed and federally recognized as a National Guard unit on 3 August 1923 in Oklahoma City and it was assigned the 89th Infantry Brigade of the Colorado and Arizona National Guards, and the 90th Infantry Brigade of the Oklahoma National Guard. The divisions first commander was Major General Baird H. Markham, the 45th Infantry Division engaged in regular drills but no major events in its first few years, though the divisions Colorado elements were called in to help quell a large coal mining strike. The onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s severely curtailed its funding for training, Major General Roy Hoffman took command in 1931, followed by Alexander M. Tuthill, Alexander E. McPherren in 1935, and William S. In 1937, the troops were once again called up. However, with the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany, with its infamous swastika symbol, in August 1941, the 45th Infantry Division took part in the Louisiana Maneuvers, the largest peacetime exercises in U. S. military history. It was assigned to VIII Corps with the 2nd Infantry Division, still operating with outmoded equipment from World War I, the division did not perform well during these exercises. With poor weather and bad equipment, the undertrained 45th Infantry Division was criticized by officers who considered it feeble. In spite of these deficiencies, less one month later. On 16 September 1941, the 45th Infantry Division, under Major General William S. Keys, was federalized from state control into the army force. It was one of four National Guard divisions to be federalized, alongside the 30th and its men immediately began basic combat training at Fort Sill, Oklahoma
31.
5th Armored Division (United States)
–
The 5th Armored Division was an armored formation of the United States Army active from 1941 to 1945 and from 1950 to 1956. The 5th Armored Victory Division was activated on 10 October 1941, turning Argentan over to the 90th Infantry Division, the 5th Armored advanced 80 miles to capture the Eure River Line at Dreux on 16 August. Bitter fighting was encountered in clearing the Eure-Seine corridor, the second big trap in France. The 5th passed through Paris 30 August to spearhead V Corps drive through the Compiègne Forest, across the Oise, Aisne, and Somme Rivers, the division then turned east, advancing 100 miles in 8 hours, and crossed the Meuse at Charleville-Mézières,4 September. Racing past Sedan, it liberated Luxembourg City on the 10th, the reconnaissance squadron of the division sent a patrol across the German border on the afternoon of 11 September to be the first of the Allies to cross the enemy frontier. On 14 September, the 5th penetrated the Siegfried Line at Wallendorf, remaining until the 20th, in October it held defensive positions in the Monschau-Hofen sector. The division entered the Hurtgen Forest area in late November and pushed the back to the banks of the Roer River in very heavy fighting. On 22 December it was withdrawn to Verviers and placed in 12th Army Group reserve, crossing the Roer on 25 February 1945 the 5th spearheaded the XIII Corps drive to the Rhine, crossing the Rhine at Wesel,30 March. The Division reached the banks of the Elbe at Tangermunde,12 April—45 miles from Berlin, on 16 April, the 5th moved to Klotze to wipe out the Von Clausewitz Panzer Division and again drove to the Elbe, this time in the vicinity of Dannenberg. The division mopped up in the Ninth Army sector until VE-day, the division was inactivated on 11 October 1945, reactivated in 1950 at Fort Chaffee, AR, and inactivated for the final time in 1956
32.
Prisoner-of-war camp
–
A prisoner-of-war camp is a site for the containment of enemy combatants captured by a belligerent power in time of war. It should be noted there are significant differences among POW camps, internment camps. In addition, non-combatants, such as merchant mariners and civilian aircrews, have imprisoned in some conflicts. Not all belligerents have consistently applied the convention in all conflicts, before the Peace of Westphalia, enemy combatants captured by belligerent forces were usually executed, enslaved, or held for ransom. This, coupled with the small size of armies, meant there was little need for any form of camp to hold prisoners of war. This is generally considered to mark the point where captured enemy combatants would be treated before being released at the end of the conflict or under a parole not to take up arms. The practice of paroling enemy combatants had begun thousands of earlier, at least as early as the time of Carthage. The consequent increase in the number of prisoners was to eventually to the development of the prisoner of war camps. Following General John Burgoynes surrender at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, several thousand British and German troops were marched to Cambridge, for various reasons, the Continental Congress desired to move them south. For this purpose, one of the congressmen offered his land outside of Charlottesville, the remaining soldiers marched south in late 1778—arriving at the site in January 1779. Since the barracks were barely sufficient in construction, the officers were paroled to live as far away as Richmond, the camp was never adequately provisioned, but the prisoners built a theater on the site. Hundreds escaped Albemarle Barracks because of the shortage of guards, as the British Army moved northward from the Carolinas in late 1780, the remaining prisoners were moved to Frederick, Maryland, Winchester, Virginia, and perhaps elsewhere. No remains of the encampment site are left, while awaiting exchange, prisoners were confined to permanent camps. Neither Union or Confederate prison camps were well run. It is estimated that about 56,000 soldiers died in prisons during the war, during a period of 14 months in Camp Sumter, located near Andersonville, Georgia,13,000 of the 45,000 Union soldiers confined there died. During the Boer Wars the British established concentration camps to hold both civilians and prisoners of war, in total 109 camps were constructed for Boer and black African internees. However, the majority of prisoners of war were sent overseas, the camps were poorly administered, the food rations insufficient to maintain health, standards of hygiene were low, and overcrowding was chronic. Over 26,000 women and children died in the camps during the wars, the first international convention on prisoners of war was signed at the Hague Peace Conference of 1899
33.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
34.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
35.
