Fractional currency

$Fifty-cent fractional currency depicting Francis E. Spinner, with autograph signature$

Fifty-cent fractional currency depicting Francis E. Spinner, with autograph signature.

Fractional currency, also referred to as shinplasters, was introduced by the United States federal government following the outbreak of the Civil War. These fractional notes were in use between 21 August 1862 and 15 February 1876, and issued in 3, 5, 10, 15, 25, and 50 cent denominations across five issuing periods.^[1]^[2]^[3] The complete type set below is part of the National Numismatic Collection, housed at the National Museum of American History, part of the Smithsonian Institution.^{[nb 1]}

Encased postage designed by John Gault.

The Civil War economy catalyzed a shortage of United States coinage^[4]—gold and silver coins were hoarded given their intrinsic bullion value relative to irredeemable paper currency at the time.^[5]^[6] In late 1861, to help finance the Civil War, the U.S. government borrowed gold coin from New York City banks in exchange for Seven-thirties treasury notes^[7] and the New York banks sold them to the public for gold to repay the loan.^[7] In December 1861, the Trent Affair shook public confidence with the threat of war on a second front. The United States Department of the Treasury suspended specie payments^[8] and banks in New York City stopped redeeming paper money for gold and silver.^[9] In the absence of gold and silver coin, the premium for specie began to devalue paper currency.^[10] After the New York banks suspended specie payments (quickly followed by Boston and Philadelphia)^[11] the premium on gold rose from 1–3% over paper in early January 1862 to 9% over paper in June 1862,^[10] by which time one paper dollar was worth 91.69 cents in gold.^[10] This fueled currency speculation (e.g., redeeming banknotes for silver coin which was then sold at a premium as bullion),^[12] and created significant disruption across businesses and trade.^[13] Alternate methods of providing small change included the reintroduction of Spanish quarter dollars in Philadelphia,^[13] cutting dollar bills in quarters or halves,^[14] refusing to provide change (without charging a premium for providing silver coins),^[14] or the issuance of locally issued shinplasters (i.e., those issued by businesses or local municipalities), which was forbidden by law in many states.^[14]

Treasurer of the United States Francis E. Spinner has been credited with finding the solution to the shortage of coinage: he created postage currency (which led into the use of Fractional currency).^[15] Postage (or postal) currency was the first of five issues of US Post Office fractional paper money printed in 5-cent, 10-cent, 25-cent, and 50-cent denominations and issued from 21 August 1862 through 27 May 1863.^[16] Spinner proposed using postage stamps, affixed to Treasury paper,^[17] with his signature on the bottom (see illustration below). Based on this initiative, Congress supported a temporary solution involving fractional currency and on 17 July 1862 President Lincoln signed the Postage Currency Bill into law.^[3] The intent, however, was not that stamps should be a circulating currency.^[18]

The design of the First Issue (postage currency) was directly based on Spinner’s original handmade examples. Some varieties even had perforated stamp-like edge. While not actually legal tender, postage currency could be exchanged for United States Notes in $5 lots^[19] and were receivable in payment of all dues to the United States, up to $5.^{[nb 2]} Subsequent issues would no longer include images of stamps and were referred to as Fractional Currency. Despite the July 1862 legislation, postage stamps remained a form of currency until postage currency gained momentum in the spring of 1863.^[20] In 1863, Secretary Chase asked for a new fractional currency that was harder to counterfeit than the postage currency. The new fractional currency notes were different from the 1862 postage currency issues.^{[nb 3]} They were more colorful with printing on the reverse, and several anti-counterfeiting measures were employed: experimental paper, adding surcharges, overprints, blue end paper, silk fibers, and watermarks to name a few. Fractional currency shields which had single sided specimens were sold to banks to provide a standard for comparison for detecting counterfeits.^[21] Postage and fractional currency remained in use until 1876, when Congress authorized the minting of fractional silver coins to redeem the outstanding fractional currency.^[15]^[22]

Issuing periods and varieties[edit]

