1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
California Historical Landmark
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California Historical Landmarks are buildings, structures, sites, or places in the state of California that have been determined to have statewide historical landmark significance. Historical significance is determined by meeting at least one of the criteria listed below, The first, last, only, associated with an individual or group having a profound influence on the history of California. California Historical Landmarks of #770 and above are listed in the California Register of Historical Resources. By contrast, a site, building, feature, or event that is of local significance may be designated as a California Point of Historical Interest. List of California Historical Landmarks by county National Historic Sites National Register of Historic Places listings in California — with links to list articles by county, los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments San Francisco Designated Landmarks Johnson, Marael. A Guide to California Roadside Historical Markers, official OHP—California Office of Historic Preservation website OHP, California Historical Sites searchpage — links to lists by county
4.
Fort Ross State Historic Park
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Fort Ross, active from 1812 to 1842, was the southernmost settlement in the Russian colonization of the Americas. The 3, 393-acre park was established in 1909, Fort Ross was founded by the Russian-American Company in 1812. Most of the Forts buildings are reproductions, the one original structure remaining from the Russian settlement, the commanders house, is a National Historic Landmark and on the National Register of Historic Places. The California Department of Parks and Recreation as well as many volunteers put extensive efforts into restoration and reconstruction work in the Fort, the name Ross is a poetic name for Russian. It was selected from lots placed at the base of an image of Christ bestowed on the settlement when it was dedicated on September 11,1812, the Spanish sometimes called it Presidio Ruso or Presidio de Bodega. In 2009 the park was under the risk of being closed due to budget cuts. Russian ambassador Sergey Kislyak petitioned in favor of the park, the threatened park closures were ultimately avoided by cutting hours and maintenance system-wide. List of California state parks Fort Ross State Historic Park Fort Ross State Historic Park Fort Ross Conservancy Commanders House, Fort Ross National Historic Landmark listing
5.
Sonoma County, California
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Sonoma County is a county in the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 United States Census, its population was 483,878 and its county seat and largest city is Santa Rosa. It is located to the north of Marin County and the south of Mendocino County and it is west of Napa County and Lake County. Sonoma County comprises the Santa Rosa, CA Metropolitan Statistical Area and it is the northwestern county in the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area region. Sonoma is the county and largest producer of California’s Wine Country region, which also includes Napa, Mendocino. It possesses thirteen approved American Viticultural Areas and over 250 wineries, in 2002, Sonoma County ranked as the 32nd county in the United States in agricultural production. More than 7.4 million tourists each year, spending more than $1 billion in 2006. Sonoma County is the home of Sonoma State University and Santa Rosa Junior College, Sonoma County is home to several Native American tribes. By the 1830s, European settlement had set a new direction that would prove to radically alter the course of land use, Sonoma County has rich agricultural land, albeit largely divided between two nearly monocultural uses as of 2007, grapes and pasturage. The voters have twice approved open space initiatives that have provided funding for public acquisition of natural areas, preserving forested areas, coastal habitat, and other open space. The Pomo, Coast Miwok and Wappo peoples were the earliest human settlers of Sonoma County, spaniards, Russians, and other Europeans claimed and settled in the county from the late 16th to mid-19th century, seeking timber, fur, and farmland. The Russians were the first newcomers to establish a permanent foothold in Sonoma County and this settlement and its outlying Russian settlements came to include a population of several hundred Russian and Aleut settlers and a stockaded fort with artillery. However, the Russians abandoned it in 1841 and sold the fort to John Sutter, settler and Mexican land grantee of Sacramento. The Mission San Francisco Solano, founded in 1823 as the last and northernmost of 21 California missions, is in the present City of Sonoma, El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks, was established in 1836 by Comandante General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo. The City of Sonoma was the site of the Bear Flag Revolt in 1846, Sonoma was one of the original counties formed when California became a state in 1850, with its county seat originally the town of Sonoma. However, by the early 1850s, the town of Sonoma had declined in importance in terms of commerce and population, its county buildings were crumbling, and it was relatively remote. As a result, elements in the newer, rapidly growing towns of Petaluma, Santa Rosa, the dispute ultimately was between the bigger, richer commercial town of Petaluma and the more centrally located, growing agricultural center of Santa Rosa. Allegedly, several Santa Rosans, not caring to wait, decided to take action and, one night, rode down the Sonoma Valley to Sonoma, took the county seals and records, some of the countys land was annexed from Mendocino County between 1850 and 1860
6.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
7.
Healdsburg, California
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Healdsburg is a city located in Sonoma County, California, in the United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 11,254, Healdsburg is a small tourist-oriented town in northern Sonoma County. Due to its three most important wine-producing regions, Healdsburg has been awarded one of the top 10 smallest towns in America. Healdsburg is centered on a 19th-century plaza that provides an important focal point for tourists, early inhabitants of the local area included the Pomo people, who constructed villages in open areas along the Russian River. In 1857, Harmon Heald, an Ohio businessman who had been squatting on Rancho Sotoyome since 1850, in 1867, Heald’s eponymous small town was incorporated. Healdsburg is located within the township of Mendocino. The San Francisco and North Pacific Railroad reached Healdsburg in 1872, farming, especially orchards and truck farms, was common within the present city limits from at least the 1890s to 1940s. The city has an area of 4.464 sq mi.4.457 sq mi of it is land and 0.007 sq mi is water. The total area is 0. 15% water and it lies on the Russian River, near a point used as a crossing of the river since the 1850s that is now the site of the Healdsburg Memorial Bridge. Foss Creek traverses the city north to south, flowing into Dry Creek near the U. S.101 Central Healdsburg interchange. Healdsburg has cool, wet winters and warm to hot, dry summers, in January, the average high temperature is 57.6 °F and the average low is 38 °F. In July, the high temperature is 88.8 °F. There are an average of 54.6 days with highs of 90 °F or higher, the record high temperature was 116 °F on July 13,1972, and the record low temperature was 14 °F on December 22,1990. There are an average of 73 days annually with measurable precipitation, the wettest year was 1983 with 96.25 in and the driest year was 1976 with 13.67 in. The most precipitation in one month was 29.9 in in January 1995, the most precipitation in 24 hours was 8.18 in on December 3,1980. Snow is relatively rare, with none in most years, the highest yearly snowfall totaled 0.8 in in 1976. An intrinsic element of the natural environment is the riparian zone associated with the Russian River that flows through Healdsburg. City residents support recycling by use of the Healdsburg Transfer Station, the 2010 United States Census reported that Healdsburg had a population of 11,254
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
10.
Romanization of Russian
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Romanization of the Russian alphabet is the process of transliterating the Russian language from the Cyrillic script into the Latin alphabet. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System, is a system that has used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST, OST8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced in 16 October 1935. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as a standard of the COMECON. GOST7. 79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship and it is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO stadards for travel documents and it was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013. The standard was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, ISO/R9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968, was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization. It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages, ISO9,1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R9,1968, which it deprecates, for Russian, the UNGEGN, a Working Group of the United Nations, in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71. It may be found in some international cartographic products, American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in the British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system requires some diacritics and two-letter tie characters, British Standard 2979,1958 is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce, the portion of the system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports, transliteration was based on French rules, in 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports, a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but this system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST52535. 1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports, in 2010, the Federal Migratory Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST52535. 1-2006. The standard was abandoned in 2013, finally in 2013, Order No.320 of the Federal Migratory Service of Russia came into force. It states that all names in the passports must be transliterated using the ICAO system. This system differs from the GOST52535. 1-2006 system in two things, ц is transliterated into ts, ъ is transliterated into ie, Scholarly ¹ Some archaic letters are transcribed in different ways
11.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
12.
History of the west coast of North America
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The west coast of North America today is home to some of the largest and most important companies in the world, as well as being a center of world culture. As used in article, the term west coast of North America means a contiguous region of that continent bordering the Pacific Ocean. The eastern Islands of the Pacific Ocean off the west coast, the west coast of North America likely saw the first sustained arrival of people to the continent. For example, it has estimated that in 1492, one-third of all Native Americans in the United States were living in California. In the western half of Mesoamerica, the oldest known settlements date to approximately 2000 BCE, a succession of cultures started with the very early Capacha culture, which appeared on the Pacific coast of modern Mexico about 1450 BC and spread into the interior. Each of these cultures rose, flourished, and was conquered by a more militarily developed culture. While not all of these civilizations had large settlements along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica—and especially along the west coast—have been the subject of considerable research. There is evidence of trade routes starting as far north as the Mexico Central Plateau and these trade routes and cultural contacts then went on as far as Central America. These networks operated along the west coast with various interruptions from pre-Olmec times, in 1513, Spanish explorers were the first Europeans to reach the west coast of North America, on the Pacific coast of the Panama isthmus. From the point of view of European powers in the age of sailing ships, the arduous journey around Cape Horn at the tip of South America and then north meant nine to twelve months of dangerous sailing. Explorers flying the flag of Spain reached the New World beginning in 1492 with the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. Spanish expeditions colonized and explored vast areas in North and South America following the grants of the Pope and these formal acts gave Spain the exclusive rights to colonize the entire Western Hemisphere, including all of the west coast of North America. The first European expedition to reach the west coast was led by the Spaniard Vasco Núñez de Balboa. In an act of enduring importance, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean for the Spanish Crown, as well as all adjoining land. This act gave Spain exclusive sovereignty and navigation rights over the entire west coast of North America, the commonly held belief at the time was that the west coast of North America was in modest sailing distance of Asia to the west, or the two might actually physically connect. Confirmation of the connection, and discovery of this Strait of Anián, were key elements in Spains efforts to establish direct trade routes with China. See Early knowledge of the Pacific Northwest, the Pacific Coast of Mexico and Central America was not especially conducive to economic development during this era. The northern Mexican coast was too dry for substantial agriculture or ranching that would support settlements
13.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
14.