Lieutenant general (United States)
–
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and the United States Air Force, lieutenant general is a three-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-9. Lieutenant general ranks above major general and below general, Lieutenant general is equivalent to the rank of vice admiral in the other uniformed services. The United States Code explicitly limits the number of generals that may be concurrently active to 230 for the Army,60 for the Marine Corps. For the Army and Air Force, no more than about 25% of the active duty general officers may have more than two stars. Some of these slots can be reserved by statute, officers serving in certain intelligence positions are not counted against either limit, including the Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. The President may also add three-star slots to one if they are offset by removing an equivalent number from other services. Finally, all statutory limits may be waived at the presidents discretion during time of war or national emergency, the Superintendent of the United States Military Academy is almost always a U. S. Army lieutenant general, either upon appointment or shortly thereafter. The three-star grade goes hand-in-hand with the position of office to which it is linked, officers may only achieve three-star grade if they are appointed to positions that require the officer to hold such a rank. Their rank expires with the expiration of their term of office, the nominee must be confirmed via majority vote by the Senate before the appointee can take office and thus assume the rank. The standard tour length for most lieutenant general positions is three years but some are set four or more years by statute, some statutory limits under the U. S. Code can be waived in times of national emergency or war. Three-star ranks may also be given by act of Congress but this is extremely rare, other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement. Lieutenant generals must retire after 38 years of service unless appointed for promotion or reappointed to grade to serve longer, otherwise all general officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the Secretary of Defense can defer a three-star officers retirement until the officers 66th birthday, General officers typically retire well in advance of the statutory age and service limits, so as not to impede the upward career mobility of their juniors. Since there is a number of three-star slots available to each service. Additionally, lieutenant generals of all services serve as staff officers at various major command headquarters and The Pentagon. Currently, five women serve as lieutenant generals in the US Army, in theory, a general vacates their three or four-star rank at termination of their assignment unless placed in an equal ranking billet. Douglas MacArthur, who served as general and Army Chief of Staff. Even with the status, such officers are also almost always granted permanent retirement in the last grade they held with the satisfactory completion of at least two or three years in grade
36.