U.S. Fractional Currency issuing periods
Issuing period	Period dates	Denominations issued	Features/varieties^[23]
1First Issue	1862-08-2121 Aug 1862 27 May 1863	$0.05 $0.10 $0.25 $0.50	Issued as postage currency with two main varieties: 1) edges (straight versus perforated), and 2) monogram (presence or absence of the American Bank Note Co. monogram (ABCo) on the reverse).^{[nb 4]} All four denominations bear the stamp motif on the obverse.
2Second Issue	1863-10-0110 Oct 1863 23 Feb 1867	$0.05 $0.10 $0.25 $0.50	Introduction of numerous anti-counterfeiting measures: bronze oval (obverse), bronze ink surcharge (reverse), use of fiber paper.^{[nb 5]}
3Third Issue	1864-12-055 Dec 1864 16 Aug 1869	$0.03 $0.05 $0.10 $0.25 $0.50	Sporadic use of surcharges, signatures introduced (except 3-cent) both printed (PS) and autographed (AS), design features (or position indicators) – either the letter "a", the number "1", or both, on the extreme left obverse.^[25]
4Fourth Issue	1869-07-1414 Jul 1869 16 Feb 1875	$0.10 $0.15 $0.25 $0.50	Additional anti-counterfeiting measures: watermarked paper (“US”), embedding of large silk fibers, blue tinted end paper.^[26]
5Fifth Issue	1874-02-2626 Feb 1874 15 Feb 1876	$0.10 $0.25 $0.50	Color tinting in paper, silk fibers.^[27]

Inspiration, model, and proof for the First Issue (postage currency)
Spinner's initial signed design (photo)
Original model artwork
Working proof with pencil notations

Complete type set of United States fractional currency[edit]