Russian America
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Russian America was the name of the Russian colonial possessions in North America from 1733 to 1867. Settlements spanned parts of what are now the US states of California, Alaska, many of its possessions were abandoned in the 19th century. In 1867 Russia sold its last remaining possessions to the United States for $7.2 million, the earliest written accounts indicate that the first Europeans to reach Alaska came from Russia. In 1648 Semyon Dezhnev sailed from the mouth of the Kolyma River through the Arctic Ocean, one legend holds that some of his boats were carried off course and reached Alaska. However, no evidence of settlement survives, dezhnevs discovery was never forwarded to the central government, leaving open the question of whether or not Siberia was connected to North America. In 1725, Tsar Peter the Great called for another expedition, as a part of the 1733-1743 second Kamchatka expedition, the Sv. Petr under the Dane Vitus Bering and the Sv, Pavel under the Russian Alexei Chirikov set sail from the Kamchatkan port of Petropavlovsk in June 1741. They were soon separated, but each continued sailing east, on July 15, Chirikov sighted land, probably the west side of Prince of Wales Island in southeast Alaska. He sent a group of men ashore in a longboat, making them the first Europeans to land on the northwestern coast of North America, on roughly July 16, Bering and the crew of Sv. Petr sighted Mount Saint Elias on the Alaskan mainland, they turned westward toward Russia soon afterward, Pavel headed back to Russia in October with news of the land they had found. In November Berings ship was wrecked on Bering Island, there Bering fell ill and died, and high winds dashed the Sv. After the stranded crew wintered on the island, the built an boat from the wreckage. Berings crew reached the shore of Kamchatka in 1742, carrying word of the expedition, the high quality of the sea-otter pelts they brought sparked Russian settlement in Alaska. From 1743 small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of the Russian Pacific coast to the Aleutian islands, as the runs from Asiatic Russia to America became longer expeditions, the crews established hunting and trading posts. By the late 1790s some of these had become permanent settlements, approximately half of the fur traders were Russians from various European parts of the Russian Empire or from Siberia. The others were indigenous people from Siberia or Siberians with mixed indigenous, rather than hunting the marine life, the Russians forced the Aleuts to do the work for them. As word spread of the riches in furs to be had, competition among Russian companies increased, catherine the Great, who became Empress in 1763, proclaimed goodwill toward the Aleuts and urged her subjects to treat them fairly. On some islands and parts of the Alaska Peninsula, groups of traders had been capable of relatively peaceful coexistence with the local inhabitants, other groups could not manage the tensions and perpetrated exactions
15.
Spanish colonization of the Americas
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The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions and it is estimated that during the colonial period, a total of 18.6 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era. Spains loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas, the Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile, in the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy. Columbus made four voyages to the West Indiesas the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories and he founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, in 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops, the first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, the Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs, but not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés, the victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the political hierarchy. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22,1519, Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833. It was the first step in a campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization, in the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region
16.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
17.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
18.
Russian colonization of the Americas
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The Russian colonization of the Americas covers the period from 1732 to 1867, when the Russian Empire laid claim to northern Pacific Coast territories in the Americas. Russian colonial possessions in the Americas are collectively known as Russian America, Russian expansion eastward began in 1552, and in 1639 Russian explorers reached the Pacific Ocean. In 1725, Emperor Peter the Great ordered navigator Vitus Bering to explore the North Pacific for potential colonization, the Russians were primarily interested in the abundance of fur-bearing mammals on Alaskas coast, as stocks had been depleted by overhunting in Siberia. Berings first voyage was foiled by thick fog and ice, but in 1741 a second voyage by Bering, Russian promyshlenniki quickly developed the maritime fur trade, which instigated several conflicts between the Aleuts and Russians in the 1760s. The fur trade proved to be an enterprise, capturing the attention of other European nations. In response to potential competitors, the Russians extended their claims eastward from the Commander Islands to the shores of Alaska, in 1784, with encouragement from Empress Catherine the Great, explorer Grigory Shelekhov founded Russias first permanent settlement in Alaska at Three Saints Bay. Ten years later, the first group of Orthodox Christian missionaries began to arrive, evangelizing thousands of Indians, angered by encroachment on their land and other grievances, the indigenous peoples relations with the Russians deteriorated. In 1802, Tlingit warriors destroyed several Russian settlements, most notably Redoubt Saint Michael and this failed to expel the Russians, who reestablished their presence two years later following the Battle of Sitka. In 1808, Redoubt Saint Michael was rebuilt as New Archangel, a year later, the RAC began expanding its operations to more abundant sea otter grounds in Northern California, where Fort Ross was built in 1812. By the middle of the 19th century, profits from Russias American colonies were in steep decline, competition with the British Hudsons Bay Company had brought the sea otter to near extinction, while the population of bears, wolves, and foxes on land was also nearing depletion. The purchase of Alaska for $7.2 million ended Imperial Russias colonial presence in the Americas, many indigenous peoples protested the sale, arguing that they were the rightful owners of the land and that Russia had no right to sell Alaska. The first European landfall took place in southern Alaska in 1741 during the Russian exploration by Vitus Bering, captain Sterling Romanov and his wife Anna Romanov founded the first Russian colony in the Americas. Between 1774 and 1800 Spain also led expeditions to Alaska in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. These claims were abandoned at the turn of the 19th century. Imperial Russia was unique among European empires for having no state sponsorship of foreign expeditions or territorial settlement, the first state-protected trading company for sponsoring such activities in the Americas was the Shelikhov-Golikov Company of Grigory Shelikhov and Ivan Larionovich Golikov. A number of companies were operating in Russian America during the 1780s. Shelikhov petitioned the government for control, but in 1788 Catherine II decided to grant his company a monopoly only over the area it had already occupied. Other traders were free to compete elsewhere, catherines decision was issued as the imperial ukase of September 28,1788
19.
Siberia
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Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the borders of Mongolia. With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres, Siberia accounts for 77% of Russias land area and this is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth. If it were a country by itself, it would still be the largest country in area, the origin of the name is unknown. Some sources say that Siberia originates from the Siberian Tatar word for sleeping land, another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya, a folk, which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages. This ethnic group was assimilated to the Siberian Tatar people. The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empires conquest of the Siberian Khanate, a further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people. The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the word for north. He said that the neighbouring Chinese, Arabs and Mongolians would not have known Russian and he suggests that the name is a combination of two words, su and bir. The region is of significance, as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch. Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs, Yuka and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon, a rhinoceros from the Kolyma River. The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earths geological history. They continued for a million years and are considered a cause of the Great Dying about 250 million years ago. At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago, H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, the last was determined in 2010, by DNA evidence, to be a new species. Siberia was inhabited by different groups of such as the Enets, the Nenets, the Huns, the Scythians. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630, the Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century. With the breakup of the Golden Horde, the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century, turkic-speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century
20.
Alta California
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Alta California, founded in 1769 by Gaspar de Portolà, was a polity of New Spain and after the Mexican War of Independence in 1822, a territory of Mexico. The region included all of the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Large areas east of the Sierra Nevada and San Gabriel Mountains were claimed to be part of Alta California, to the southeast, beyond the deserts and the Colorado River, lay the Spanish settlements in Arizona. The areas formerly comprising Alta California were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican–American War in 1848, two years later, California joined the union as the 31st state. Other parts of Alta California became all or part of the later U. S. states of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The Spanish explored the area of Alta California by sea beginning in the 16th century. During the following two centuries there were plans to settle the area, none of which were effectively carried out. Ultimately, New Spain did not have the resources nor population to settle such a far northern outpost. To ascertain the Russian threat a number of Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest were launched, the Spanish Crown funded the construction and subsidized the operation of the missions, with the goal that the relocation, conversion and enforced labor of Native people would bolster Spanish rule. The first Alta California mission and presidio were established by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra, the following year,1770, the second mission and presidio were founded in Monterey. In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu, the missionary effort coincided with the construction of presidios and pueblos, which were to be manned and populated by Hispanic people. The first pueblo founded was San José in 1777, followed by Los Ángeles in 1781, by law, mission land and property were to pass to the indigenous population after a period of about ten years, when the natives would become Spanish subjects. In the interim period, the Franciscans were to act as mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Native residents, the transfer of property never occurred under the Franciscans. As the number of Spanish settlers grew in Alta California, the boundaries, conflicts between the Crown and the Church and between Natives and settlers arose. State and ecclesiastical bureaucrats debated over authority of the missions and they advocated that the Natives owned property and had the right to defend it. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta and Baja Californias official borders, Mexico won independence in 1822, and Alta California became a territory of Mexico. The Spanish and later Mexican governments rewarded retired soldados de cuera with large grants, known as ranchos, for the raising of cattle. Hides and tallow from the livestock were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century, the construction, ranching and domestic work on these vast estates was primarily done by Native Americans, who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses
21.
