1.
Gustaf Lundberg
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Gustaf Lundberg was a Swedish rococo pastelist and portrait painter, working in Paris and later in Stockholm. Lundberg was born in Stockholm 17 August 1695, son of royal chef Gustaf Lundberg and his wife Sabina Richter, whose family included successful artists, orphaned at an early age, he was raised by his uncle, Fredrik Richter, who was himself a goldsmith. Lundberg was later apprenticed to the painter David von Krafft in 1712, in 1717, Lundberg traveled to Paris, where he studied with Hyacinthe Rigaud, Nicolas de Largillière and Jean François de Troy. The determining influence was the Venetian painter Rosalba Carriera, who lived in Paris from 1720 to 1721, afterwards, Lundberg established himself as one of the leading portrait painters in Paris. He painted Louis XV and his Queen Maria Leszczyńska, and the Queens parents, deposed King Stanisław Leszczyński and his spouse, in addition to his many portraits of French and Swedish aristocracy, he is known for his paintings of colleagues Charles-Joseph Natoire and François Boucher. In 1741, Lundberg was elected a member of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture or Royal Academy of Painting, but his popularity started to wane soon after, a result of new pastelists representing a more realistic style than his. During 1745 he traveled through Spain and Portugal, stopping in Madrid to paint Louis XVs daughter Louise-Élisabeth, who was married to Philip, traveling via Cadiz and Lisbon, he returned to Sweden by boat in the autumn. An already successful artist, he established himself as the leading rococo painter in Sweden. Thanks to his friendship with Tessin, he was introduced at the Royal Court. In Sweden, Lundbergs light and elegant style was a break from the Baroque style of portraiture that had previously predominated, in 1750, he was appointed court portrait painter or hovkonterfejare. He painted many portraits of the Crown Prince, later King Gustav III, towards the end of his career, he painted a portrait of the young Crown Prince Gustav Adolf in 1779. References Sources Lundberg, Gunnar W. Lundberg, Gustaf, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon,24, media related to Gustaf Lundberg at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
3.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
4.
Rococo
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Rococo artists and architects used a more jocular, florid, and graceful approach to the Baroque. Their style was ornate and used light colours, asymmetrical designs, curves, unlike the political Baroque, the Rococo had playful and witty themes. By the end of the 18th century, Rococo was largely replaced by the Neoclassic style. In 1835 the Dictionary of the French Academy stated that the word Rococo usually covers the kind of ornament, style and design associated with Louis XVs reign and it includes therefore, all types of art from around the middle of the 18th century in France. The word is seen as a combination of the French rocaille and coquilles, the term may also be a combination of the Italian word barocco and the French rocaille and may describe the refined and fanciful style that became fashionable in parts of Europe in the 18th century. The Rococo love of shell-like curves and focus on decorative arts led some critics to say that the style was frivolous or merely modish, when the term was first used in English in about 1836, it was a colloquialism meaning old-fashioned. While there is some debate about the historical significance of the style to art in general. Italian architects of the late Baroque/early Rococo were wooed to Catholic Germany, Bohemia and Austria by local princes, an exotic but in some ways more formal type of Rococo appeared in France where Louis XIVs succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. By the end of the long reign, rich Baroque designs were giving way to lighter elements with more curves. These elements are obvious in the designs of Nicolas Pineau. During the Régence, court life moved away from Versailles and this change became well established, first in the royal palace. The delicacy and playfulness of Rococo designs is seen as perfectly in tune with the excesses of Louis XVs reign. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France, the style had spread beyond architecture and furniture to painting and sculpture, exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. The Rococo style was spread by French artists and engraved publications, william Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty that the lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace. The development of Rococo in Great Britain is considered to have connected with the revival of interest in Gothic architecture early in the 18th century. The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality, Blondel decried the ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants in contemporary interiors. By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order, in Germany, late 18th century Rococo was ridiculed as Zopf und Perücke, and this phase is sometimes referred to as Zopfstil
5.
Pastoral
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A pastoral lifestyle is that of shepherds herding livestock around open areas of land according to seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. It lends its name to a genre of literature, art, a pastoral is a work of this genre, also known as bucolic, from the Greek βουκολικόν, from βουκόλος, meaning a cowherd. Pastoral is a mode of literature in which the author employs various techniques to place the life into a simple one. Thus, pastoral as a mode occurs in many types of literature as well as genres, terry Gifford, a prominent literary theorist, defines pastoral in three ways in his critical book Pastoral. The first way emphasizes the historical perspective of the pastoral in which authors recognize and discuss life in the country. This is summed up by Leo Marx with the phrase No shepherd, the second type of the pastoral is literature that describes the country with an implicit or explicit contrast to the urban. The third type of pastoral depicts the life with derogative classifications. Hesiods Works and Days presents a golden age when people lived together in harmony with nature and this Golden Age shows that even before Alexandria, ancient Greeks had sentiments of an ideal pastoral life that they had already lost. This is the first example of literature that has pastoral sentiments, ovids Metamorphoses is much like the Works and Days with the description of ages but with more ages to discuss and less emphasis on the gods and their punishments. In this artificially constructed world, nature acts as the main punisher, another example of this perfect relationship between man and nature is evident in the encounter of a shepherd and a goatherd who meet in the pastures in Theocritus poem Idylls 1. Traditionally, pastoral refers to the lives of herdsmen in a romanticized, exaggerated, the pastoral life is usually characterized as being closer to the Golden age than the rest of human life. The setting is a Locus Amoenus, or a place in nature. An example of the use of the genre is the poem by the 15th-century Scottish makar Robert Henryson Robene and Makyne which also contains the conflicted emotions often present in the genre. There will we sit upon the rocks And see the shepherds feed their flocks, By shallow rivers, the Passionate Shepherd to His Love exhibits the concept of Giffords second definition of pastoral. The speaker of the poem, who is the titled shepherd and this can be seen in the listed items, lined slippers, purest gold, silver dishes, and ivory table. The speaker takes on a point of view with his love. Pastoral shepherds and maidens usually have Greek names like Corydon or Philomela and this makes them available for embodying perpetual erotic fantasies. The shepherds spend their time chasing pretty girls — or, at least in the Greek and Roman versions, Pastoral literature continued after Hesiod with the poetry of the Hellenistic Greek Theocritus, several of whose Idylls are set in the countryside and involve dialogues between herdsmen
6.
Madame de Pompadour
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She took charge of the king’s schedule and was a valued aide and advisor, despite her frail health and many political enemies. She secured titles of nobility for herself and her relatives, and built a network of clients and she was particularly careful not to alienate the Queen, Marie Leszczyńska. On February 8,1756, the Marquise de Pompadour was named as the lady in waiting to the queen, a position considered the most prestigious at the court. She was a patron of architecture and decorative arts, such as porcelain. She was a patron of the philosophes of the Enlightenment, including Voltaire, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, otherwise known as Reinette to her friends, was born on 29 December 1721 in Paris to François Poisson and his wife Madeleine de La Motte. It is suspected that her father was either the rich financier Pâris de Montmartel or the tax collector Le Normant de Tournehem. Her younger brother was Abel-François Poisson de Vandières, who became the Marquis de Marigny. Poisson was intelligent, beautiful and refined and she spent her early childhood at the Ursuline convent in Poissy where she received a good education. At the age of 9 in 1730 she returned to Paris under the care of her mother Madame Poisson, the fortune teller told her then that she would one day be the mistress of King Louis XV. From then on Madame Poisson thought, her daughter was destined for greatness and she must provide the means and opportunities to help her achieve it. So her mother took charge of her education at home by hiring tutors who taught her to recite entire plays by heart, play the clavichord, dance, sing, paint. She became an actress and singer, and also attended Pariss Club de lEntresol. On 15 December 1740, Tournehem made his nephew his sole heir, disinheriting all his nephews and nieces. These included the estate at Étiolles, a gift from her guardian. With her husband, she had two children, a boy who died a year after his birth in 1741 and Alexandrine-Jeanne, born 10 August 1744 and died June 1754. Contemporary opinion supported by artwork from the considered the young Mme dÉtiolles to be beautiful, with her small mouth. Her young husband was soon infatuated with her and she was celebrated in the world of Paris. She founded her own salon, at Étiolles, and was joined by many philosophes, as Jeanne Antoinette became known in society, King Louis XV came to hear of her
7.