List of United States fractional currency
Value	Series	Size^{[nb 6]}	Fr. No.^{[nb 7]}	Image	Portrait	Varieties^{[nb 8]}
0.05$0.05	1862-08-21First Issue	2827.565 x 43.5 mm	Fr.1231	$Five-cent first-issue fractional note$	Jefferson1Thomas Jefferson	1228 – Perforated; monogram 1229 – Perforated; no monogram 1230 – Straight; monogram 1231 – Straight; no monogram
0.10$0.10	1862-08-21First Issue	2827.565 x 43.5 mm	Fr.1240	$Ten-cent first-issue fractional note$	Washington1George Washington	1240 – Perforated; monogram 1241 – Perforated; no monogram 1242 – Straight; monogram 1243 – Straight; no monogram
0.25$0.25	1862-08-21First Issue	2947.565.5 x 45 mm	Fr.1280	$Twenty five-cent first-issue fractional note$	Jefferson2Thomas Jefferson	1279 – Perforated; monogram 1280 – Perforated; no monogram 1281 – Straight; monogram 1282 – Straight; no monogram
0.50$0.50	1862-08-21First Issue	2947.565.5 x 45 mm	Fr.1312	$fifty-cent first-issue fractional note$	Washington2George Washington	1310 – Perforated; monogram 1311 – Perforated; no monogram 1311a – Same, except 14 versus 12 perf/20 mm 1312 – Straight; monogram 1314 – Straight; no monogram
0.05$0.05	1863-10-10Second Issue	3078.565.5 x 47 mm	Fr.1232	$Five-cent second-issue fractional note$	Washington3George Washington	1232 – No surcharge 1233 – Surcharge “18-63” 1234 – Surcharge “18-63” and “S” 1235 – Surcharge “18-63” and “R-1”; Fiber paper
0.10$0.10	1863-10-10Second Issue	3078.565.5 x 47 mm	Fr.1246	$Ten-cent second-issue fractional note$	Washington4George Washington	1244 – No surcharge 1245 – Surcharge “18-63” 1246 – Surcharge “18-63” and “S” 1247 – Surcharge “18-63” and “I” 1248 – Surcharge “0-63” 1249 – Surcharge “18-63” and “T-1”
0.25$0.25	1863-10-10Second Issue	3078.565.5 x 47 mm	Fr.1284	$Twenty five-cent second-issue fractional note$	Washington5George Washington	1283 – No surcharge. 1284 – Surcharge “18-63” 1285 – Surcharge “18-63” and “A” 1286 – Surcharge “18-63” and “S” 1287 – Unissued Friedberg number 1288 – Surcharge “18-63” and “2” 1289 – Surcharge “18-63” and “T-1”; fiber paper 1290 – Surcharge “18-63” and “T-2”; fiber paper
0.50$0.50	1863-10-10Second Issue	3078.565.5 x 47 mm	Fr.1322	$fifty-cent second-issue fractional note$	Washington6George Washington	1314 – No surcharge 1315 – Unissued Friedberg number 1316 – Surcharge “18-63” 1317 – Surcharge “18-63” and “A” 1318 – Surcharge “18-63” and “1” 1319 – Unissued Friedberg number 1320 – Surcharge “18-63” and “0-1”; fiber paper 1321 – Surcharge “18-63” and “R-2”; fiber paper 1322 – Surcharge “18-63” and “T-1”; fiber paper
0.03$0.03	1864-12-05Third Issue	267366 x 40.5 mm	Fr.1226	$Three-cent third-issue fractional note$	Washington7George Washington	1226 – Portrait light background 1227 – Portrait dark background
0.05$0.05	1864-12-05Third Issue	294464 x 46 mm	Fr.1238	$Five-cent third-issue fractional note$	ClarkSpencer Clark	1236 – Red reverse 1237 – Red reverse; design letter “a” 1238 – Green reverse 1239 – Green reverse; design letter “a”
0.10$0.10	1864-12-05Third Issue	380781 x 47 mm	Fr.1254	$Ten-cent third-issue fractional note$	Washington8George Washington	1251 – 1254 Red reverse 1251 – Red reverse 1252 – Red reverse; design numeral “1” 1253 – Red reverse; (AS) Colby and Spinner 1254 – Red reverse; (AS) Jeffries and Spinner 1255 – 1256 Green reverse 1255 – Green reverse 1255a – Green reverse; (AS) Colby and Spinner 1256 – Green reverse; design numeral “1”
0.25$0.25	1864-12-05Third Issue	4488.595.5 x 47 mm	Fr.1294	$Twenty five-cent third-issue fractional note$	FessendenWilliam Fessenden	1291 – 1293 Red reverse 1291 – Red reverse 1292 – Red reverse; design letter “a” 1293 – Friedberg number removed from use 1294 – 1300 Green reverse 1294 – Green reverse 1295 – Green reverse; design letter “a” 1296 – Green reverse; large design letter “a” 1297 – Green reverse; surcharge “M-2-6-5”; fiber paper 1298 – Green reverse; same as 1297; design letter “a” 1299 – Green reverse; surcharge “M-2-6-5”; obverse ornamental designs in sold bronze overprint; fiber paper 1300 – Green reverse; same as 1299; design letter “a”
0.50$0.50	1864-12-05Third Issue	5472114 x 48 mm	Fr.1328	$fifty-cent third-issue fractional note$	Spinner1Francis Spinner	1324 – 1330 Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” 1324 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; no design figures 1325 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figures “1” and “a” 1326 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figure “1” 1327 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figure “a” 1328 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; (AS) Colby and Spinner 1329 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; (AS) Allison and Spinner 1330 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; (AS) Allison and New 1331 – 1334 Green reverse; no surcharge 1331 – Green reverse; no surcharge; no design figures 1332 – Green reverse; no surcharge; design figures “1” and “a” 1333 – Green reverse; no surcharge; design figure “1” 1334 – Green reverse; no surcharge; design figure “a” 1335 – 1338 Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” 1335 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; no design figures 1336 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figures “1” and “a” 1337 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figure “1” 1338 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figure “a”
0.50$0.50	1864-12-05Third Issue	5472114 x 48 mm	Fr.1339	$fifty-cent third-issue fractional note$	Spinner2Francis Spinner	1339 – Green reverse; no surcharge or design figures 1340 – Green reverse; design figures “1” and “a” 1341 – Green reverse; design figure “1” 1342 – Green reverse; design figure “a”