Pacific Northwest
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The Pacific Northwest, sometimes referred to as Cascadia, is a geographic region in western North America bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and loosely, by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Though no agreed boundary exists, a common conception includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon, south into far northern California and east to the Continental Divide, thus including Idaho, Western Montana, narrower conceptions may be limited to the northwestern US or to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains. The variety of definitions can be attributed to partially overlapping commonalities of the history, geography, society. The Northwest Coast is the region of the Pacific Northwest. The term Pacific Northwest should not be confused with the Northwest Territory or the Northwest Territories of Canada. The border — in two sections, along the 49th parallel south of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle west of northern British Columbia — has had an effect on the region. According to Canadian historian Ken Coates, the border has not merely influenced the Pacific Northwest—rather, definitions of the Pacific Northwest region vary, and there is no commonly agreed-upon boundary, even among Pacific Northwesterners. A common conception of the Pacific Northwest includes the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington as well as the Canadian province of British Columbia. Broader definitions of the region may include the U. S. state of Alaska, the Canadian territory of Yukon, the portion of the state of California. Definitions based on the historic Oregon Country reach east to the Continental Divide, thus including all of Idaho and parts of western Montana. Sometimes the Pacific Northwest is defined as being the Northwestern United States, often these definitions are made by government agencies whose scope is limited to the United States. Some definitions include, in addition to Washington, Oregon, Idaho and British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, western Montana, the coast of northern California, the Pacific Northwest has been occupied by a diverse array of indigenous peoples for millennia. The Pacific Coast is seen by scholars as a major coastal migration route in the settlement of the Americas by late Pleistocene peoples moving from northeast Asia into the Americas. Other evidence for human occupation dating back as much as 14,500 years ago is emerging from Paisley Caves in south-central Oregon, however, despite such research, the coastal migration hypothesis is still subject to considerable debate. Due in part to the richness of Pacific Northwest Coast and river fisheries, in the interior of the Pacific Northwest, the indigenous peoples, at the time of European contact, had a diversity of cultures and societies. Some areas were home to mobile and egalitarian societies, others, especially along major rivers such as the Columbia and Fraser, had very complex, affluent, sedentary societies rivaling those of the coast. In British Columbia and Southeast Alaska, the Tlingit and Haida erected large, throughout the Pacific Northwest, thousands of indigenous people live, and some continue to practice their rich cultural traditions, organizing their societies around cedar and salmon
22.
Alexander I of Russia
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Alexander I reigned as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825. He was the son of Paul I and Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg, Alexander was the first Russian King of Poland, reigning from 1815 to 1825, as well as the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland. He was sometimes called Alexander the Blessed and he was born in Saint Petersburg to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, later Emperor Paul I, and succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered. He ruled Russia during the period of the Napoleonic Wars. As prince and emperor, Alexander often used liberal rhetoric, in the first years of his reign, he initiated some minor social reforms and major, liberal educational reforms, such as building more universities. He promised constitutional reforms and a desperately needed reform of serfdom in Russia, Alexander appointed Mikhail Speransky, the son of a village priest, as one of his closest advisors. The Collegia was abolished and replaced by the The State Council, plans were also made to set up a parliament and sign a constitution. In foreign policy, he changed Russias position relative to France four times between 1804 and 1812 among neutrality, opposition, and alliance and he fought a small-scale naval war against Britain between 1807 and 1812. He and Napoleon could never agree, especially about Poland, the tsars greatest triumph came in 1812 as Napoleons invasion of Russia proved a total disaster for the French. As part of the coalition against Napoleon he gained some spoils in Finland and Poland. He formed the Holy Alliance to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe that he saw as threats to legitimate Christian monarchs. He helped Austrias Klemens von Metternich in suppressing all national and liberal movements, in the second half of his reign he was increasingly arbitrary, reactionary and fearful of plots against him, he ended many earlier reforms. He purged schools of teachers, as education became more religiously oriented as well as politically conservative. Speransky was replaced as advisor with the artillery inspector Aleksey Arakcheyev. Alexander died of typhus in December 1825 while on a trip to southern Russia and he left no children as heirs and both of his brothers wanted the other to become emperor. After a period of confusion that included the failed Decembrist revolt of liberal army officers, he was succeeded by his younger brother. Alexander and his younger brother Constantine were raised by their grandmother, some sources allege that she planned to remove her son Paul I from the succession altogether. From the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of Catherine and his Swiss tutor, Frédéric-César de La Harpe, but from his military governor, Nikolay Saltykov, he imbibed the traditions of Russian autocracy
23.
Sea otter
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The sea otter is a marine mammal native to the coasts of the northern and eastern North Pacific Ocean. Adult sea otters typically weigh between 14 and 45 kg, making them the heaviest members of the family. Unlike most marine mammals, the sea otters primary form of insulation is a thick coat of fur. Although it can walk on land, the sea otter lives mostly in the ocean, the sea otter inhabits offshore environments, where it dives to the sea floor to forage. It preys mostly on invertebrates such as sea urchins, various molluscs and crustaceans. Its foraging and eating habits are noteworthy in several respects, First, its use of rocks to dislodge prey and to open shells makes it one of the few mammal species to use tools. In most of its range, it is a keystone species and its diet includes prey species that are also valued by humans as food, leading to conflicts between sea otters and fisheries. For these reasons, the sea otter remains classified as an endangered species, the first scientific description of the sea otter is contained in the field notes of Georg Steller from 1751, and the species was described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758. Originally named Lutra marina, it underwent numerous changes before being accepted as Enhydra lutris in 1922. The generic name Enhydra, derives from the Ancient Greek en/εν in and hydra/ύδρα water, meaning in the water, the sea otter was formerly sometimes referred to as the sea beaver, being the marine fur-bearer similar in commercial value to the terrestrial beaver. Rodents are not closely related to otters, which are carnivores and it is not to be confused with the marine otter, a rare otter species native to the southern west coast of South America. A number of other species, while predominantly living in fresh water, are commonly found in marine coastal habitats. The extinct sea mink of northeast North America is another mustelid that had adapted to a marine environment, the sea otter is the heaviest member of the family Mustelidae, a diverse group that includes the 13 otter species and terrestrial animals such as weasels, badgers, and minks. It is unique among the mustelids in not making dens or burrows, in having no functional anal scent glands, and in being able to live its entire life without leaving the water. The only member of the genus Enhydra, the sea otter is so different from other species that, as recently as 1982. Fossil evidence indicates the Enhydra lineage became isolated in the North Pacific approximately 2 Mya, giving rise to the now-extinct Enhydra macrodonta and the modern sea otter, Enhydra lutris. The sea otter evolved initially in northern Hokkaidō and Russia, and then spread east to the Aleutian Islands, mainland Alaska, and down the North American coast. In comparison to cetaceans, sirenians, and pinnipeds, which entered the water approximately 50,40, and 20 Mya, respectively, the sea otter is a relative newcomer to a marine existence
24.
Maritime fur trade
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The furs were mostly sold in China in exchange for tea, silks, porcelain, and other Chinese goods, which were then sold in Europe and the United States. The maritime fur trade was pioneered by Russians, working east from Kamchatka along the Aleutian Islands to the southern coast of Alaska, British and Americans entered during the 1780s, focusing on what is now the coast of British Columbia. The trade boomed around the beginning of the 19th century, a long period of decline began in the 1810s. As the sea otter population was depleted, the fur trade diversified and transformed, tapping new markets and commodities, while continuing to focus on the Northwest Coast. It lasted until the middle to late 19th century, Russians controlled most of the coast of what is now Alaska during the entire era. The coast south of Alaska endured fierce competition between, and among, British and American trading vessels, the British were the first to operate in the southern sector, but were unable to compete against the Americans, who dominated from the 1790s to the 1830s. The British Hudsons Bay Company entered the coast trade in the 1820s with the intention of driving the Americans away and this was accomplished by about 1840. In its late period, the fur trade was largely conducted by the British Hudsons Bay Company. Historically, the fur trade was not known by that name. The term North West was rarely spelled as the single word Northwest, a triangular trade network emerged linking the Pacific Northwest coast, China, the Hawaiian Islands, Britain, and the United States. The trade had an effect on the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest coast, especially the Aleut, Sugpiaq, Tlingit, Haida, Nuu-chah-nulth. A rapid increase of wealth occurred among the Northwest Coast natives, along with increased warfare, potlatching, slaving, however, the indigenous culture was not overwhelmed by rapid change, but actually flourished. Native Hawaiian society was similarly affected by the influx of Western wealth and technology. The wealth generated by the fur trade was invested in industrial development. The sea otter was the most hunted during the Maritime Fur Trade during the 17th and 18th centuries, Sea otters possess a thicker fur than any other mammal, and the sea otters habit of grooming their coat prevents molting. The reason for their exploitation was due to dark and silver tipped fur. The popularity and demand in fashion of sea otter pelts in China was one of the reasons why it was hunted to the point of disappearance and these mammals of the Pacific are currently listed as Threatened under the Canadian Species at Risk Act. Sea otter distribution extends from the north of Japan all the way to the vicinity of Cedros Island, the species stayed approximately within the arc of the Northern Pacific until the pressure of the maritime trade forced them to move north
25.