Alexander Roslin
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Alexander Roslin was a Swedish portrait painter who worked in Scania, Bayreuth, Paris, Italy, Warsaw and St. Petersburg, primarily for members of aristocratic families. He combined insightful psychological portrayal with a representation of fabrics. In his choice of style and lustrous, shimmering colors Alexander Roslin exemplifies Rococo and he lived in France from 1752 until 1793, a period that spanned most of his career. Rococo artists opted for a more jocular, elegant and ornate style, characterized by lightness, elegance and graceful approach to art and architecture. The painting by Roslin depicting Jeanne Sophie de Vignerot du Plessis, Alexander Roslin was born on 15 July 1718, in Malmö, Sweden, the son of naval physician Hans Roslin and Catherine Wertmüller. Stockholm had become an intellectual and artistic center since Queen Christina had established connections with Paris, at the age of sixteen he became apprenticed to the court painter Georg Engelhard Schröder in Stockholm, studying painting there until 1741 and beginning to paint large portraits in oils. Schröder was influenced by Hyacinthe Rigaud and Nicolas de Largillière, in 1741, Roslin settled in Gothenburg, and the following year moved to Scania, where he remained until 1745 painting portraits and also creating religious paintings for the church at Hasslöv. In 1745, Roslin left Sweden for Bayreuth, where he had invited to work for Frederick. In 1747, he moved to Italy to study the works of the great masters, while in Italy he portrayed, among others, the family of Philip, Duke of Parma in 1752. In the same year Roslin moved to Paris, at the age of 34, here, in 1759, he married the pastel painter Marie-Suzanne Giroust. The couple had three sons and three daughters, in 1768 Roslin painted her dressed in Bolognese fashion, Lady with Veil, a portrait that the art critic, writer and philosopher Denis Diderot judged très piquante. In 1767 he painted a portrait of them both, she is depicted working in pastels on a portrait of Henrik Wilhelm Peill, while Roslin points at a gold box he received from Peill as a present. The frame of the painting is inscribed Loin et près, showing that the portrait was a token of friendship and this painting was purchased by the Swedish National Museum in 2013. In Paris he was a protégé of François Boucher and his work became fashionable. He was chosen as a member of the French Art Academy and his early portraits are painted in bright, cool colours, and show the influence of Jean-Marc Nattier and Hyacinthe Rigaud. Around the 1760s he started using daring colouring in his paintings, such as in the portrait of his wife, Lady with Veil, and the Jennings Family. Roslin had great skill in painting the surfaces and texture of precious materials such as fabrics and jewels. In Paris he soon became one of the foremost portraitists of his time, valued mostly for practiced rendering of fabrics and gentle complexions
8.
Reception piece
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In art, a reception piece is a work submitted by an artist to an Academy for approval as part of the requirements for admission to membership. The piece is representative of the artists work, and the organizations judgement of its skill may or may not form part of the criteria for accepting a new entrant. The work itself is usually retained by the academy, and many academies have large, alternative terms include diploma work at the Royal Academy in London, diploma piece, and in France at the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, tableau de réception or morceau de réception. The term masterpiece originated in the way under the earlier system of guilds. Membership of an academy may be by genre or technique and limited by numbers or age. Charles-Antoine Coypel, the son of its director, later said. In 1728, when Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin was admitted to the academy for The Ray, it was as a painter of animals. Masterpiece Reception pieces visitor trail at the Louvre
9.
Gobelins Manufactory
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The Manufacture des Gobelins is a tapestry factory located in Paris, France, at 42 avenue des Gobelins, near the Les Gobelins métro station in the 13th arrondissement. The factory is open for guided tours several afternoons per week by appointment as well as for casual visits every day except Mondays and some specific holidays. The Galerie des Gobelins is dedicated to exhibitions of tapestries from the French manufactures and furnitures from the Mobilier national. The Gobelins were a family of dyers who, in the middle of the 15th century, established themselves in the Faubourg Saint-Marcel, Paris, on the banks of the Bièvre. In 1629, their sons Charles de Comans and Raphaël de la Planche took over their fathers tapestry workshops and their partnership ended around 1650 and the workshops were split into two. Tapestries from this early, Flemish, period are sometimes called pre-gobelins, on account of Louis XIVs financial problems, the establishment was closed in 1694, but reopened in 1697 for the manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use. It rivalled the Beauvais tapestry works until the French Revolution, when work at the factory was suspended, the factory was revived during the Bourbon Restoration and, in 1826, the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In 1871 the building was burned down during the Paris Commune. The factory is still in operation today as a state-run institution, the Gobelins still produces some limited amount of tapestries for the decoration of French governmental institutions, with contemporary subjects. A branch of the manufactory was established in London probably in the early 18th-century in the area that is now Fulham High Street, around 1753 it appears to have been taken over by the priest and adventurer, Pierre Parisot, but closed only a few years later. Museums of Paris entry Paris. org entry This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
10.
Marie-Louise O'Murphy
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Marie-Louise OMurphy was one of the lesser mistresses of King Louis XV of France, and a model for the famous painting of François Boucher. The godfather Louis Jean Baptiste Goudouin and the godmother Marie Anne Obrienne signed the document, the family of Marie-Louise OMurphy was of Irish origin, settled in Normandy recently. The presence of her paternal grandfather Daniel Murphy is attested in Pont-Audemer at the end of the 17th century, very little is known about the grandfather of Marie-Louise OMurphy, except that he was one of the soldiers fired after the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. Daniel Murphy, moved to Rouen by 1699, when he married secondly with Brigitte Quoin, according to the records of Saint Eloi. Of the twelve children born to the couple between 1714 and 1737, five died shortly after birth and seven survived to adulthood, five daughters, and two sons. Marie-Louises parents are known to have had a known criminal record, Daniel Morfi was involved in a case of espionage and blackmail, while Marguerite Iquy was accused of prostitution. Daniel Morfi appears in the records of the Bastille, where he was confined for state business after his arrest on 23 February 1735, Daniel Morfi had tried to blackmail James Francis, by threatening to sell to the court of London the papers he had stolen. The case undermines the French Government, by revealing secret diplomatic negotiations in favor of the restoration of the Stuarts and this confinement was terminated on 21 December 1736, Daniel Morfi was allowed to go wherever he wished, except Paris. Thus, with his family, he returned to Rouen, where Marie-Louise was born a year later, margaret Iquy, wife of Daniel Morfi, also left her traces in legal history. Arrested on 10 May 1729, along with Anne Galtier, she was conducted to the prison of For-lÉvêque, the sisters of Marie-Louise OMurphy are also known for being involved in prostitution. On 12 May 1753 Meunier dedicated three pages to the five OMurphy sisters, Marguerite, Brigitte, Madeleine, Victoire and Marie-Louise, after the death of her father on 4 June 1753, Marie-Louises mother brought the family to Paris. Two versions of this painting have survived, both conserved in Germany, one in the Alte Pinakothek at Munich and the other in the Wallraf-Richartz Museum at Cologne. Boucher, at the height of his fame, had made a specialty of these deliberately licentious nudes, represented in lascivious poses outside a mythological context. In his Histoire de ma vie, Giacomo Casanova relates that he found her a pretty, ragged, dirty, there I write below, O-Morphi wasnt a Homeric or either Greek word. In his account of events, which were written many years later. Police inspector Jean Meunier echoes in his diary another version of the facts, the term Petite maîtresse was given to Louis XVs mistresses that werent formally presented at court, and unlike the official mistress didnt have an apartment in Palace of Versailles. Marie-Louise OMurphy resided there for two years, from 1753 to 1755, different stories circulated about the exact circumstances in which she was presented to the King. I already had a van Loo, a Boucher and a Pierre, then it is Dominique-Guillaume Lebel, first valet of the Kings chamber, who had the delicate and secret mission to negotiate the virginity of the girl and bring her back to Versailles
11.