Hugh Aloysius Drum
–
Hugh Aloysius Drum was a United States Army lieutenant general. Born at Fort Brady, Chippewa County, Michigan on September 19,1879, Drum was the son of Captain John Drum, a career Army officer who was killed in Cuba during the Spanish–American War. His mother was Margaret Desmond of Boston, in 1894, Drum graduated from Xavier High School in New York City, which he had attended while his father was an instructor at the school. Initially intent upon a career as a Jesuit priest, he enrolled at Boston College, joining the United States Army while the Spanish–American War and subsequent insurrections and conflicts were ongoing, he served with the 12th Infantry Regiment in the Philippines. He then served in the Philippines with the 25th Infantry Regiment and he participated in the Battle of Bayan in 1899, for which he received the Silver Citation Star which was converted to the Silver Star when that decoration was created in 1932. Drum later served as aide-de-camp to Frank Baldwin before returning to a series of assignments in the United States and he completed the School of the Line in 1911 as an honor graduate. He graduated from the United States Army Command and General Staff College in 1912, in 1914 he was an assistant chief of staff for the force commanded by Frederick Funston during the Veracruz Expedition. Drum served at Fort Bliss and Fort Sam Houston in Texas during 1915 and 1916 as part of the Pancho Villa Expedition, highly regarded by John J. Pershing, at the start of World War I Drum was named an assistant chief of staff of First Army. In 1918, he was promoted to colonel, and became First Armys chief of staff, from 1926 to 1927 Drum commanded the 1st Infantry Brigade. From there he went to the Army staff at the War Department in Washington, General Drum successfully lobbied Congress not to have the Air Service organized separately from the army. He served as commander of the 1st Infantry Division from 1927, Drum was promoted to major general when he assumed his duties as inspector general on January 29,1930. In 1931 Drum was assigned as commander of the V Corps Area, based at Fort Hayes, Drum returned to Washington in 1933 to serve as deputy to the Armys Chief of Staff, Douglas MacArthur. In 1934 all the members of the Drum Board also sat on the presidential-initiated Baker Board, from 1935 to 1937, Drum commanded the Hawaiian Department. In 1938, Drum succeeded James K. Parsons as commander of First United States Army and assumed command of Second Corps Area headquartered at Fort Jay, Governors Island, when Chief of Staff General Malin Craig retired in 1939, Drum was passed over in favor of George Marshall. Despite this disappointment, he received a promotion to lieutenant general in August 1939, with the onset of preparations for World War II, Drum assumed command of the Eastern Defense Command, responsible for domestic defense along the Atlantic seaboard. During the 1941 Carolina Maneuvers, Drum commanded First Army and he was embarrassed and became the subject of mockery during the event when he was captured on the first day of the exercises by troops of the 2nd Armored Division under Pattons command. After the Carolina maneuvers, Drum was disappointed with an offer from Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to go on what he perceived to be an assignment in China. After declining the China mission, Drum continued to command the Eastern Defense Command until reaching the retirement age in 1943
37.
First United States Army
–
It now serves as a mobilization, readiness and training command. First Army was established on 10 August 1918 as an army when sufficient American military manpower had arrived in France during World War I. As an element of the American Expeditionary Forces in the stages of World War I it was the first of three field armies established under the AEF. Serving in its ranks were many figures who played important roles in World War II. First Army was inactivated in April 1919, the field armies were established to provide organizational structure for large military organizations that might be mobilized in time of national need. First Army was located in the northeast United States and was activated on 11 September 1933 at Fort Jay, Governors Island, initially activated as a paper army, it was commanded by General Dennis E. Nolan. Until 1942, First Armys commander was always the senior commander of one of its three corps areas, since First Army was only a paper organization in its early days, its staff was the existing staff of the corps areas. The overall mission of the First Army was commanding and training army, army reserve. In the years after World War I, Conner was a mentor in the careers of Dwight Eisenhower. Passed over as a candidate for Army Chief of Staff for Douglas MacArthur, in 1938 First Army came under command of General Hugh A. Drum. Drum who along with a buildup of the Army in 1939 and it began to establish and develop its own staff and participated in the large scale Army maneuvers in Louisiana and North Carolina between 1939 and 1941. As the United States entered World War II, Drum was assigned a new command of the newly established Eastern Defense Command, responsible for coastal, Drum retired in 1943 when he reached mandatory retirement age. Headquarters, First Army was activated In January 1944 at Bristol, upon going ashore on 6 June 1944, D-Day, First Army came under 21st Army Group and commanded all American ground forces during the invasion. Three American divisions were landed by sea at the Western end of the beaches, on Utah Beach the assault troops made good time, but Omaha Beach came nearest of all of the five landing areas to disaster. First Army captured much of the gains of the Allied forces in Normandy. Once the beachheads were joined up, its troops struck west and isolated the Cotentin Peninsula, when the American Mulberry harbour was wrecked by a storm, Cherbourg became even more vital. After the capture of Cherbourg, First Army struck south, in Operation Cobra, its forces finally managed to break through the German lines. The newly established Third Army was then fed through the gap, the Army then passed from the control of 21st Army Group to the newly arrived 12th Army Group
38.
Korean War
–
The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
39.