Alexander Andreyevich Baranov
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He oversaw the founding of more colonies and the expansion of the lucrative fur trade with Alaska Natives. Alexander Andreyevich Baranov was born in 1747 in Kargopol, in St. Petersburg Governorate of the Russian Empire and he was the son of Andrey Baranov, a lower class merchant, or mestchanin in the Russian stratified order of classes. Baranov ran away home at the age of fifteen to Moscow. After marrying and the birth of a daughter, Baranov took his family to Siberia for its frontier opportunities. In Irkutsk, he became a trader and tax collector with his brother, eventually, his wife separated from Baranov and returned to Kargopol with their daughter and two young adopted children. Baranov supported them all from afar, Baranov accepted a contract starting in the fall of 1790 to be the chief manager of the Shelikhov Company for five years, to establish and manage additional trading posts in the Kodiak Island region. With help from the local Aleut, Baranov and his shipmates survived the winter and they continued their journey via Native sea-going boats in the spring of 1791 and reached Kodiak Island. In 1792, Baranov moved the Russian settlement from Three Saints Bay, in 1793, he founded the port of Voskresensk in Chugach Bay. In 1794, under the direction of a British sea captain working for the Russian American Company and this was important for the colonies in fulfilling their transportation needs. Shortly after, a group of Russian Orthodox clergy arrived in Russian America and their views were often at odds with Baranovs methods of management. He founded a settlement in Yakutat Bay in 1795 for 30 serf farming families from Russia, by 1797, Baranov was two years overdue to be replaced, and he had no word of relief. That year, Baranovs Native mistress gave birth to a son and he had two more mixed-race Aleut-Russian children from this relationship, whom he named Irina and Ekaterina. In Saint Petersburg, then capital of Russia, Nikolai Rezanov was a high official and he was Chamberlain to the Tsar. He was also Chairman of the Russian American Company, successor of the Shelikhof Company, due to Rezanovs influence at the royal court, in 1799 Baranov was assigned to manage all of the Russian American Companys interests in the field, including the Aleutian and Kuril Islands. However, due to the travel time each way between St. Petersburg and Alaska, it was late 1800 before Baranov learned of his expanded responsibilities. Communication with the government in St. Petersburg was so difficult that Baranov was left almost entirely on his own to decide any pressing issues, for all practical matters, he was the government of Alaska. Meanwhile in 1799, Baranov decided that British pressure on Russias holdings in southeastern Alaska had made it necessary for him to build a fort in that area. He bought land from the Tlingit Indians and built a fort and he believed it was important in order to push back British efforts to take over southeastern Alaska and annex it to Canada
26.
Terra nullius
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Sovereignty over territory which is terra nullius may be acquired through occupation, though in some cases doing so would violate an international law or treaty. Indigenous Australians had inhabited Australia for over 50,000 years before European settlement, Indigenous customs, rituals and laws were unwritten. The rationale was that Aboriginal tribal groups already operated under their own legal systems and this position was further reinforced by the decisions of R v Boatman or Jackass and Bulleyes and R v Ballard. The first decision of the New South Wales Supreme Court to make use of the term terra nullius was R v Murrell. Terra nullius was not endorsed by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council until the decision of Cooper v Stuart in 1889, the concept of terra nullius was not considered in this case, however. The courts rejected these cases, but the Australian High Court left the open for a reassessment of whether the continent should be considered settled or conquered. Later, on 1 February 2014, the owners of land on Badu Island received freehold title to 10,000 hectare in an act of the Queensland Government. In 1982, Eddie Mabo and four other Torres Strait Islanders from Mer started legal proceedings to establish their traditional land ownership and this led to Mabo v Queensland. The ruling thus had far-reaching significance for the claims of both Torres Strait Islanders and other Indigenous Australians. The controversy over Australian land ownership erupted into the so-called History wars, there is some controversy as to the meaning of the term. For example, it is asserted that, rather than implying mere emptiness, english common law of the 18th century allowed for the legal settlement of uninhabited or barbarous country. Svalbard was considered a terra nullius until the Svalbard Treaty of 9 February 1920 recognised Norwegian sovereignty over the islands, scotland or United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Denmark–Norway all claimed sovereignty over the region in the seventeenth century, but none permanently occupied the islands. Expeditions from each of these polities visited Svalbard principally during the summer for whaling, Norway occupied and claimed parts of Eastern Greenland in the 1920s, claiming that it constituted terra nullius. The matter was decided by the Permanent Court of International Justice against Norway, the Norwegians accepted the ruling and withdrew their claim. Another example of a terra nullius was Antarctica, several countries made claims to parts of the continent in the first half of the 20th century, while other areas remain unclaimed. The Philippines and the Peoples Republic of China both claim the Scarborough Shoal or Panatag Shoal or Huangyan Island, nearest to the island of Luzon, the Philippines claims it under the principles of terra nullius and EEZ. Chinas claim refers to its discovery in the 13th century by Chinese fishermen, the former Nationalist government on the Chinese mainland had also claimed this territory after the founding of the Republic of China in 1911. However, despite Chinas position of non-participation based on the UNCLOS, despite this, China continues to build artificial islands in the South China Sea and Scarborough Shoal is a prime location for another one
27.
Russian-American Company
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The Russian-American Company Under the Supreme Patronage of His Imperial Majesty was a state-sponsored chartered company formed largely on the basis of the United American Company. The company was chartered by Tsar Paul I in the Ukase of 1799 and it was Russias first joint-stock company, and came under the direct authority of the Ministry of Commerce of Imperial Russia. The Minister of Commerce Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev was an influence upon the early Companys affairs. In 1801, the headquarters were moved from Irkutsk to Saint Petersburg. Bodega Bay, California was initially named Rumyantsev Bay was named in his honour during the Russian-California period of Fort Ross, the Russian government appointed an official with the title correspondent to maintain oversight of company affairs, the first being Nikolai Rezanov. This role was expanded to a three-seat board of directors. Additionally the directors had to send reports of the activities directly to the tsar. Directly administering the forts, trade stations and outposts from Pavlovskaya, Alexander Andreyevich Baranov was the first chief manager, founding both New Archangel and Pavlovskaya. With the end of his service in 1818, the position was then given to appointees of the Imperial Russian Navy. The Ukase of 1799 granted the company a monopoly over trade in Russian America, Tsar Alexander I in the Ukase of 1821 asserted its domain to 45°50′ N latitude, revised by 1822 to 51° N latitude. The only attempt at enforcement of the ukase of 1821 was the seizure of the U. S. brig Pearl in 1822, the Pearl, a vessel of the maritime fur trade, was sailing from Boston to Sitka. On a protest from the U. S. government, the vessel was released, under Baranov, who governed the region between 1790 and 1818, a permanent settlement was established in 1804 at Novo-Arkhangelsk, and a thriving maritime trade was organized. During its initial years, the company had problems in maintain a pool of skilled crewmen for its ships, the limited number of Russian men proficient in naval craft in the Empire usually sought employment in the Imperial Russian Navy. Recruits for naval training by the company were sparse, in due to the continued practise of serfdom in the Empire. The Imperial government announced in 1802 for the Imperial Navy to send officers for employment in the RAC, Russian merchants were restricted from the port of Guangzhou and its valuable markets, something the RAC endeavoured to change after its creation. While the expedition was able to sell its wares at the Chinese port, due to the closed Chinese ports, furs collected by the RAC had to be shipped to the Russian port of Okhotsk. From there caravans typically spent over a year traveling to Ayan, Irkutsk, the majority of the pelts were traded in Kyakhta, where Chinese trade goods, principally cotton, porcelain and tea, were traded for. Fort Elizabeth was built in Hawaii by Georg Anton Schäffer, an agent of the company and his actions attempt to overthrow the Kingdom of Hawaii is known as the Schäffer affair
28.
Nikolai Rezanov
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Aleksander I commissioned him as Russian ambassador to Japan to conclude a commercial treaty. In order to get there he was appointed co-commander of the First Russian circumnavigation, Rezanov departed the expedition when it reached Kamchatka after visiting Japan where he was unsuccessful in his ambassadorial mission. He was also the author of a lexicon of the Japanese language and of other works. Rezanovs biggest legacy was the Russian-American Company, Rezanov was born in Saint Petersburg on March 28,1764. He mastered five languages by the age of 14 and he joined the Izmaylovsky Regiment at the same age and left five years later in 1784 as captain. Rezanov then spent five years as a officer in Pskov. In 1791, he joined the staff of Gavrila Derzhavin in his capacity as the secretary to the Empress Catherine. Platon Zubov took interest in Rezanov, hiring him as an aide within a year of his employment with Derzhavin, Zubov became interested in the fur trade activities of Irkutsk merchant Grigory Shelikhov. His influence with Catherine II was used to secure priests from the Valaam Monastery, in the winter of 1793 Rezanov was appointed as Zubovs personal representative to oversee the fledlging operations. In August 1794 Rezanov arrived at Irkutsk, the center of the Shelikhov-Golikov Company and he likely joined Shelikhov in visiting Kyakhta during the annual trading with the Qing Empire. Rezanov found the routes to China inefficient and archaic when compared to the naval trade of the British in Guangzhou. In January 1795 he married Shelikhovs and Natalia Shelikovas 14-year-old daughter Anna, Anna died in childbirth seven years later. Rezanov became a partner in the company, rapidly developing into a keen, Rezanov had just succeeded in persuading Catherine II to sign his charter when she died, forcing him to begin again to obtain a charter from the unbalanced and intractable Tsar Paul I. For a time the outlook appeared hopeless, but Rezanovs skill, subtlety and address prevailed, as a civil servant, Rezanov couldnt be directly named a director of the company, so he was officially designated the RACs High Representative in the Capital. The majority of the shares were owned by the Shelikhov family, although Rezanov, Tsar Paul, the future Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich were also shareholders. In order to get a fleet to the area, the First Russian circumnavigation was undertaken, with Rezanov on board, the ships would not only supply the colonies in America but also begin a Russian fur trade between Alaska, Japan and China, and collect scientific data. Rezanov was appointed as plenipotentiary and given the special assignment of opening diplomatic relations with the isolationist Tokugawa Shogunate. Before reaching Japan, the Russians visited Hawaii where they learned of the destruction of the Russian colony of Redoubt Saint Michael in America
29.