0.50$0.50	1864-12-05Third Issue	5472114 x 48 mm	Fr.1355	$fifty-cent third-issue fractional note$	JusticeJustice holding scales	1343 – 1346 Red reverse; no surcharge 1343 – Red reverse; no surcharge; no design figures 1344 – Red reverse; no surcharge; design figures “1” and “a” 1345 – Red reverse; no surcharge; design figure “1” 1346 – Red reverse; no surcharge; design figure “a” 1347 – 1350 Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” 1347 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; no design figures 1348 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figures “1” and “a” 1349 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figure “1” 1350 – Red reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; design figure “a” 1351 – 1354 Red reverse; surcharge “S-2-6-4”; (PS) 1351 – Red reverse; surcharge “S-2-6-4”; (PS); no design figures; fiber paper 1352 – Red reverse; surcharge “S-2-6-4”; (PS); design figures “1” and “a”; fiber paper In 2004, a Fr. 1352 (one of only three known), sold at public auction for $126,500.^[30] 1353 – Red reverse; surcharge “S-2-6-4”; (PS); design figure “1”; fiber paper 1354 – Red reverse; surcharge “S-2-6-4”; (PS); design figure “a”; fiber paper 1355 – 1357 Red reverse; (AS) Colby and Spinner 1355 – Red reverse; (AS) Colby and Spinner; no surcharge or design figures 1356 – Red reverse; (AS) Colby and Spinner; surcharge “A-2-6-5” 1357 – Red reverse; (AS) Colby and Spinner; surcharge “A-2-6-4”; fiber paper 1358 – 1361 Green reverse; no surcharge 1358 – Green reverse; no surcharge; no design figures 1359 – Green reverse; no surcharge; design figures “1” and “a” 1360 – Green reverse; no surcharge; design figure “1” 1361 – Green reverse; no surcharge; design figure “a” 1362 – 1365 Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (narrow) 1362 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (narrow); no design figures 1363 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (narrow); design figures “1” and “a” 1364 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (narrow); design figure “1” 1365 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (narrow); design figure “a”. narrow – spacing of the surcharge 1366 – 1369 Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (wide) 1366 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (wide); no design figures 1367 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (wide); design figures “1” and “a” 1368 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (wide); design figure “1” 1369 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5” (wide); design figure “a” wide – spacing of the surcharge 1370 – 1373a Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; fiber paper 1370 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; fiber paper; no design figures 1371 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; fiber paper; design figures “1” and “a” 1372 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; fiber paper; design figure “1” 1373 – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-5”; fiber paper; design figure “a” 1373a – Green reverse; surcharge “A-2-6-4”; fiber paper; (PS); no design figure
0.10$0.10	1869-07-14Fourth Issue	363479 x 46 mm	Fr.1259	$Ten-cent fourth-issue fractional note$	LibertyBust of Liberty	1257 – Large red seal; watermarked; silk fibers (pink) 1258 – Large red seal; silk fibers (pink) 1259 – Large red seal; silk fibers (violet); blue end paper 1260 – Does not exist 1261 – Smaller red seal; silk fibers (violet); blue end paper
0.15$0.15	1869-07-14Fourth Issue	409489 x 46 mm	Fr.1269	$Fifteen-cent fourth-issue fractional note$	ColumbiaBust of Columbia	1267 – Large red seal; watermarked; silk fibers (pink) 1268 – Large red seal; silk fibers (pink) 1269 – Large red seal; silk fibers (violet); blue end paper 1270 – Does not exist 1271 – Smaller red seal; silk fibers (violet); blue end paper
0.25$0.25	1869-07-14Fourth Issue	443996.5 x 46 mm	Fr.1303	$Twenty five-cent fourth-issue fractional note$	Washington9George Washington	1301 – Large red seal; watermarked; silk fibers (pink) 1302 – Large red seal; silk fibers (pink) 1303 – Large red seal; silk fibers (violet); blue end paper 1307 – Smaller red seal; silk fibers (violet); blue end paper^{[nb 9]}
0.50$0.50	1869-07-14Fourth Issue	4982106 x 47 mm	Fr.1374	$fifty-cent fourth-issue fractional note$	LincolnAbraham Lincoln	1374 – Large seal; watermarked; silk fibers (pink) 1375 – Delisted Friedberg number
0.50$0.50	1869-07-14Fourth Issue	4738103 x 46 mm	Fr.1376	$fifty-cent fourth-issue fractional note$	StantonEdwin Stanton	1376 – Small red seal; silk fibers (violet); blue end paper
0.50$0.50	1869-07-14Fourth Issue	494095 x 52 mm	Fr.1379	$fifty-cent fourth-issue fractional note$	DexterSamuel Dexter	1379 - Green seal; silk fibers (light violet); blue end paper
0.10$0.10	1874-02-26Fifth Issue	413181 x 51 mm	Fr.1265	$Ten-cent fifth-issue fractional note$	MeredithWilliam Meredith	1264 – Green seal 1265 – Red seal; long, thin key (in Treasury seal) 1266 – Red seal; short, thick key (in Treasury seal)
0.25$0.25	1874-02-26Fifth Issue	4557.7588.5 x 51.5 mm	Fr.1308	$Twenty five-cent fifth-issue fractional note$	WalkerRobert Walker	1308 – Long, thin key (in Treasury seal) 1309 – Short, thick key (in Treasury seal)
0.50$0.50	1874-02-26Fifth Issue	5858.25109.5 x 53.5 mm	Fr.1381	$fifty-cent fifth-issue fractional note$	CrawfordWilliam Crawford	1380 – Red seal; light pink paper on obvserse; silk fibers 1381 – Red seal; blue end paper; silk fibers