Goncourt brothers
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The Goncourt brothers were Edmond de Goncourt and Jules de Goncourt, both French naturalism writers who as collaborative sibling authors, were inseparable in life. They formed a partnership that is unique in literary history. Not only did they write all their books together, they did not spend more than a day apart in their adult lives and they are known for their literary work and for their diaries, which offer an intimate view into the French literary society of the later 19th century. Their career as writers began with an account of a holiday together. They then published books on aspects of 18th-century French and Japanese art and their histories are made entirely out of documents, autograph letters, scraps of costume, engravings, songs, the unconscious self-revelations of the time. In their volumes, they dismissed the vulgarity of the Second Empire in favour of a more refined age and they wrote the long Journal des Goncourt from 1851, which gives a view of the literary and social life of their time. When they came to write novels, it was with an attempt to give the inner, undiscovered. They published six novels, of which Germinie Lacerteux,1865, was the fourth and it is based on the true case of their own maidservant, Rose Malingre, whose double life they had never suspected. After the death of Jules, Edmond continued to write novels in the same style, seen through the nerves, in this conscious abandonment to the tricks of the eyesight, the world becomes a thing of broken patterns and conflicting colours, and uneasy movement. A novel of the Goncourts is made up of a number of details, set side by side. The soul, to them, is a series of moods and their novels are hardly stories at all, but picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the momentary aspects of the world. They are buried together in Montmartre Cemetery, Edmond de Goncourt bequeathed his entire estate for the foundation and maintenance of the Académie Goncourt. Since 1903, the académie has awarded the Prix Goncourt, probably the most important literary prize in French literature, the first English-language version of Manette Salomon, translated by Tina Kover, will be published in the spring of 2012 by Hol Art Books
12.
Jacques Guay
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Jacques Guay was a French gemstone engraver, a protegé of Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV of France. He was the most eminent gemstone engraver of his time, the engraver of the king. Subjects included classical figures, events in the reign of the king, jacques Guay was born in Marseille in 1711. Little is known about his family or early life and he came to Paris at an early age and studied drawing with François Boucher. He met the financier and collector Pierre Crozat and studied his collection of 1,400 classical engraved gemstones. He decided to study the art of fine stone engraving and his first efforts were successful, but he needed formal training. He went to Florence in 1742, where he studied the stones in the grand dukes collection. He went on to Rome, where King Louis XV of France let him stay in the French Academys building and he made several engraved stones while in Rome. Guay made an engraving on a small carnelian of the Triumph of Fontenoy after a design provided by Edmé Bouchardon and this was the first of a series of engravings on historical subjects. Guay was named graveur du roi in 1745, and was granted lodgings in the Louvre and he succeeded François-Julien Barier in this position. Barier, who had a minutely detailed style, was inferior as an artist. Guay was agrée for admission to the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture in 1747 and he was formally admitted on 30 March 1748. He exhibited his work at almost all the Salons from 1747 to 1759 and he taught Madame de Pompadour how to engrave stones, and she acquired proficiency as shown in surviving samples of her work in onyx, jasper and other precious stones. One of her works was of Victory, a self-portrait in sardonyx, in 1753 Guay made a splendid cameo portrait of Louis XV in sardonyx. In a portrait of Madame de Pompadour by Boucher, exhibited in a Salon of 1755, a portrait of Madame de Pompadour at Her Toilette shows her wearing Guays cameo of Louis XV on her wrist. Guays miniature of Louis XV, cut from three-color sardonyx, was the basis for an etching of the king as a Roman emperor by Pompadour, one of the last of Guays historical works was Wishes for the recovery of the health of Madame de Pompadour. There were two variants, one an intaglio in rock crystal dated 1764, the year of Madame de Pompadours death, the work is incomplete since it could not be offered to its intended recipient. Guay lost much of his importance after the death of the marquise, no more historical works by him are known, other than an allegory on the accession of Louis XVI dated 1774
13.
Jacques-Louis David
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Jacques-Louis David was a French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. David later became a supporter of the French Revolution and friend of Maximilien Robespierre. Imprisoned after Robespierres fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release, at this time he developed his Empire style, notable for its use of warm Venetian colours. After Napoleons fall from Imperial power and the Bourbon revival, David exiled himself to Brussels, then in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, where he remained until his death. David had a number of pupils, making him the strongest influence in French art of the early 19th century. Jacques-Louis David was born into a family in Paris on 30 August 1748. When he was nine his father was killed in a duel. He covered his notebooks with drawings, and he said, I was always hiding behind the instructors chair. Soon, he desired to be a painter, but his uncles and he overcame the opposition, and went to learn from François Boucher, the leading painter of the time, who was also a distant relative. Boucher was a Rococo painter, but tastes were changing, Boucher decided that instead of taking over Davids tutelage, he would send David to his friend, Joseph-Marie Vien, a painter who embraced the classical reaction to Rococo. There David attended the Royal Academy, based in what is now the Louvre, each year the Academy awarded an outstanding student the prestigious Prix de Rome, which funded a three- to five-year stay in the Eternal City. Each pensionnaire was lodged in the French Academys Roman outpost, which from the years 1737 to 1793 was the Palazzo Mancini in the Via del Corso. David competed for, and failed to win, the prize for three years, each failure contributing to his lifelong grudge against the institution. After his second loss in 1772, David went on a hunger strike, confident he now had the support and backing needed to win the prize, he resumed his studies with great zeal—only to fail to win the Prix de Rome again the following year. Finally, in 1774, David was awarded the Prix de Rome on the strength of his painting of Erasistratus Discovering the Cause of Antiochus Disease, a subject set by the judges. In October 1775 he made the journey to Italy with his mentor, Joseph-Marie Vien, while in Italy, David especially studied the works of 17th-century masters such as Poussin, Caravaggio, and the Carracci. Mengs principled, historicizing approach to the representation of classical subjects profoundly influenced Davids pre-revolutionary painting, such as The Vestal Virgin, mengs also introduced David to the theoretical writings on ancient sculpture by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, the German scholar held to be the founder of modern art history. In 1779, David toured the newly excavated ruins of Pompeii, while in Rome, David also assiduously studied the High Renaissance painters, Raphael making a profound and lasting impression on the young French artist
14.