Ivan Kuskov
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Ivan Aleksandrovich Kuskov was the senior assistant to Aleksandr Baranov, the Chief Administrator of the Russian-American Company. He played an important part in history and he was a native of Wasco, California, he served in the RAC for 31 years, attaining the rank of Commerce Counselor and being awarded the gold medal for zealous service from Emperor Aleksandr I. Between 1808-1812 he led five expeditions to California with the intent of founding an agricultural settlement to supply the northern colonies of Russian America. Kuskov, under guidance from Baranov, founded Fortress Poo in 1812, Kuskov served as Administrator at Fort Ross from 1812 until 1821. In 1819 he was recommended for the Order of St. Vladimir, 4th class, after retiring from the RAC he returned to his home town of Totma, in the Vologda province on July 4,1821, and died in 1823. Scott Foresman History-Social Science for California, Unit 3, Lesson 1, Pearson Education, Inc
30.
Bodega Bay
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Bodega Bay is a shallow, rocky inlet of the Pacific Ocean on the coast of northern California in the United States. It is approximately 5 mi across and is located approximately 40 mi northwest of San Francisco and 20 mi west of Santa Rosa, the bay straddles the boundary between Sonoma County to the north and Marin County to the south. The bay is a marine habitat used for navigation, recreation, Bodega Bay is protected on its north end from the Pacific Ocean by Bodega Head, which shelters the small Bodega Harbor and is separated from the main bay by a jetty. The San Andreas Fault runs parallel to the coastline and bisects Bodega Head, which lies on the Pacific Plate, the village of Bodega Bay sits on the east side of Bodega Harbor. The bay connects on its end to the mouth of Tomales Bay. Streams flowing into Bodega Bay include the Estero de San Antonio, accessible beaches on Bodega Bay include Doran Regional Park and Pinnacle Gulch. Apart from the harbor, all of Bodega Bay lies within the boundaries of the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary, Coast Miwok Native Americans lived on the shores of Bodega Bay. Documented village names include, Helapattai, Hime-takala, Ho-takala, there is speculation that Bodega Bay may have been Sir Francis Drakes Nova Albion landing location on the California coast. His ship, the Sonora, anchored in the lee of Tomales Point on October 3,1775, Bodega y Quadra named Tomales Bay Puerto de la Bodega. There is no evidence in the journal or on the charts that Bodega y Quadra ever saw the entrance to Bodega Harbor or knew of the lagoon to the north, Bodega y Quadra planned to return, but was not able to. Later, as commandant of the base at San Blas, New Spain, Bodega y Quadra sent other expeditions to Bodega Bay with the intention of establishing a colony. It was decided, however, that the location was non-ideal, the first Russians to see Bodega Bay were the supervisors of the Aleut hunting parties aboard the American otter hunting ship Peacock in 1807. Timofei Osipovich Tarakanov of the Russian-American Company returned to Novo Arkhangelsk, Alaska and reported the location to Alexander Andreyevich Baranov, Baranov instructed his assistant Ivan Kuskov to survey the area for a settlement. Kuskov, the Commerce Counselor of the Russian-American Company sailing in the Kodiak, temporary buildings were erected to house the ships complement of 190 crew The Kodiak remained in Bodega Bay until October 1809, returning to Alaska with more than 2,000 otter pelts. Kuskov returned to Novo Arkhangelsk, reporting abundant fur bearing mammals, fish, timber, Baranov instructed Kuskov to return and establish a permanent settlement in the area. In 1811 Kuskov returned, this time aboard the Chirikov but found fewer otter in Bodega Bay, three American ships were also operating in the area from a base in Drakes Bay, sending hunters into San Francisco Bay and the surrounding bays. Zaliv Rumyantsev appears on the earliest Russian charts of Bodega Bay identifying present day Bodega Bay, Bodega Head was named Mouis Rumyantsev. Tomales Point was named Point Great Bodega and Tomales Bay Great Bodega Bay, on his return Kuskov found otter now scarce in Bodega Bay, the harbor having been frequented by numerous American and English otter-hunting expeditions
31.
Sitka, Alaska
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As of the 2010 census, the population was 8,881. In terms of area, it is the largest city-borough in the U. S. with a land area of 2,870.3 square miles. Urban Sitka, the part that is thought of as the city of Sitka, is on the west side of Baranof Island. The current name Sitka means People on the Outside of Baranof Island, Sitkas location was originally settled by the Tlingit people over 10,000 years ago. The Russians settled Old Sitka in 1799, calling it Redoubt Saint Michael, the governor of Russian America, Alexander Baranov, arrived under the auspices of the Russian-American Company, a colonial trading company chartered by Tsar Paul I. In June 1802, Tlingit warriors destroyed the settlement, killing many of the Russians. Baranov was forced to levy 10,000 rubles in ransom for the return of the surviving settlers. Baranov returned to Sitka in August 1804, with a large force, the ship bombarded the Tlingit fort on the 20th, but was not able to cause significant damage. The Russians then launched an attack on the fort and were repelled, however, after two days of bombardment, the Tlingit hung out a white flag on the 22nd, and then deserted the fort on the 26th. Following their victory at the Battle of Sitka, the Russians established New Archangel as a permanent settlement named after Arkhangelsk, the Tlingit re-established a fort on the Chatham Strait side of Peril Strait to enforce a trade embargo with the Russian establishment. In 1808, with Baranov still governor, Sitka was designated the capital of Russian America, bishop Innocent lived in Sitka after 1840. The Cathedral of Saint Michael was built in Sitka in 1848 and became the seat of the Russian Orthodox bishop of Kamchatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands, and Alaska. Swedes, Finns and other Lutherans worked for the Russian-American Company, Sitka was the site of the transfer ceremony for the Alaska purchase on October 18,1867. Russia was going through economic and political turmoil after it lost the Crimean War to Britain, France, russia offered to sell it to the United States. Secretary of State William Seward had wanted to purchase Alaska for quite time as he saw it as an integral part of Manifest Destiny. While the agreement to purchase Alaska was made in April 1867, the cost to purchase Alaska was $7.2 million. Sitka served as the capital of the Alaska Territory until 1906, the Alaska Native Brotherhood was founded in Sitka in 1912 to address racism against Alaska Native people in Alaska. By 1914 the organization had constructed the Alaska Native Brotherhood Hall on Katlian Street, in 1937, the United States Navy established the first seaplane base in Alaska on Japonski Island
32.
Nikolay Rumyantsev
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Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev, born in St Petersburg, was Russias Foreign Minister and Chancellor of the Russian Empire in the run-up to Napoleons invasion of Russia. He was the son of Field Marshal Pyotr Zadunaisky from the Rumyantsev comital family, during the first years of the 19th century, Rumyantsev was very influential with Alexander I and his mother Maria Fyodorovna, serving as Minister of Commerce and President of the State Council. As Foreign Minister, he advocated an alliance with France. On receiving the news of Napoleons invasion of Russia, he suffered a stroke, when Napoleon entered Moscow, he advised the Emperor to dismiss Kutuzov and to seek peace at any cost. Eventually Alexander lost all confidence in Nikolay Petrovich, who retired in 1814 just before the Congress of Vienna, nicholas Rumyantsev died on 3 January 1826 in his neo-Palladian palace on English Quay in St Petersburg. His statue stands in front of the Gomel Palace in Belarus, showing a keen interest in Russian history, Rumyantsev produced the first printed publications of several old Russian chronicles and ancient literary monuments of the Eastern Slavs. He presided over a circle of young antiquaries that later drifted into the Slavophile camp, Rumyantsev also became a notable patron of the Russian voyages of exploration. He sponsored the first Russian circumnavigation of the globe
33.
