1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
Factory (trading post)
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A factory was an establishment for factors or merchants carrying on business in foreign lands, initially established in parts of Medieval Europe. Factories eventually spread to parts of the world in the wake of European trading ventures and. Factories could serve simultaneously as market, warehouse, customs, defense and support to navigation or exploration, the head of the factory was the chief factor. In North America, this formula was adopted by colonists and later Americans to exchange goods with local non-Western societies. In that context, these establishments were often called trading posts, originally, factories were organizations of European merchants from a state, meeting in a foreign place. These organizations sought to defend their interests, mainly economic, enabling the maintenance of diplomatic. The factories were established from 1356 onwards in the trading centers, usually ports or central hubs that have prospered under the influence of the Hanseatic League and its guilds. The Hanseatic cities had their own law system and furnished their own protection, the Hanseatic League maintained factories, among others, in England, Norway and Finland. Later, cities like Bruges and Antwerp actively tried to take over the monopoly of trade from the Hansa, during the territorial and economic expansion of the Age of Discovery, the factory was adapted by the Portuguese and spread throughout from West Africa to Southeast Asia. The Portuguese feitorias were mostly fortified trading posts settled in areas, built to centralize. The first Portuguese feitoria overseas was established by Henry the Navigator in 1445 on the island of Arguin and it was built to attract Muslim traders and monopolize the business in the routes traveled in North Africa. It served as a model for a chain of African feitorias, the main Portuguese factories were in Goa, Malacca, Ormuz, Ternate, and Macau. They were mainly driven by the trade of gold and slaves on the coast of Guinea, spices in the Indian Ocean, in the Indian Ocean, the trade in Portuguese factories was enforced and increased by a merchant ship licensing system, the cartazes. From the feitorias, the products went to the main outpost in Goa, then to Portugal where they were traded in the Casa da Índia, there they were sold, or re-exported to the Royal Portuguese Factory in Antwerp, where they were distributed to the rest of Europe. Easily supplied and defended by sea, the factories worked as independent colonial bases and they provided safety, both for the Portuguese, and at times for the territories in which they were built, protecting against constant rivalries and piracy. They allowed Portugal to dominate trade in the Atlantic and Indian oceans, establishing a vast empire with scarce human, over time, the feitorias were sometimes licensed to private entrepreneurs, giving rise to some conflict between abusive private interests and local populations, such as in the Maldives. Other European powers began to establish factories in the 17th century along the trade routes explored by Portugal and Spain, first the Dutch and then the English. Factories were then established by chartered companies such as the Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, and these factories provided for the exchange of products among European companies, local populations, and the colonies that often started as a factory with warehouses
4.
Trading post
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The preferred travel route to a trading post or between trading posts, was known as a trade route. Trading posts were also places for people to meet and exchange the news of the world or simply the news from their country in a time when not even newspapers existed. European colonialism traces its roots to ancient Carthage, numerous cities of importance once started their history as trading posts, Venice, New York City, Shanghai, Singapore, Hong Kong, Naples, Rotterdam, Kansas City, etc. The annexation of trading posts along ancient trade routes took place in the 16th and 17th century by European powers like the Dutch and it began with the capture of Ceuta by the Portuguese in 1415. They went on to establish further enclaves as they explored the coasts of Africa, Arabia, India, trading posts were also very common in the early settlements of Canada and the United States for the trade of such things as fur. They were also used in many camps across the United States as places to buy snacks, items, the Hudsons Bay Company set up trading posts around Hudson Bay during the fur trade. Goods were traded for beaver pelts amongst the Europeans and the Native Americans, in the United States in the early 19th century, trading posts used by Native Americans were licensed by the federal government and called factories. In the context of Scouting, trading post usually refers to a store where snacks, craft materials. A trading post can also be referred to as the place where securities listed on the New York Stock Exchange are traded, cash is not accepted, only bartering is allowed. This idea blossomed and by 2004 had grown to become a 4,000 sq. ft. community care center in Springville, New York
5.