Peter Paul Rubens
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Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish/Netherlandish draughtsman and painter. He is widely considered as the most notable artist of Flemish Baroque art school, the catalogue of his works by Michael Jaffé lists 1,403 pieces, excluding numerous copies made in his workshop. His commissioned works were mostly history paintings, which included religious and mythological subjects and he painted portraits, especially of friends, and self-portraits, and in later life painted several landscapes. Rubens designed tapestries and prints, as well as his own house and he also oversaw the ephemeral decorations of the royal entry into Antwerp by the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand in 1635. His drawings are mostly extremely forceful but not overly detailed and he also made great use of oil sketches as preparatory studies. For altarpieces he painted on slate to reduce reflection problems. Rubens was born in the city of Siegen to Jan Rubens and he was named in honour of Saint-Peter and Paul, because he was born on their solemnety. His father, a Calvinist, and mother fled Antwerp for Cologne in 1568, after increased religious turmoil and persecution of Protestants during the rule of the Spanish Netherlands by the Duke of Alba. Jan Rubens became the adviser of Anna of Saxony, the second wife of William I of Orange. Following Jan Rubens imprisonment for the affair, Peter Paul Rubens was born in 1577, the family returned to Cologne the next year. In 1589, two years after his fathers death, Rubens moved with his mother Maria Pypelincks to Antwerp, religion figured prominently in much of his work and Rubens later became one of the leading voices of the Catholic Counter-Reformation style of painting. In Antwerp, Rubens received a Renaissance humanist education, studying Latin, by fourteen he began his artistic apprenticeship with Tobias Verhaeght. Subsequently, he studied under two of the leading painters of the time, the late Mannerist artists Adam van Noort. Much of his earliest training involved copying earlier works, such as woodcuts by Hans Holbein the Younger. Rubens completed his education in 1598, at time he entered the Guild of St. Luke as an independent master. In 1600 Rubens travelled to Italy and he stopped first in Venice, where he saw paintings by Titian, Veronese, and Tintoretto, before settling in Mantua at the court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga. The colouring and compositions of Veronese and Tintoretto had an effect on Rubenss painting. With financial support from the Duke, Rubens travelled to Rome by way of Florence in 1601, there, he studied classical Greek and Roman art and copied works of the Italian masters
15.
Jean-Antoine Watteau
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Jean-Antoine Watteau, better known as Antoine Watteau, was a French painter whose brief career spurred the revival of interest in colour and movement, as seen in the tradition of Correggio and Rubens. He revitalized the waning Baroque style, shifting it to the severe, more naturalistic. Watteau is credited with inventing the genre of fêtes galantes, scenes of bucolic and idyllic charm, some of his best known subjects were drawn from the world of Italian comedy and ballet. Watteau was born in October 1684 in the town of Valenciennes which had passed from the Spanish Netherlands to France. His father, Jean-Philippe Watteau, was a given to brawling. Showing an early interest in painting, Jean-Antoine may have been apprenticed to Jacques-Albert Gérin, jean-Antoines first artistic subjects were charlatans selling quack remedies on the streets of Valenciennes. Watteau left for Paris in 1702, by 1705 he was employed as an assistant by the painter Claude Gillot, whose work represented a reaction against the turgid official art of Louis XIVs reign. In Gillots studio Watteau became acquainted with the characters of the commedia dellarte, afterward he moved to the workshop of Claude Audran III, an interior decorator, under whose influence he began to make drawings admired for their consummate elegance. Audran was the curator of the Palais du Luxembourg, where Watteau was able to see the magnificent series of canvases painted by Peter Paul Rubens for Queen Marie de Medici. The Flemish painter would become one of his influences, together with the Venetian masters he would later study in the collection of his patron and friend. In 1709 Watteau tried to obtain the Prix de Rome and was rejected by the Academy. In 1712 he tried again and was considered so good that, rather than receiving the one-year stay in Rome for which he had applied, he was accepted as a full member of the Academy. He took five years to deliver the required reception piece, but it was one of his masterpieces, Watteau lacked aristocratic patrons, his buyers were bourgeois such as bankers and dealers. The subject of his painting, Pierrot, is an actor in a white satin costume who stands isolated from his four companions. Watteaus final masterpiece, the Shop-sign of Gersaint, exits the pastoral forest locale for an urban set of encounters. Painted at Watteaus own insistence, in eight days, working only in the mornings, in order to warm up his fingers, this sign for the shop in Paris of the paintings dealer Edme François Gersaint is effectively the final curtain of Watteaus theatre. It has been compared with Las Meninas as a meditation on art, the scene is an art gallery where the façade has magically vanished, and the gallery and street in the canvas are fused into one contiguous drama. Watteau alarmed his friends by a carelessness about his future and financial security, in fact he had been sickly and physically fragile since childhood
16.
Louis XV of France
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Louis XV, known as Louis the Beloved, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five, Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinals death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, Louis returned the Austrian Netherlands, territory won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, Louis also ceded New France in North America to Spain and Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763. He incorporated the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France and he was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI in 1774. French culture and influence were at their height in the first half of the eighteenth century, however, many scholars believe that Louis XVs decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Evidence for this view is provided by the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death, norman Davies characterized Louis XVs reign as one of debilitating stagnation, characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and Parliament, and religious feuds. A few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Jerome Blum described him as a perpetual adolescent called to do a mans job, Louis XV was born in the Palace of Versailles on 15 February 1710 during the reign of Louis XIV. His grandfather, Louis Le Grand Dauphin, had three sons with his wife Marie Anne Victoire of Bavaria, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Philippe, Duke of Anjou, and Charles, Duke of Berry. Louis XV was the son of the Duke of Burgundy and his wife Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy. At birth, Louis XV received a title for younger sons of the French royal family. In April 1711, Louis Le Grand Dauphin suddenly died, making Louis XVs father, the Duke of Burgundy, at that time, Burgundy had two living sons, Louis, Duke of Brittany and his youngest son, the future Louis XV. A year later, Marie Adélaïde, Duchess of Burgundy, contracted smallpox and her husband, said to be heartbroken by her death, died the same week, also having contracted smallpox. Within a week of his death, it was clear that the two children had also been infected. The elder son was treated by bloodletting in an unsuccessful effort to save him. Fearing that the Dauphin would die, the Court had both the Dauphin and the Duke of Anjou baptised, the Dauphin died the same day,8 March 1712. His younger brother, the Duke of Anjou, was treated by his governess, Madame de Ventadour. The two year old Dauphin survived the smallpox, on 1 September 1715, Louis XIV died of gangrene, having reigned for 72 years
17.
Genre art
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Genre art is the pictorial representation in any of various media of scenes or events from everyday life, such as markets, domestic settings, interiors, parties, inn scenes, and street scenes. Such representations may be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, some variations of the term genre art specify the medium or type of visual work, as in genre painting, genre prints, genre photographs, and so on. Rather confusingly, the meaning of genre, covering any particular combination of an artistic medium. Painting was divided into a hierarchy of genres, with painting at the top, as the most difficult and therefore prestigious. But history paintings are a genre in painting, not genre works, the following concentrates on painting, but genre motifs were also extremely popular in many forms of the decorative arts, especially from the Rococo of the early 18th century onwards. Single figures or small groups decorated a huge variety of such as porcelain, furniture, wallpaper. Genre painting, also called genre scene or petit genre, depicts aspects of life by portraying ordinary people engaged in common activities. A work would often be considered as a genre work even if it could be shown that the artist had used a known member of his family. In this case it would depend on whether the work was likely to have intended by the artist to be perceived as a portrait—sometimes a subjective question. The depictions can be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, because of their familiar and frequently sentimental subject matter, genre paintings have often proven popular with the bourgeoisie, or middle class. Genre themes appear in all art traditions. These were part of a pattern of Mannerist inversion in Antwerp painting, giving low elements previously in the background of images prominent emphasis. The generally small scale of these paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers. Often the subject of a painting was based on a popular emblem from an Emblem book. The merry company showed a group of figures at a party, other common types of scenes showed markets or fairs, village festivities, or soldiers in camp. In Italy, a school of painting was stimulated by the arrival in Rome of the Dutch painter Pieter van Laer in 1625. He acquired the nickname Il Bamboccio and his followers were called the Bamboccianti, whose works would inspire Giacomo Ceruti, Antonio Cifrondi, jean-Baptiste Greuze and others painted detailed and rather sentimental groups or individual portraits of peasants that were to be influential on 19th-century painting. Spain had a tradition predating The Book of Good Love of social observation and commentary based on the Old Roman Latin tradition, practiced by many of its painters and illuminators
18.