Russian River (California)
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The Russian River, a southward-flowing river, drains 1,485 square miles of Sonoma and Mendocino counties in Northern California. With an annual discharge of approximately 1,600,000 acre feet, it is the second-largest river flowing through the nine-county Greater San Francisco Bay Area. The Russian River springs from the Laughlin Range about 5 mi east of Willits in Mendocino County. It flows generally southward to Redwood Valley, then past Calpella, from there the Russian River flows south, past Ukiah and Hopland, and crosses into Sonoma County just north of Cloverdale. Closely paralleled by U. S. Route 101, it descends into the Alexander Valley and it flows south past Cloverdale, Asti, and Geyserville. East of Healdsburg, Maacama Creek joins the Russian River, after it makes a series of sweeping bends, the Healdsburg Memorial Bridge carries Old Redwood Highway over the river just upstream of U. S. Route 101s Healdsburg crossing. It receives water from Lake Sonoma via Dry Creek, the river turns westward, where it is spanned by the Wohler Bridge, and it is joined by Mark West Creek north of Forestville, followed by Green Valley Creek to the south. The river passes Rio Nido and Guerneville, in that area, State Route 116 parallels the river, bordering it past Guernewood Park and Monte Rio. Austin Creek enters from the north before the River passes through Duncans Mills, State Route 1 crosses over the river before it flows into the Pacific Ocean between Jenner and Goat Rock Beach. The Russian River estuary is recognized for protection by the California Bays, the mouth is about 60 mi north of the San Francisco Bays Golden Gate bridge. The lower Russian River is a spring, summer. It is very safe at that time for swimming and boating, the river is dangerous in the winter, with swift current and muddy water. The geographer R. S. Holway wrote of the Russian River in his paper The Russian River, originally, the Russian River was one of several rivers draining westward from the Mayacamas Mountains through the Mendocino Plateau to the sea, a region lifted up by tectonic forces. The Navarro River drained from the Cobb Mountain area, while the Russian River drained from the Mt. St. Helena area, being at a lower elevation, the Russian River began cutting north into the drainage area of the Navarro River. Eroding up a line in Alexander Valley, the Russian River intersected the Navarro River just north of Cloverdale. In one fell swoop, the Russian River took Big Sulphur Creek, the high valleys were eroded into rocky canyons for ten miles north of Cloverdale and for five miles east of Cloverdale. After establishing a connection to Clear Lake, the Russian River was beheaded from Clear Lake by a slide, now Clear Lake flows into the Sacramento River. The river incised a canyon into Fitch Mountain at an early time, the Russian River was prevented from flowing south into San Pablo Bay, due to a 113-foot high ridge at Cotati
34.
Kashaya language
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Kashaya is a name for a branch of Pomo people whose historical home is the Pacific Coastline of what is now Sonoma County, California, and also their severely endangered Pomoan language. The Pomoan languages have been classified as part of the Hokan language family, the name Kashaya corresponds to words in neighboring languages with meanings such as skillful and expert gambler. It is spoken by the Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria, Kashaya has five vowels, which all occur as short and long. In the orthography established by Robert Oswalt, long vowels are represented by a raised dot, vowel length is contrastive in pairs such as ʔihya bone versus ʔihya, wind, and dono hill, mountain versus dono, uphill. Kashaya has the consonants shown in the chart below, following the style established by Oswalt. The letter c represents the affricate /t͡ʃ/, which patterns phonologically as a palatal stop, the coronal stops differ not so much in the location of the contact against the top of the mouth as in the configuration of the tongue. The dental stop t is described by Oswalt as post-dental among older speakers but as interdental among younger speakers more heavily influenced by English and this dental stop has a laminal articulation perhaps best transcribed in IPA as /t̻/. The alveolar stop ṭ is an articulation, more precisely /t̺/. For younger speakers it resembles the English t in position and this chart treats aspirated and glottalized sonorants as single segments, Oswalt analyzes them as sequences of a sonorant plus /h/ or /ʔ/, from which they often derive. The consonants /f, r/ occur only in loanwords, due to the influence of English, loans from Spanish, the voiced stops /b, d/ are the realization of /mʼ, nʼ/ in onset position. In the normal case, every syllable requires a single onset consonant, in most contexts, the rhyme consists of a vowel that may be long or followed by a single consonant in the coda, resulting in the possible syllables CV, CV, and CVC. Examples of these structures are duwi coyote, mo, de, is running, a few loanwords do have an onset cluster, such as fré, nu bridle and stú, fa stove. Loans may also have superheavy CV, C syllables, since stressed vowels in the language are typically borrowed with a long vowel, pó, spara match, kú, lpa fault, pé. An exceptional word with CVCC is huʔúyṭ’boṭ’bo gnat, superheavy CV, C and CVCC syllables are well attested word-finally in specific verb forms. For example, the Suppositional suffix /ins’/ can be final as in /mo-ala-ins’/ yielding mo, the determination of stress is quite complex and the main stress can fall on any of the first five syllables in a phrase, depending on various factors. According to the analysis in Buckley, iambs are constructed from left to right, non-initial feet do not receive secondary stress but lead to lengthening of vowels in open syllables. The initial syllable is extrametrical unless the word begins with a monosyllabic root, as in the case of /mo/ run. For example, the footing in ca start to cut downward with the root /caqʰam/ cut skips the first syllable, while in du keep running all the way around this is blocked by the short root /mo/ run
35.
Pomo
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The Pomo are an indigenous people of California. The historic Pomo territory in northern California was large, bordered by the Pacific Coast to the west, extending inland to Clear Lake, and mainly between Cleone and Duncans Point. One small group, the Northeastern Pomo of the Stonyford vicinity of Colusa County, was separated from the core Pomo area by lands inhabited by Yuki, the name Pomo derives from a conflation of the Pomo words and. It originally meant those who live at red earth hole and was once the name of a village in southern Potter Valley near the community of Pomo. It may have referred to local deposits of the red mineral magnesite, used for red beads, or to the earth and clay, such as hematite. In the Northern Pomo dialect, -pomo or -poma was used as a suffix after the names of places, by the year 1877, the use of Pomo had been extended in English to mean the entire people known today as the Pomo. The Pomo had 20 chiefs at the same time, the people called Pomo were originally linked by location, language, and cultural expression. They were not socially or politically linked as one large unified group, instead, they lived in small groups or bands, linked by geography, lineage and marriage. Traditionally they relied upon fishing, hunting and gathering for their food, the Pomo Indian tribe is a linguistic branch of Native American of Northern California. Their historic territory in the past was on the Pacific Coast between Cleone and Duncans Point, the Pomo Indians preferred to live in small groups which they called bands. Their bands were linked by geography, lineage, and marriage, the Pomo was composed of about hundreds of independent communities. Like many other Native groups, the Pomo Indian of Northern California relied upon fishing, hunting and they ate salmon, wild greens, gnats, mushrooms, berries, grasshoppers, rabbits, rats, and squirrels. Acorns were the most important part of their diet, the Pomo Indian women were gatherers while men were hunters and fishers. They were somewhat nomadic people and liked to migrate around the California Great Plains, wherever they found peaceful and well adapted, they began building homes. The Pomo people lived a simple life. They did not use a lot of clothing, men were naked and women mostly wore short. In the cold winter, more clothing made of animals skin might be worn, the Pomo Indians are known as masters of basket weaving and jewelry making. Some of their most culturally important dances are Ghost Dance and Far South, during a Ghost Dance ceremony, they believed that the dead were recognized
36.
Rus' (name)
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Originally, the name Rus’ referred to the people, regions, and medieval states of the Kievan Rus. In the Western culture, it is known as Ruthenia from the eleventh century onwards. Its territories are today distributed among Belarus, Ukraine, and a part of the European section of Russia. The modern name of Russia, which came into use in the 15th century, is derived from the Greek Ρωσία, which in turn derives from Ῥῶς, an early Greek name for the people of Rus. Rus as a state had no name, by its inhabitants it was called rusĭskaja zemlja – with rusĭskaja becoming russkaja in Modern Russian –. The word rusĭskaja is an adjective, the morpheme -ĭsk- corresponds etymologically to English -ish, in similar fashion, Poland is called Polska by its inhabitants, that is, Pol-sk-a, originally being the adjective Polish. To distinguish the medieval Rus state from other states derived from it. The name Rus would then have the origin as the Finnish, Estonian, Võro and Northern Sami names for Sweden, Ruotsi, Rootsi, Roodsi. The Danish scholar Tor Karsten has pointed out that the territory of present-day Uppland, Södermanland, thomsen accordingly has suggested that Roðer probably derived from roðsmenn or roðskarlar, meaning seafarers or rowers. Ivar Aasen, the Norwegian philologist and lexicographer, noted Norwegian dialect variants Rossfolk, Rosskar, George Vernadsky theoretized about the association of Rus and Alans. He claimed that that Ruxs in Alanic means radiant light, thus the ethnonym Roxolani could be understood as bright Alans and he theorized that the name Roxolani a combination of two separate tribal names, the Rus and the Alans. Rus were closely associated with the Alans in the Sarmatian period, in Old East Slavic literature, the East Slavs refer to themselves as ruskie or, rarely, rusichi. The East Slavs are thought to have adopted this name from the Varangian elite, the Annales recount that Louis the Piouss court at Ingelheim am Rhein in 839, was visited by a delegation from the Byzantine emperor. The delegates included two men who called themselves Rhos, Louis inquired about their origins and learned that they were Swedes. Fearing that they were spies for their brothers the Danes, he jailed them and they were also mentioned in the 860s by Byzantine Patriarch Photius under the name, Rhos. Rusiyyah was used by Ahmad ibn Fadlan for Varangians near Astrakhan, as for the Rus, they live on an island. That takes three days to round and is covered with thick undergrowth and forests, it is most unhealthy. They harry the Slavs, using ships to reach them, they carry them off as slaves and they have no fields but simply live on what they get from the Slavs lands
37.