Sibley, Missouri
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Sibley is a village in Jackson County, Missouri, United States. The population was 357 at the 2010 census and it is known as the home of Fort Osage National Historic Landmark. The village was named for George C, a post office called Sibley has been in operation since 1842. Sibley is located at 39°10′49″N 94°11′45″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.04 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 357 people,129 households, the population density was 343.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 141 housing units at a density of 135.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 96. 4% White,0. 8% Native American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 9% of the population. 19. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.14. The median age in the village was 40.1 years. 24. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,9. 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24,23. 1% were from 25 to 44,25. 5% were from 45 to 64, and 17. 4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49. 6% male and 50. 4% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 347 people,128 households, and 94 families residing in the village. The population density was 332.9 people per square mile, there were 133 housing units at an average density of 127.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 95. 97% White,1. 44% African American,1. 15% Native American,0. 29% Asian,0. 86% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 17% of the population. 20. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.18. In the village, the population was out with 25. 9% under the age of 18,8. 4% from 18 to 24,28. 8% from 25 to 44,23. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 112.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.7 males, the median income for a household in the village was $45,000, and the median income for a family was $50,417. Males had an income of $40,313 versus $28,125 for females
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
8.
Fort Belle Fontaine
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Fort Bellefontaine was the first United States military installation in the Louisiana Territory. Located on the bank of the Missouri River, in present-day Missouri. Rudolf Tiller served as factor and Colonel Thomas Hunt served as the military commander, the trading post was discontinued after 1808, and from 1809 to 1826 the facility served as a United States military fort. During that time period, from about 1809 to 1815, the served as the headquarters of the Department of Louisiana. Part of the site of the fort is preserved as the Fort Belle Fontaine County Park, an archaeological site associated with the fort was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016. Luttig, Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri, 1812-1813, Kansas City, MO, The Missouri Historical Society,1920 Fort Belle Fontaine, US GenNet
9.
Fort Madison, Iowa
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Fort Madison is a city and a county seat of Lee County, Iowa, United States along with Keokuk. Of Iowas 99 counties, Lee County is the one with two county seats. The population was 11,051 at the 2010 census, located along the Mississippi River in the states southeast corner, it lies between small bluffs along one of the widest portions of the river. Fort Madison was founded at the location of the first U. S. military fort in the upper Mississippi region, a replica of the fort stands along the river. Sheaffer Pens were developed and made in Fort Madison for many years, the city is the location of the Iowa State Penitentiary—the states maximum security prison for men. Fort Madison is the Mississippi river crossing and station stop for Amtraks Southwest Chief, Fort Madison has the last remaining double swing-span bridge on the Mississippi River, the Fort Madison Toll Bridge. It has a top level for cars and a level for trains. The Fort Madison Downtown Commercial Historic District is a collection of well-preserved historic storefronts from the late 19th century, the city of Fort Madison was established around the site of the historic Fort Madison, which was the first permanent U. S. military fortification on the Upper Mississippi. Fort Madison was the site of Black Hawks first battle against U. S. troops and it was also the location of the first U. S. military cemetery in the upper Midwest. The fort was named for James Madison, fourth President of the United States, Fort Madison was one of three posts established by the U. S. Army to establish control over the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase territories. Fort Madison was built to control trade and pacify Native Americans in the Upper Mississippi River region, a disputed 1804 treaty with the Sauk and affiliated tribes led to the U. S. claim of control over western Illinois and parts of what is now Iowa. To establish control, the U. S. Army set out to construct a post near the mouth of the Des Moines River, again, this land was not considered suitable for a fort. The Army settled on a several miles upstream at what is now the city of Fort Madison. First called Fort Belleview, this post was soon deemed inadequate and it was poorly situated at the base of a bluff next to a deep ravine, areas from which enemies could safely fire at the fort. Black Hawk lamented over the new fort, and disparaged its construction in his autobiography, A number of people went down to see what was going on. On our arrival we found that they were building a fort, the soldiers were busily engaged in cutting timber, and I observed that they took their arms with them when they went to the woods. The whole party acted as they would do in an enemys country and we were pleased at this information and hoped that it was all true, but we were not so credulous as to believe that all these buildings were intended merely for the accommodation of a trader. Being distrustful of their intentions, we were anxious for them to leave off building, —Black Hawk, Autobiography Almost from the beginning, the fort was attacked by Sauk and other tribes