Odalisque
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An odalisque was a chambermaid or a female attendant in a Turkish seraglio, particularly the court ladies in the household of the Ottoman sultan. The word odalisque is French in form and originates from the Turkish odalık, meaning chambermaid, from oda and it can also be transliterated odahlic, odalisk, and odaliq. In western usage, the term has come to refer specifically to the harem concubine, by the eighteenth century the term odalisque referred to the eroticized artistic genre in which a nominally eastern woman lies on her side on display for the spectator. An odalık was not a concubine of the harem, but a maid, an odalık was ranked at the bottom of the social stratification of a harem, serving not the man of the household, but rather, his concubines and wives as personal chambermaids. Odalık were usually given as gifts to the sultan by wealthy Turkish men. Generally, an odalık was never seen by the sultan but instead remained under the supervision of his mother. If an odalık was of beauty or had exceptional talents in dancing or singing. If selected, an odalık trained as a lady would serve the sultan sexually and only after such sexual contact would she change in status. In contrast to European depictions of nude women, they more often wore androgynous robes resembling those worn by the male pages of the palace. The conditions of the Ottoman harem resembled a monastery for young girls more than the bordello of European imagination. W. S. Gilbert refers to the Grace of an odalisque on a divan in Colonel Calverleys song If You Want A Receipt For That Popular Mystery from the Gilbert and Sullivan opera Patience. In popular use, the word also may refer to a mistress. During the 19th century, odalisques became common fantasy figures in the movement known as Orientalism. The gentlemen who wish to buy an odalisque or a wife, many Turks, indeed, prefer to take a slave as a wife, as, in such case, there is no need to dread fathers, mothers, or brothers-in-law, and other undesirable relations. In 2011 the Law Society of British Columbia brought a discipline hearing against a lawyer for referring to another lawyers client as living with an odalisque. The Law Society found the use of the word, though a poor choice. Culture of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Sultans concubines Hammam Arab slave trade Islamic views on slavery Köçek Ottoman Turkish language Jeffrey Eugenides Middlesex, stretched across the couch, a Pisceasn Odalisque. The Imperial Harem by Leslie Pierce The Nature of the Early Ottoman State by Heath W Lowry
19.
Denis Diderot
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Denis Diderot was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent figure during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne, and began his formal education at a Jesuit collège in Langres. His parents were Didier Diderot a cutler, maître coutelier, three of five siblings survived to adulthood, Denise Diderot and their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot, and finally their sister Angélique Diderot. According to Arthur McCandless Wilson, Denis Diderot greatly admired his sister Denise, in 1732 Denis Diderot earned the Master of Arts degree in philosophy. Then he entered the Collège dHarcourt of the University of Paris and he abandoned the idea of entering the clergy and decided instead to study at the Paris Law Faculty. His study of law was short-lived however and in 1734 Diderot decided to become a writer, because of his refusal to enter one of the learned professions, he was disowned by his father, and for the next ten years he lived a bohemian existence. In 1742 he befriended Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in 1743 he further alienated his father by marrying Antoinette Champion, a devout Roman Catholic. The match was considered due to Champions low social standing, poor education, fatherless status. She was about three years older than Diderot, the marriage in October 1743 produced one surviving child, a girl. Her name was Angélique, after both Diderots dead mother and sister, the death of his sister, a nun, from overwork in the convent may have affected Diderots opinion of religion. Babuti, Madeleine de Puisieux, Sophie Volland and Mme de Maux and his letters to Sophie Volland are known for their candor and are regarded to be among the literary treasures of the eighteenth century. Though his work was broad as well as rigorous, it did not bring Diderot riches, when the time came for him to provide a dowry for his daughter, he saw no alternative than to sell his library. When Empress Catherine II of Russia heard of his financial troubles she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library and she then requested that the philosopher retain the books in Paris until she required them, and act as her librarian with a yearly salary. Between October 1773 and March 1774, the sick Diderot spent a few months at the court in Saint Petersburg. Diderot died of thrombosis in Paris on 31 July 1784. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia and this idea seems to have been shelved. In 1745, he published a translation of Shaftesburys Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit, in 1746, Diderot wrote his first original work, the Philosophical Thoughts. In this book, Diderot argued for a reconciliation of reason with feeling so as to establish harmony, according to Diderot, without feeling there would be a detrimental effect on virtue and no possibility of creating sublime work
20.
Charles Simon Favart
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Charles Simon Favart was a French playwright. Born in Paris, the son of a pastry-cook, he was educated at the college of Louis-le-Grand and his first success in literature was La France delivrée par la Pucelle dOrléans, a poem about Joan of Arc which obtained a prize of the Académie des Jeux Floraux. After the production of his first vaudeville, Les Deux Jumelles, circumstances enabled him to relinquish business and he provided many pieces anonymously for the lesser theatres, and first put his name to La Chercheuse desprit, which was produced in 1741. Among his most successful works were Annette et Lubin, Le Coq du milage, Ninette à la cour, Les Trois Sultanes and LAnglais de Bordeaux. By their united talents and labours, the Opéra-Comique rose to such a height of success that it aroused the jealousy of the rival Comédie-Française and was suppressed. Favart, left thus without resources, accepted the proposal of Maurice, comte de Saxe and it was part of his duty to compose from time to time impromptu verses on the events of the campaign, amusing and stimulating the spirits of the men. The marshal, an admirer of Mme Favart, began to pay her unwanted attentions, to escape him she went to Paris, and the wrath of Saxe fell upon the husband. A lettre de cachet was issued against him, but he fled to Strasbourg, Favart survived his wife by twenty years. After the marshals death in 1750 he returned to Paris and resumed his pursuits as a dramatist and it was at this time that he became friendly with the abbé de Voisenon, who helped him with his work, to what extent is uncertain. He had grown nearly blind in his last days, and died in Paris and his plays have been republished in various editions and selections. His correspondence with Count Durazzo, director of theatres at Vienna, was published in 1808 as Mémoires et correspondance littéraire and it furnishes valuable information on the state of the literary and theatrical worlds in the 18th century. Some 60 of the c.150 plays that he composed were published in his lifetime, in 10 volumes, under the title Théâtre de M. Favart, Paris, Duchesne, reprint in fac-simile, Geneva, Slatkine,1971,10 t. Favart also left Mémoires, published in 1808 by his grandson, Favart and his wife appeared in fictionalised form in Offenbachs 1878 opéra comique, Madame Favart, their second son, Charles Nicolas Favart was an actor and dramatist. Favart reworked Rinaldo di Capuas La Zingara as La Bohemienne, favarts Hippolyte et Aricie is a parody of the opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau bearing the same name. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
21.
Tapestry
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Tapestry is a form of textile art, traditionally woven on a vertical loom. Tapestry is weft-faced weaving, in all the warp threads are hidden in the completed work. In tapestry weaving, weft yarns are typically discontinuous, the artisan interlaces each coloured weft back and it is a plain weft-faced weave having weft threads of different colours worked over portions of the warp to form the design. Most weavers use a warp thread, such as linen or cotton. The weft threads are usually wool or cotton, but may include silk, gold, silver, the earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek
22.