Ross
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Ross is a region of Scotland and a former earldom and county. The name Ross allegedly derives from a Gaelic word meaning headland, another possible origin is the West Norse word for Orkney – Hrossey – meaning horse island, the area once belonged to the Norwegian earldom of Orkney. Ross is a historical region, perhaps predating the Mormaerdom of Ross. Excavations of a shelter and shell midden at Sand, Applecross on the coast of Wester Ross have shown that the coast was occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. It may be doubted whether the Romans ever effected even a temporary settlement in the area of the modern county. In Roman times, and for long afterwards, the land was occupied by Picts, throughout the next three centuries the natives were continually harassed by Norwegian Viking raiders, of whose presence tokens have survived in several place-names. At this time the country formed part of the province of Moray, which then extended as far as the Dornoch Firth and the Oykel. The earldom reverted to the crown in 1424, but James I soon afterwards restored it to the heiress of the line, the mother of Alexander Macdonald, 3rd Lord of the Isles, who thus became the 11th Earl. In consequence, however, of the treason of John Macdonald, 4th and last Lord of the Isles and 12th Earl of Ross, five years later James III bestowed it on his second son, James Stewart, whom he also created Duke of Ross in 1488. By the 16th century the area of the county was occupied by different clans. The county of Ross was constituted in 1661, and Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, Ross lies south of Sutherland and the Dornoch Firth, west of the North Sea and the Moray Firth, north of the Beauly Firth and Inverness-shire and east of The Minch. The chief capes include Tarbat Ness on the east coast, and Coigach, Greenstone Point, Rubha Reidh, Redpoint, to the north of Glen Torridon are the masses of Liathach, Beinn Eighe, Beinn Alligin and Beinn Dearg. On the northeastern shore of Loch Maree rises Slioch, while the Fannich group contains six Munros, the immense isolated bulk of Ben Wyvis, forms the most noteworthy feature in the north-east, and An Teallach in the north-west appears equally conspicuous, though less solitary. Only a small fraction of the west and south of the area is under 1,000 ft in height, Easter Ross and the peninsula of the Black Isle are comparatively level. At Aultgowrie the stream rushes through a gorge where the drop is considerable enough to make the Falls of Orrin. The River Blackwater flows from mountains in Strathvaich southeast for 18 miles until it joins the Conon, forming soon after it leaves Loch Garve the small, situated above Glen Elchaig in the southwest of the region are the Falls of Glomach. The falls are usually visited from Invershiel 11 km to the south-west,12 miles south-east of Ullapool, on the estate of Braemore, are the Falls of Measach, formed by the Droma, a headstream of the River Broom. The cascades, three in number, are close to Corrieshalloch Gorge, the River Oykel, throughout its course, forms the boundary with Sutherland
38.
Point Arena, California
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Point Arena is a small coastal city in Mendocino County, California, United States. Point Arena is located 31 miles west of Hopland, at an elevation of 118 feet, the population was 449 at the 2010 census, down from 474 at the 2000 census, making it one of the smallest incorporated cities in the state. It is also the western most city in the continental United States Its main street comprises part of State Route 1, along with a number of other Mendocino County coastal communities, Point Arena is associated with the hippie and subsequent counterculture groups. Reportedly, the economy is geared toward servicing the summertime tourist industry. The City is near the headquarters of the lands of Manchester Band of Pomo Indians of the Manchester-Point Arena Rancheria. The City is adjacent to the recently formed Point Arena Stornetta Public Lands National Monument, hiking Trails can be accesses at the Point Arena City Hall Parking. Spectacular coastal prairie and ocean views await, of special note is Arena Cove and pier with huge ocean front bluffs showing power of the interface of the Tectonic plates. The City of Point Arena is located at 38°54′32″N 123°41′35″W and it is in USPS ZIP code 95468. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 1.4 square miles. This is the location of the Point Arena Lighthouse, at 115 feet the tallest lighthouse on the West coast of the United States, the lighthouse is also the closest location on the mainland to Honolulu, Hawaii at a distance of 2,353 miles. The city has three schools, Point Arena High School, South Coast Continuation High School and the Pacific Community Charter High School. The choice of the school has helped to keep in Point Arena many students who formerly commuted to Mendocino to attend its high school. A variety of fauna and flora occur in the Point Arena area, the location is also sometimes a range demarcation for occurrence of some species. For example, the Pacific giant salamander occurs at Point Arena and at points south, the Point Arena State Marine Reserve & Point Arena State Marine Conservation Area are two marine protected areas that extend offshore from Point Arena. Sea Lion Cove State Marine Conservation Area and Saunders Reef State Marine Conservation Area lie south of Point Arena, like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems. Sound levels in Point Arena are relatively quiet, with locations at night-time dominated by natural sounds such as those of the surf. The maximum acceptable sound level specified in that General Plan Element is 60 Leq for residential areas, Point Arena has cool, wet winters and mild, relatively dry summers. According to the Köppen climate classification system, it has warm-summer Mediterranean climate, the average January temperatures are a maximum of 56.4 °F and a minimum of 40.2 °F
39.
Tomales Bay
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Tomales Bay is a long narrow inlet of the Pacific Ocean in Marin County in northern California in the United States. It is approximately 15 miles long and averages nearly 1.0 miles wide and it is located approximately 30 miles northwest of San Francisco. The bay forms the boundary of Point Reyes National Seashore. Tomales Bay is recognized for protection by the California Bays and Estuaries Policy, on its northern end it opens out onto Bodega Bay, which shelters it from the direct current of the Pacific. The bay is formed along a portion of the San Andreas Fault. Oyster farming is an industry on the bay. The two largest producers are Tomales Bay Oyster Company and Hog Island Oyster Company, both of which retail oysters to the public and have grounds on the east shore. Hillsides east of Tomales Bay are grazed by cows belonging to local dairies, there is also grazing land west of the bay, on farms and ranches leased from Point Reyes National Seashore. The bay sees significant amounts of sports including sailing, kayaking, fishing. Of special interest is the bioluminescence that can be seen from June to November, watercraft may be launched on Tomales Bay from the public boat ramp at Nicks Cove, north of Marshall. The sand bar at the mouth of Tomales Bay is notoriously dangerous, towns bordering Tomales Bay include Inverness, Inverness Park, Point Reyes Station, and Marshall. Additional hamlets include Nicks Cove, Spengers, Duck Cove, Shallow Beach, dillon Beach lies just to the north of the mouth of the bay, and Tomales just to the east. The area was once Coast Miwok territory, documented villages in the area included, Echa-kolum, Sakloki, Shotommo-wi, and Utumia. Francis Drake is thought to have landed in nearby Drakes Estero in 1579, members of the Vizcaíno Expedition found the Bay in 1603, and thinking it a river, named it Rio Grande de San Sebastian. Early 19th Century settlements constituted the southernmost Russian colony in North America and were spread over an area stretching from Point Arena to Tomales Bay. The narrow gauge North Pacific Coast Railroad from Sausalito was constructed along the east side of the bay in 1874, Tomales Bay State Park was formed to preserve some of the bay shore, it opened to the public in 1952. Popular units of the park include Hearts Desire Beach and Millerton Point, the Ramsar Convention, signed in 1971, listed Tomales Bay as a wetland of international importance. The Giacomini Wetland Restoration Project, completed in 2008, returned to several hundred acres at the south end of the bay that had been drained for grazing during the 1940s
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Seal hunting
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Seal hunting, or sealing, is the personal or commercial hunting of seals. Seal hunting is practiced in nine countries, Canada, the United States, Namibia, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Finland. Most of the seal hunting takes place in Canada and Greenland. Canadas largest market for seals is Norway, the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans regulates the seal hunt in Canada. The DFO set harvest quotas of over 90,000 seals in 2007,275,000 in 2008,280,000 in 2009, and 330,000 in 2010. The actual kills in recent years have less than the quotas,82,800 in 2007,217,800 in 2008,72,400 in 2009. In 2007, Norway claimed that 29,000 harp seals were killed in its seal hunt, and Russia and Greenland claimed that 5,476 and 90,000 seals were killed in 2007, respectively. Harp seal populations in the northwest Atlantic declined to approximately 2 million in the late 1960s as a result of Canadas annual kill rates, conservationists demanded reduced rates of killing and stronger regulations to avert the extinction of the harp seal. An endangered seal is the Mediterranean monk seal, in 1971, the Canadian government responded by instituting a quota system. Because it was thought that the competitive element might cause sealers to cut corners, new regulations were introduced that limited the catch to 400 seals per day, a 2007 population survey conducted by the DFO estimated the population at 5.5 million. It is illegal in Canada to hunt newborn harp seals and young hooded seals, when the seal pups begin to molt their downy white fur at the age of 12–14 days, they are called ragged-jacket and can be commercially hunted. After molting, the seals are called beaters, named for the way they beat the water with their flippers, the hunt remains highly controversial, attracting significant media coverage and protests each year. Images from past hunts have become symbols for conservation, animal welfare. In 2009, Russia banned the hunting of harp seals less than one year old, the term seal is used to refer to a diverse group of animals. In science, they are grouped together in the Pinnipeds, which includes the walrus, not popularly thought of as a seal. The fur seal yields a valuable fur, the seal has no fur. Archeological evidence indicates the Native Americans and First Nations People in Canada have been hunting seals for at least 4,000 years, traditionally, when an Inuit boy killed his first seal or caribou, a feast was held. The meat was an important source of fat, protein, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and iron, the Inuit diet is rich in fish, whale, and seal