Agent Orange
–
Agent Orange is a herbicide and defoliant chemical. It is widely known for its use by the U. S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand and it was a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides,2,4, 5-T and 2, 4-D. The chemical damaged the health of people who came into contact with it as well as extensively contaminated the environment, the defoliant caused grievous health consequences for those who came in contact. Up to 4 million people in Vietnam were affected and 1 million people have illnesses, the chemical has damaged the genes, giving descendants with deformities. The US government has documented cases of leukemia, Hodgkins lymphoma as well as various kinds of cancer in veterans. Agent Orange caused enormous damage in Vietnam. Over 3,100,000 hectares of forest were defoliated, defoliants eroded tree cover and seedling forest stock, making reforestation difficult in numerous areas. Animal species diversity sharply reduced in contrast with unsprayed areas, the aftermath of the use of Agent Orange in Vietnam resulted in massive legal consequences. The United Nations ratified Resolution 31/72 and the Environmental Modification Convention, lawsuits filed on behalf of veterans as well as Vietnamese veterans sought compensation for damages. Agent Orange was to a lesser extent used outside Vietnam, some countries saw testing, while other countries such as Canada and Brazil used the herbicide to clear out sections of land for agriculture. Land in Laos and Cambodia was sprayed with Agent Orange because forests on the border with Vietnam were used by the Vietcong, the dioxin TCDD is significant contaminant of Agent Orange. TCDD is the most toxic of the dioxins, and is classified as a carcinogen by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Agent Orange dries quickly after spraying and breaks down within hours to days when exposed to sunlight and is no longer harmful, due to its fat-soluble nature, dioxin enters through physical contact or ingestion. Dioxin easily accumulates in the food chain, Dioxin enters the body by attaching to a protein called the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, a transcription factor. When dioxin binds to AhR, the moves to the nucleus. Several herbicides were discovered as part of efforts by the USA and these included 2, 4-D,2,4, 5-T, MCPA, and isopropyl phenylcarbamate. He discovered both that 2,3, 5-triiodobenzoic acid would speed up the flowering of soybeans and that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans, from these studies arose the concept of using aerial applications of herbicides to destroy enemy crops to disrupt their food supply. In early 1945, the U. S. Army ran tests of various 2, 4-D and 2,4, 5-T mixtures at the Bushnell Army Airfield in Florida
40.
Fort George G. Meade
–
It is named for George G. Meade, a general from the U. S. Civil War, who served as commander of the Army of the Potomac. The forts smaller census-designated place includes support facilities such as schools, housing, initially called Camp Annapolis Junction, the post was opened as Camp Admiral in 1917 on 29.7 sq mi acquired for a training camp. Renamed to Fort Leonard Wood, the forts Experimental Motorized Forces in the summer and fall of 1928 tested vehicles, in 1929, the forts 1st Tank Regiment encamped on the Gettysburg Battlefield. S. The Second U. S. Army Headquarters transferred to the post on June 15,1947, and in the 1950s, from the 1950s until the 1970s, the Fort Meade radar station had various radar equipment and control systems for air defense. Fort Meade also had the first Nike Ajax surface-to-air missiles in December 1953, in 1977, a merger organized the forts U. S. Army Intelligence Agency as part of the United States Army Intelligence and Security Command. On 1 October 1991, a wing of the Air Force Intelligence Command transferred to Fort Meade, in the early 1990s,12.7 sq mi was transferred from the post to the Patuxent Research Refuge. A planned closure of the post in the 1990s was not implemented, the 311th Signal Command headquarters was at Fort Meade from 1996 – September 2006. After an August 27,2007, U. S, advancements in information technology and recent base realignment and closure initiatives have contributed to the evolution of the school. The result is a single school proud of its roots and dedicated to serving the diverse requirements for public affairs, broadcasting. Alleged gunman Hong Young was arrested in connection with shootings at five places in Maryland, including an NSA building, theaters. No motive has been established but his estranged wife attributed his behavior to mental issues, on March 30,2015, National Security Agency police officers shot and killed a person who attempted to drive an SUV through a restricted entrance to the NSA campus in Fort Meade, Maryland. A passenger in the SUV was injured, as was an officer, president Obama was briefed but the FBI determined we do not believe it is related to terrorism. Fort Meade is bordered by the Baltimore–Washington Parkway on the west and is about 5 miles east of Interstate 95 and it is located between Washington, DC and Baltimore. It is located in proximity to Columbia, Jessup, Laurel, Severn, Hanover, the Fort George G. Meade Museum exhibits the Posts historical artifacts, including uniforms, insignia and equipment
41.
Maryland
–
The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