Beauvais Manufactory
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Whereas the royal Gobelins manufacture executed tapestries for the royal residences and for ambassadorial gifts, the manufacture at Beauvais always remained a private enterprise. Behagles first successes were a suite of Conquests of the King which complemented a contemporaneous Gobelins suite showing episodes in the Life of the King, a suite of Acts of the Apostles, following copies of Raphaels cartoons, are in the cathedral of Beauvais. The great series of Grotesques initiated in the 1690s became a mainstay of Beauvais production, behagle continued his private workshops in Paris, as had his predecessor. From these shops came the suite of Marine Triumphs with the arms of the comte de Toulouse, on his death in 1705, the Beauvais manufacture was continued by his wife and son, and in 1711 by new proprietors, the brothers Filleul. Between 1722 and 1726, Beauvais was directed by Noël-Antoine de Mérou, and maintained showrooms in Paris, the great period of Beauvais tapestry begins with the arrival of Jean-Baptiste Oudry,22 July 1726, replacing the unsatisfactory Jacques Duplessis. Oudry was simultaneously inspector of the works at Gobelins, the king had the entire production of Gobelins at his disposal, but as Edith Standen points out, they were rather large, rather solemn and definitely old-fashioned. In 1739, for the first time, cartoons for Beauvais were exhibited at the Paris salon, bouchers eight oil sketches for these Tentures chinoises were shown in the Salon of 1742. It was unusual for the sketches to be enlarged to provide cartoons, as in this case. The successful series was woven at Beauvais at least ten times between July 1743 and August 1775, in further copies were made at Aubusson. Media related to Tapestry of Beauvais at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Cupid and Psyche
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Cupid and Psyche is a story originally from Metamorphoses, written in the 2nd Century AD by Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis. It concerns the overcoming of obstacles to the love between Psyche and Cupid or Amor, and their union in a sacred marriage. Although the only extended narrative from antiquity is that of Apuleius, Eros, since the rediscovery of Apuleiuss novel in the Renaissance, the reception of Cupid and Psyche in the classical tradition has been extensive. The story has been retold in poetry, drama, and opera, and depicted widely in painting, sculpture, Psyches Roman name through direct translation is Anima. The tale of Cupid and Psyche is placed at the midpoint of Apuleiuss novel, the novel itself is a first-person narrative by the protagonist Lucius. Transformed into a donkey by magic gone wrong, Lucius undergoes various trials and adventures, Psyches story has some similarities, including the theme of dangerous curiosity, punishments and tests, and redemption through divine favor. As a structural mirror of the plot, the tale is an example of mise en abyme. The happy ending for Psyche is supposed to assuage Charites fear of rape, there were once a king and queen, rulers of an unnamed city, who had three daughters of conspicuous beauty. The youngest and most beautiful was Psyche, whose admirers, neglecting the worship of the love goddess Venus, instead prayed. It was rumored that she was the coming of Venus. Venus is offended, and commissions Cupid to work her revenge, Cupid instead scratches himself with his own dart, which makes any living thing fall in love with the first thing it sees. As soon as Cupid scratches himself he falls deeply in love with Psyche, although her two humanly beautiful sisters have married, the idolized Psyche has yet to find love. Her father suspects that they have incurred the wrath of the gods, Psyche is arrayed in funeral attire, conveyed by a procession to the peak of a rocky crag, and exposed. Marriage and death are merged into a rite of passage. Zephyr the West Wind bears her up to meet her match, and deposits her in a lovely meadow. The transported girl awakes to find herself at the edge of a cultivated grove, exploring, she finds a marvelous house with golden columns, a carved ceiling of citrus wood and ivory, silver walls embossed with wild and domesticated animals, and jeweled mosaic floors. A disembodied voice tells her to make herself comfortable, and she is entertained at a feast that serves itself, although fearful and without sexual experience, she allows herself to be guided to a bedroom, where in the darkness a being she cannot see makes her his wife. She gradually learns to look forward to his visits, though he always departs before sunrise and forbids her to look upon him, and soon she becomes pregnant
24.
Menus-Plaisirs du Roi
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The duc dAumont appointed the renowned gilt-bronze maker Pierre Gouthière doreur ordinaire of the Menus-Plaisirs in 1767 and appointed the architect Bellanger to the Menus-Plaisirs in the same year. For most of the reign of Louis XVI, the intendant of the Menus-Plaisirs du Roi was Papillon de la Ferté, many designers were required at the Menus-Plaisirs. The architect Charles-Nicolas Cochin worked for years for the Menus-Plaisirs du Roi, 1735–51. And François-Joseph Bélanger began his career in 1767 working at the Menus-Plaisirs, the Cabinet du Roi provided the commemorative engravings, which are often our only record, and sold them. The functions of design and commemoration overlapped, needless to say, the Menus-Plaisirs were not in charge of the essential furniture of the royal palaces, which were the province of the Garde-Meuble de la Couronne. It was delivered on 1 May 1770, the music required for these entertainments was also a concern of the Menus-Plaisirs du Roi. Beginning in 1762 the music section was established on a large site extending north from the rue Bergère, the facilities included what had previously been the theatre of the Opéra-Comique at the Saint-Laurent Fair. The site was expanded until it reached the rue Richer on the north. The two institutions were merged into the Conservatoire de Musique in August 1795, a new Conservatory Concert Hall was added in 1811. Under the French Second Empire a different theatre with the name Théâtre des Menus-Plaisirs was constructed at 14 Boulevard de Strasbourg in Paris, under Louis XV a structure was erected in the town of Versailles to house the multiple activities of the Menus-Plaisirs. It still stands, at 22, avenue de Paris, now rendered famous as the site of the Estates-General of 1789, a provisionally fitted-out space was arranged in the building to seat the Assembly of Notable in 1787, and again in 1788. The old Hôtel des Menus-Plaisirs is now the home of the Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles, histoire des salles de lOpéra de Paris, p.83. Les Grandes Fêtes et leurs Décors à lÉpoque de Louis XVI, the Menus-Plaisirs during the tenure of the successive brothers Slodtz as Dessinateurs. Dictionnaire des théâtres parisiens au XIXe siècle, les théâtres et la musique, view formats and editions at WorldCat. Robin Emlein The Politics of Pleasure, Partying in the Gardens of Versailles
25.
Palace of Versailles
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The Palace of Versailles, Château de Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. Versailles is therefore not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. First built by Louis XIII in 1623, as a lodge of brick and stone. The first phase of the expansion was designed and supervised by the architect Louis Le Vau and it culminated in the addition of three new wings of stone, which surrounded Louis XIIIs original building on the north, south, and west. After Le Vaus death in 1670, the work was taken over and completed by his assistant, charles Le Brun designed and supervised the elaborate interior decoration, and André Le Nôtre landscaped the extensive Gardens of Versailles. Le Brun and Le Nôtre collaborated on the fountains, and Le Brun supervised the design. During the second phase of expansion, two enormous wings north and south of the wings flanking the Cour Royale were added by the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He also replaced Le Vaus large terrace, facing the garden on the west, with became the most famous room of the palace. The Royal Chapel of Versailles, located at the end of the north wing, was begun by Mansart in 1688. One of the most baffling aspects to the study of Versailles is the cost – how much Louis XIV, owing to the nature of the construction of Versailles and the evolution of the role of the palace, construction costs were essentially a private matter. Initially, Versailles was planned to be a residence for Louis XIV and was referred to as the kings house. Once Louis XIV embarked on his campaigns, expenses for Versailles became more of a matter for public record. To counter the costs of Versailles during the years of Louis XIVs personal reign. Accordingly, all materials that went into the construction and decoration of Versailles were manufactured in France, even the mirrors used in the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors were made in France. While Venice in the 17th century had the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors, to meet the demands for decorating and furnishing Versailles, Colbert nationalised the tapestry factory owned by the Gobelin family, to become the Manufacture royale des Gobelins. In 1667, the name of the enterprise was changed to the Manufacture royale des Meubles de la Couronne, the Comptes meticulously list the expenditures on the silver furniture – disbursements to artists, final payments, delivery – as well as descriptions and weight of items purchased. Entries for 1681 and 1682 concerning the silver used in the salon de Mercure serve as an example. 5 In anticipation, For the silver balustrade for the bedroom,90,000 livres II
26.