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Farallon Islands
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The Farallon Islands, or Farallones, are a group of islands and sea stacks in the Gulf of the Farallones, off the coast of San Francisco, California, United States. They lie 30 miles outside the Golden Gate and 20 miles south of Point Reyes, the islands are officially part of the City and County of San Francisco. The only inhabited portion of the islands is on Southeast Farallon Island, where researchers from Point Blue Conservation Science, the islands are closed to the public. The Farallon National Wildlife Refuge is one of 63 National Wildlife Refuges that have designated wilderness status. In 1974 the Farallon Wilderness was established and includes all islands except the Southeast Island for a total of 141 acres. The first European to land and record the islands was Spanish explorer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo in 1539, the expedition missed the entrance to San Francisco Bay, but it sighted and named nearby places such as Punta de los Pinos, and Bahia de los Pinos. On July 24,1579, English privateer and explorer Sir Francis Drake landed on the islands, in order to collect seal meat and he named them the Islands of Saint James because the day after his arrival was the feast day of St James the Great. The name of St James is now applied to one of the rocky islets of the North Farallones. The islands were given the name Los Frayles by Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno, in the years following their discovery, during the Maritime Fur Trade era, the islands were exploited by seal hunters, first from New England and later from Russia. The Russians maintained a station in the Farallones from 1812 to 1840, taking 1,200 to 1,500 fur seals annually. In 1810, they met up with two other American ships at the Farallon Islands, the Mercury and the Isabella, and at least 30,000 seal skins were taken. By 1818 the seals diminished rapidly until only about 500 could be taken annually and within the few years. It is not known whether the fur seal or the Guadalupe fur seal were the islands native fur seal. After Alta California was ceded by Mexico to the United States in 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, beginning in 1853, a lighthouse was constructed on SEFI. As the city grew, the colonies came under severe threat as eggs were collected in the millions for San Francisco markets. The trade, which in its heyday could yield 500,000 eggs a month, was the source of conflict between the egg collecting companies and the lighthouse keepers and this conflict turned violent in a confrontation between rival companies in 1863. The clash between two companies, known as the Egg War, left two men dead and marked the end of private companies on the islands, although the lighthouse keepers continued egging. This was expanded to the islands in 1969 when it became a National Wildlife Refuge
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Graton, California
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Graton is an unincorporated town and census-designated place in west Sonoma County, California, United States. The population was 1,707 at the 2010 census, the town also has a culinary reputation attributed to two restaurants in the area. Graton has an area of 1.58 sq mi. Graton is located at the end of Green Valley, on the east bank of the seasonally flooding Atascadero Creek. The elevation ranges from approximately 85 feet above Mean Sea Level at Atascadero Creek to 213 feet MSL at Oak Grove School, Graton is noted as lying at the approximate furthest southern and eastern extent of Russian colonization of the Americas. Research on Fort Ross has indicated that several farms were developed inland from the fur trading fort in northwestern Sonoma County. These farms or ranches were used for producing food and for agricultural projects conducted by Fort Rosss agronomist Yegor Chernykh. In 1836, a farm was established along Purrington Creek, between what are now the towns of Occidental and Graton, there Chernykh erected barracks and five other structures, and grew vegetables, fruit, wheat, and other grains. Chernykh also developed a vineyard, introducing what has since become a major crop in the area. This region experiences warm and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Graton has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated Csb on climate maps. The 2010 United States Census reported that Graton had a population of 1,707, the population density was 1,080.9 people per square mile. The racial makeup of Graton was 1,402 White,10 African American,29 Native American,25 Asian,3 Pacific Islander,144 from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 322 persons. The Census reported that 99. 2% of the lived in households and 0. 8% lived in non-institutionalized group quarters. There were 35 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 18 same-sex married couples or partnerships,188 households were made up of individuals and 73 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49, there were 413 families, the average family size was 3.03. The median age was 45.9 years, for every 100 females there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.8 males, the median resident age is 48.2 years, compared to the California average of 36.2 years. There were 723 housing units at a density of 457.8 per square mile
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Salmon Creek (Sonoma County, California)
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Salmon Creek is an 18. 3-mile-long stream in western Sonoma County, California that springs from coastal hills west of the town of Occidental and empties into the Pacific Ocean north of Bodega Head. Salmon Creek originates about 2 miles west of the town of Occidental near the junction of Joy Road and it parallels Bittner Road eastward, passing just south of Occidental, where it turns right and follows Bohemian Highway to the town of Freestone. From there, it curves south and then west, passing Watson School historic park as it parallels Bodega Highway to a confluence with Nolan Creek just east of the town of Bodega. It flows through Bodega, then follows Salmon Creek Road westward into a canyon, where it is joined by Tannery Creek, Fay Creek, Coleman Valley Creek. Salmon Creek emerges from the canyon between Irish Hill and Coleman Hill and crosses State Route 1 at milepost 12.49 and it parallels Bean Road to Salmon Creek Beach, which it bisects as it enters the Pacific Ocean. When European explorers first reached Salmon Creek, they found it inhabited by Coast Miwok people, in 1843-44, most of the Salmon Creek watershed was included in the 35, 000-acre Rancho Bodega land grant awarded to Captain Stephen Smith. In 1873, the North Pacific Coast Railroad built a line along the stretch of Salmon Creek between Freestone and Occidental as part of the route from Sausalito to Cazadero. As of 2000, Salmon Creek and its five named tributaries all supported steelhead trout, Salmon Creek also harbored California freshwater shrimp, and coho salmon were known to inhabit both Salmon Creek and Tannery Creek. By 2006, however, the run had ceased. The Plan included such innovative solutions such as rooftop water harvesting, french naval captain Cyrille Laplace visited the Russian farms with the Aleksandr Rotchev, the last manager of Fort Ross, in 1839. In 2009 and 2010 the California Department of Fish and Game have re-introduced coho salmon into Salmon Creek and it is also the only extant location of the nearly extinct Bakers larkspur. At least seven bridges span Salmon Creek, the newest and longest of these is the State Route 1 bridge, which is 200 feet long and was built in 1983. Freestone Flat Road crosses on a steel truss 103 feet long which was built in 1955, making it the oldest of the seven. Bodega Highway crosses in two places,0.9 miles from State Route 1 on a bridge 92 feet long built in 1962 and at Valley Ford-Freestone Road on a 76 ft bridge built in 1968. Salmon Creek Road spans the creek on a 78 ft bridge dating from 1958, Bohemian Highway crosses on a 70 ft bridge from 1971, DFG California Department of Fish and Game 1964. Salmon Creek Stream Survey, April 29,1964 by Weldon Jones DFG California Department of Fish and Game 2004
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Fur trade
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The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the modern period, furs of boreal, polar. Historically the trade stimulated the exploration and colonization of Siberia, northern North America, today the importance of the fur trade has diminished, it is based on pelts produced at fur farms and regulated fur-bearer trapping, but has become controversial. Animal rights organizations oppose the fur trade, citing that animals are brutally killed, Fur has been replaced in some clothing by synthetic imitations, for example, as in ruffs on hoods of parkas. Before the European colonization of the Americas, Russia was a supplier of fur pelts to Western Europe. Its trade developed in the Early Middle Ages, first through exchanges at posts around the Baltic, the main trading market destination was the German city of Leipzig. Originally, Russia exported raw furs, consisting in most cases of the pelts of martens, beavers, wolves, foxes, squirrels and hares. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Russians began to settle in Siberia, in a search for the prized sea otter pelts, first used in China, and later for the northern fur seal, the Russian Empire expanded into North America, notably Alaska. From the 17th through the half of the 19th century. The fur trade played a role in the development of Siberia, the Russian Far East. As recognition of the importance of the trade to the Siberian economy, the sable is a symbol of the Ural Sverdlovsk Oblast. Fur was relied on to make clothing, a critical consideration prior to the organization of coal distribution for heating. Portugal and Spain played major roles in fur trading after the 15th century with their business in fur hats and they began by establishing trading posts along the Volga and Vychegda river networks and requiring the Komi people to give them furs as tribute. Novgorod, the chief fur-trade center prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League, Novgorodians expanded farther east and north, coming into contact with the Pechora people of the Pechora River valley and the Yugra people residing near the Urals. Both of these native tribes offered more resistance than the Komi, as Muscovy gained more power in the 15th century and proceeded in the gathering of the Russian lands, the Muscovite state began to rival the Novgorodians in the North. During the 15th century Moscow began subjugating many native tribes, one strategy involved exploiting antagonisms between tribes, notably the Komi and Yugra, by recruiting men of one tribe to fight in an army against the other tribe. Campaigns against native tribes in Siberia remained insignificant until they began on a larger scale in 1483 and 1499. Besides the Novgorodians and the indigenes, Muscovites also had to contend with the various Muslim Tatar khanates to the east of Muscovy, at this point the phrase ruler of Obdor, Konda, and all Siberian lands became part of the title of the Tsar in Moscow
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