“…no portrait or likeness of any living person…”[edit]

Sherman-Grant 15-cent 3rd issue exists only as an unissued specimen.

Three people were depicted on fractional currency during their lifetime: Francis E. Spinner (Treasurer of the United States), William P. Fessenden (U.S. Senator and Secretary of the Treasury), and Spencer M. Clark (Superintendent of the National Currency Bureau).^[32] Both Spinner and Clark decided to have their portrait depicted on currency, which created controversy.^[33] Republican Representative Martin R. Thayer of Pennsylvania was an outspoken critic, suggesting that the Treasury's privilege of portrait selection for currency^[34] was being abused.^{[nb 10]} On 7 April 1866, led by Thayer,^[36] Congress enacted legislation specifically stating "that no portrait or likeness of any living person hereafter engraved, shall be placed upon any of the bonds, securities, notes, fractional or postal currency of the United States."^[37] On the date of passage, the plates for the 15-cent note depicting William Tecumseh Sherman and Ulysses S. Grant had not been completed and thus fell under the scope of the new law.^[38] The Sherman-Grant notes exist only as specimens.^[39]

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

^ All images are courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution.
^ The payment obligation printed on first issue notes states they are "Exchangeable for United States Notes by any Assistant Treasurer or designated U.S. Depositary in sums not less than five dollars. Receivable in payments of all dues to the U. States less than five dollars."^[1]
^ The payment obligation for the second issue was slightly different: "Exchangeable for United States Notes by the Assistant Treasurer and designated depositories of the U.S. in sums not less than three dollars. Receivable in payment of all dues to the United States less than five dollars except customs."^[1]
^ The reverse of the first issue was originally printed by the National Bank Note Company. As a security precaution, the Treasury moved the printing contract to the American Bank Note Company who added their monogram ABC to the reverse of the remaining first issue notes.^[1]
^ Also known as membrane paper; two sheets of paper bonded together with fibers embedded.^[24]
^ Sort by size is based on the surface area of the note in millimeters-squared. Margins and cut may affect the listed dimensions, but generally not more than +/- 2 mm
^ "Fr" numbers refer to the numbering system in the widely used Friedberg reference book. Fr. numbers indicate varieties existing within a larger type design.^[28]
^ Varieties are taken from the standard paper money reference by Arthur and Ira Friedberg,^[23] with additional descriptions in the Kravitz collector's guide^[29]
^ Fr.1304, 1305, and 1306 are unassigned.^[31]
^ "But now we see upon our current paper money not only the heads of the illustrious men of our country long since gathered to their fathers, but of living secretaries of the Treasury, and even of such subordinate officers as the superintendent of the Currency Printing Bureau, Mr. S.M. Clark."^[35]