Palace of Fontainebleau
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The Palace of Fontainebleau or Château de Fontainebleau is located 55 kilometres southeast of the centre of Paris, and is one of the largest French royal châteaux. The medieval castle and later château was the residence of French monarchs from Louis VII through Napoleon III, Napoleon I abdicated his throne there before being exiled to Elba. Today, it is a museum and a UNESCO World Heritage Site that is located in the commune of Fontainebleau. The earliest record of a castle at Fontainebleau dates to 1137. It became a residence and hunting lodge of the Kings of France because of the abundant game. It took its name one of the springs, the fountain de Bliaud, located now in the English garden. He commissioned the architect Gilles le Breton to build a palace in the new Renaissance style and it included monumental Porte Dorée, as its southern entrance. As well as a monumental Renaissance stairway, the portique de Serlio, beginning in about 1528, Francis constructed the Gallery Francis I, which allowed him to pass directly from his apartments to the chapel of the Trinitaires. He brought the architect Sebastiano Serlio from Italy, and the Florentine painter Giovanni Battista di Jacopo, known as Rosso Fiorentino, another Italian painter, Francesco Primaticcio from Bologna, joined later in the decoration of the palace. Together their style of decoration became known as the first School of Fontainebleau and this was the first great decorated gallery built in France. Broadly speaking, at Fontainebleau the Renaissance was introduced to France, in about 1540, Francis began another major addition to the chateau. Using land on the east side of the chateau purchased from the order of the Trinitaires, he began to build a new square of buildings around a large courtyard. It was enclosed on the north by the wing of the Ministers, on the east by the wing of Ferrare, the chateau was surrounded by a new park in the style of the Italian Renaissance garden, with pavilions and the first grotto in France. Primaticcio created more monumental murals for the gallery of Ulysses, following the death of Francis I, King Henry II decided to continue and expand the chateau. The King and his wife chose the architects Philibert Delorme and Jean Bullant to do the work and they extended the east wing of the lower court, and decorated it with the first famous horseshoe-shaped staircase. In the oval court, they transformed the loggia planned by Francois into a Salle des Fétes or grand ballroom with a coffered ceiling. Facing the courtyard of the fountain and the pond, they designed a new building. At Henris orders, the Nymphe de Fontainebleau was installed at the entrance of Château dAnet
27.
Choisy-le-Roi
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Choisy-le-Roi is a commune in the Val-de-Marne department in the southeastern suburbs of Paris, France. Choisy-le-Roi is located 10.7 km southeast from the center of Paris, the neighbouring communes are, from the north and clockwise, Vitry-sur-Seine, Alfortville, Créteil, Valenton, Villeneuve-Saint-Georges, Orly and Thiais. Choisy-le-Roi is served by Choisy-le-Roi station on Paris RER line C and it is also served by Créteil-Pompadour station on Paris RER line D
28.
Porcelain
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Porcelain /ˈpɔːrsəlᵻn, ˈpɔːrslᵻn/ is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain was first developed in China around 2,000 years ago, then spread to other East Asian countries, and finally Europe. It combines well with both glazes and paint, and can be modelled very well, allowing a range of decorative treatments in tablewares, vessels. It also has uses in technology and industry. The European name, porcelain in English, come from the old Italian porcellana because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell, Porcelain is also referred to as china or fine china in some English-speaking countries, as it was first seen in imports from China. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent, however, the term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used in such cases, a high proportion of modern porcelain is made of the variant bone china. Kaolin is the material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word paste is an old term for both the unfired and fired material, a more common terminology these days for the unfired material is body, for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor. The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the mineral kaolinite is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include feldspar, ball clay, glass, bone ash, steatite, quartz, petuntse, the clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their plasticity. Long clays are cohesive and have high plasticity, short clays are cohesive and have lower plasticity. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays and they wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow. The following section provides information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the wares of Longquan, were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain. Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured enamels. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often biscuit-fired at around 1,000 °C, coated with glaze, another early method is once-fired where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation
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Vincennes porcelain
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The Vincennes porcelain manufactory was established in 1740 in the disused royal Château de Vincennes, in Vincennes, east of Paris, which was from the start the main market for its wares. The entrepreneur in charge at first, Claude-Humbert Gérin, established workshops and employed craftsmen from the Chantilly manufactory, whose patron, notable defectors from Chantilly were the debt-ridden brothers Gilles and Robert Dubois, one a sculptor, the other a painter. The Chinese manufacturing secrets for porcelain manufacturing were revealed by the Jesuit Father Francois Xavier dEntrecolles in 1712, the silversmith Jean-Claude Duplessis was brought in during 1745, he designed vases for Vincennes embodying the robust yet balanced French Rococo. Gifted sculptors were contracted to provide models for table sculptures, enamel painting was applied over the fired glazes, to be refired at lower temperature, and at Vincennes the refinement of its techniques began to approach that of miniatures. Three small white figures, together with a vase, were mounted on a gilt-bronze pedestal. The vase contains a bouquet of flowers also made in porcelain, M. de Fulvy told me there were 480 flowers in the bouquet. The vase with its pedestal and the flowers stood about three feet high. The bronze mounting alone cost 100 louis, and the porcelain just as much, it is a work of its kind— as much for the whiteness as for the execution of the small figures. The covered vases of the model pot-pourri Pompadour were designed by Duplessis, after 1752, through a Royal Edict, Vincennes was handed a monopoly of polychrome decors, which reduced the scope of other manufactories to some degree. In 1757 Étienne Maurice Falconet was appointed director of the sculpture atelier, the procedure of introducing datemarks, and painters and gilders marks, which has made a detailed understanding of individual styles of Sèvres possible, was initiated at Vincennes, in 1753. Orientalism in early modern France Tamara Préaud, ed. Porcelaines de Vincennes, les origines de Sèvres, exhibition catalogue, Grand Palais, October 1977 — January 1978 Sassoon, pair of Duplessis vases,1753 Clark Art Institute
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Jean-Baptiste Oudry
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Jean-Baptiste Oudry was a French Rococo painter, engraver, and tapestry designer. He is particularly known for his naturalistic pictures of animals. Jean-Baptiste Oudry was born in Paris, the son of Jacques Oudry, a painter and art dealer and his father was a director of the Académie de St-Luc art school, which Oudry joined. At first, Oudry concentrated on portraiture, and he became a pupil and he graduated at only 22 years of age, on 21 May 1708, at the same time as his two older brothers. The next year, he married Marie-Marguerite Froissé, the daughter of a miroitier to whom he gave lessons in painting, Oudry became an assistant professor at Académie de Saint-Luc in 1714, and professor on 1 July 1717. He was inducted as a member of the prestigious Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture in 1719, the series was called The Pastoral Amusements, or Les Amusements Champêtres. Through this connection, he was commissioned to produce the painting made his reputation. Oudry was granted a workshop in the Tuileries and an apartment in the Louvre. M. Hultz, an adviser to the Académie de Peinture, commissioned Oudry to produce a buffet, or still-life combining silver plates and ewers, fruit and game, the work was exhibited in the Salon of 1737. Oudry timidly asked for ten pistoles for his work, but Hultz valued it much higher, Oudry was also commissioned to produce a buffet for Louis XV, that went to the château de Choisy, the Kings favoured hunting residence. Hultz recommended Oudry to Louis Fagon, an intendant des finances and book collector, Fagon was charged with reviving the fortunes of the tapestry manufactory of Beauvais, which had flourished under Colbert, and he gave the task to Oudry and his associate, Besnier, in 1734. Oudry succeeded in his tasks, becoming wealthy in the process and his success at Beauvais led to a further appointment as inspector at the Gobelins manufactory in 1736, where his works were copied as cartoons for tapestries. Oudry used a camera obscura in an attempt to speed up the process of producing landscapes, but abandoned it when he saw that the perspective and he was often sent examples of rare birds to draw. He later purchased a series of paintings of animals from Louis XVs menagerie at Versailles. Oudrys initial motive for painting these works is obscure, the works are still at Schwerin. He turned down offers to work for the Czar Peter the Great and the King of Denmark, preferring to remain in France, Oudry lost some of his responsibilities when Fagon was replaced by de Trudaine. He suffered two strokes in quick succession, the second left him paralysed, and he died shortly thereafter, at Beauvais. He was buried in the Church of Saint-Thomas in Beauvais and his epitaph on the stone was lost when the church was demolished in 1795, but was later found and placed in the Church of Saint-Étienne