References[edit]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Friedberg & Friedberg, p. 174.
^ Cuhaj, p. 401.
^ ^a ^b Kravitz
^ "Pastimes: Numismatics". The New York Times. 5 March 1989. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
^ Anderson, p. 303.
^ Reed, p. 298.
^ ^a ^b Mitchell, 1903, pp. 27–32.
^ Mitchell, 1902, p. 537.
^ Mitchell, 1903, pp. 37–38.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mitchell, 1902, p. 552.
^ Mitchell, 1903, p. 41.
^ Mitchell, 1902, p. 540.
^ ^a ^b Mitchell, 1902, p. 553.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mitchell, 1902, p. 554.
^ ^a ^b Blake, p. 32.
^ Knox, p. 104.
^ Spaulding, Elbridge Gerry (1869). History of the Legal Tender Paper Money issued during the Great Rebellion. Buffalo NY: Express Printing Co. pp. 165–166.
^ "History Timeline". Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Archived from the original on 14 January 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
^ Knox, p. 103.
^ Reed, p. 302.
^ Friedberg & Friedberg, p. 182.
^ Knox, pp. 104 and 109.
^ ^a ^b Friedberg & Friedberg, pp. 174–81.
^ Kravitz, p. 32.
^ Kravitz, pp. 34–39.
^ Kravitz, pp. 40–41.
^ Kravitz, p. 41.
^ Friedberg & Friedberg
^ Kravitz, pp. 30–41.
^ Heritage Currency Auctions – Central States 2005. Ivy Press. 2005. p. 65. ISBN 1932899642. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
^ Friedberg & Friedberg, p. 178.
^ "BEP Directors – Spencer M. Clark". Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
^ Cuhaj, p. 407.
^ "Portraits & Designs". U.S. Treasury Website. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
^ "Congress". The Nation. New York: Joseph H. Richards. 2: 387. 29 March 1866. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
^ Rothbard, p. 126.
^ National Monetary Commission, p. 191.
^ Kravitz, p. 67.
^ Friedberg & Friedberg, p. 183.

Books and journals[edit]

Anderson, George L. (1939). "The proposed resumption of silver payments in 1873". Pacific Historical Review. University of California Press. 8 (3): 301–316. doi:10.2307/3633807. JSTOR 3633807.
Blake, George Herbert (1908). United States paper money. George H. Blake.
Cuhaj, George S. (2012). Standard Catalog of United States Paper Money (31 ed.). Iola, WI: Krause Publications. p. 407. ISBN 978-1-4402-3087-5. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
Friedberg, Arthur L.; Friedberg, Ira S. (2010). Paper Money of the United States: A Complete Illustrated Guide With Valuations (19th ed.). Coin & Currency Institute. ISBN 0-87184-519-9. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Knox, John Jay (1888). United States Notes: A history of the various issues of paper money by the government of the United States (3rd ed.). Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Kravitz, Robert J. (2012). A collector’s guide to postage & fractional currency: The pocket change of the Union (2nd ed.). Coin & Currency Institute. ISBN 978-087184-204-6.
Mitchell, Wesley C. (1902). "The circulating medium during the Civil War". Journal of Political Economy. The University of Chicago Press. 10 (4): 537–574. doi:10.1086/250880. JSTOR 1820246.
Mitchell, Wesley C. (1903). A history of the greenbacks. The University of Chicago Press.
National Monetary Commission (1911). Financial laws of the United States 1778–1909. Washington, DC.: Express Printing Co. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
Reed, Fred (2012). "One hundred and fifty summers ago Civil War postage stamp envelopes circulated as small change". Paper Money. Society of Paper Money Collectors. 280 (July/August): 298–304.
Rothbard, Murray N. (2002). A History of Money and Banking in the United States – The Colonial Era to World War II. Auburn, AL: Ludwig von Mises Institute. ISBN 0-945466-33-1. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
Spaulding, Elbridge G. (1869). History of the Legal Tender Paper Money issued during the Great Rebellion (2nd ed.). Buffalo, NY: Express Printing Co. pp. 165–66. ISBN 978-087184-204-6. Retrieved 9 September 2013.