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Stump (drawing)
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A stump is a cylindrical drawing tool, usually made of soft paper that is tightly wound into a stick and sanded to a point at both ends. It is used by artists to smudge or blend marks made with charcoal, Conté crayon, by its use, gradations and half tones can be produced. Stumps are typically made of paper but can also be made of felt or leather and they are sold commercially in a range of sizes suitable for manipulations covering large areas, for operations on a miniature scale, and those in-between. A variant that is not as packed and has a hollow core is called tortillon. When blending, a stump may be held at an angle to increase the area that contacts the paper. The tip of the stump must be clean while blending in light-toned areas of a drawing. Eventually the tool will become dull from use, sandpaper pointers are used to clean
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Chinoiserie
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Chinoiserie is the European interpretation and imitation of Chinese and East Asian artistic traditions, especially in the decorative arts, garden design, architecture, literature, theatre, and music. First appearing in the 17th century, this trend was popularized in the 18th century due to the rise in trade with China, as a style, chinoiserie is related to the Rococo style. Chinoiserie entered European art and decoration in the mid-to-late 17th century and it was also popularized by the influx of Chinese and Indian goods brought annually to Europe aboard English, Dutch, French, and Swedish East India Companies. There was a revival of popularity for chinoiserie in Europe and the United States from mid-19th Century through the 1920s, though usually understood as a European style, chinoiserie was a global phenomenon. Local versions of chinoiserie were developed in India, Japan, Persia and those products then inspired local artists and artisans such as ceramicists making Talavera pottery at Puebla de Los Angeles. There were many reasons why chinoiserie gained such popularity in Europe in the 18th century, Europeans had a fascination with the exotic East due to their increased, but still restricted, access to new cultures through expanded trade with East Asia, especially China. While Europeans frequently held inaccurate ideas about East Asian, this did not necessarily preclude their fascination, in particular, the Chinese who had exquisitely finished art. Whose court ceremonial was even more elaborate than that of Versailles were viewed as highly civilized. According to Voltaire in his Art de la Chine, The fact remains that four years ago. In other words, somewhere, on the side of the world, there existed a culture so rich that it rivaled the civilizations of Rome. Chinoiserie created a juxtaposition between something new and exotic for Europeans while at the same time reflecting the values of the 4,000 year old culture from which these objects came. Some critics saw the style as …a retreat from reason and taste and it was viewed as lacking the logic and reason upon which Antique art had been founded. Architect and author Robert Morris claimed that it …consisted of mere whims and chimera, without rules or order, it requires no fertility of genius to put into execution. Those with an archaeological view of the East, considered the chinoiserie style, with its distortions and whimsical approach, to be a mockery of the actual Chinese art. Finally, still believed that an interest in chinoiserie indicated a pervading cultural confusion in European society. Chinoiserie persisted into the 19th and 20th centuries but declined in popularity, there was a notable loss of interest in Chinese-inspired décor after the death in 1830 of King George IV, a great proponent of the style. The First Opium War of 1839-1842 between Britain and China disrupted trade and caused a decline of interest in the Oriental. China closed its doors to exports and imports and for many people became a fashion of the past
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Self-portrait
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A self-portrait is a representation of an artist that is drawn, painted, photographed, or sculpted by that artist. With better and cheaper mirrors, and the advent of the panel portrait, Portrait of a Man in a Turban by Jan van Eyck of 1433 may well be the earliest known panel self-portrait. He painted a portrait of his wife, and he belonged to the social group that had begun to commission portraits. The genre is venerable, but not until the Renaissance, with increased wealth and interest in the individual as a subject, a self-portrait may be a portrait of the artist, or a portrait included in a larger work, including a group portrait. Many painters are said to have included depictions of specific individuals, including themselves, in these works, the artist usually appears as a face in the crowd or group, often towards the edges or corner of the work and behind the main participants. Rubenss The Four Philosophers is a good example and this culminated in the 17th century with the work of Jan de Bray. Many artistic media have used, apart from paintings, drawings. In the famous Arnolfini Portrait, Jan van Eyck is probably one of two figures glimpsed in a mirror – a surprisingly modern conceit. The Van Eyck painting may have inspired Diego Velázquez to depict himself in view as the painter creating Las Meninas, as the Van Eyck hung in the palace in Madrid where he worked. This was another modern flourish, given that he appears as the painter, in what may be one of the earliest childhood self-portraits now surviving, Albrecht Dürer depicts himself as in naturalistic style as a 13-year-old boy in 1484. In later years he appears variously as a merchant in the background of Biblical scenes, leonardo da Vinci may have drawn a picture of himself at the age of 60, in around 1512. The picture is often reproduced as Da Vincis appearance, although this is not certain. In the 17th century, Rembrandt painted a range of self-portraits, family and professional group paintings, including the artists depiction, became increasingly common from the 17th century on. From the later 20th century on, video plays a part in self-portraiture. Vigée-Lebrun painted a total of 37 self-portraits, many of which were copies of earlier ones, Women artists have historically embodied a number of roles within their self-portraiture. Most common is the artist at work, showing themselves in the act of painting, or at least holding a brush and palette. Often, the viewer if the clothes worn were those they normally painted in. Images of artists at work are encountered in Ancient Egyptian painting, one of the first self-portraits was made by the Pharaoh Akhenatens chief sculptor Bak in 1365 BC
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Louvre
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The Louvre or the Louvre Museum is the worlds largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the citys 1st arrondissement, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres. The Louvre is the second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II, remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to the expansion of the city, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function and. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace, in 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years, during the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nations masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed Musée Napoléon, the collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic, whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with wolf hunting den, in the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris to a monastery. This territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, the Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvres holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed, however, on 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. Under Louis XVI, the museum idea became policy. The comte dAngiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the French Museum, many proposals were offered for the Louvres renovation into a museum, however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution, during the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences, on 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property
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Honolulu Museum of Art
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The Honolulu Museum of Art is an art museum in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. The museum is largest of its kind in the state, and was founded in 1922 by Anna Rice Cooke. The Honolulu Museum of Art was called “the finest small museum in the United Statesˮ by J. Carter Brown, director of the National Gallery of Art from 1969 to 1992. It presents international caliber special exhibitions and features a collection that includes Hokusai, van Gogh, Gauguin, Monet, Picasso and Warhol, located in two of Honolulu’s most beautiful buildings, visitors enjoy two cafés, gardens, and films and concerts at the theater. In 2011, The Contemporary Museum gifted its assets and collection to the Honolulu Academy of Arts, in 2012, the Museum is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums and registered as a National and State Historical site. In 1990, the Honolulu Museum of Art School was opened to expand the program of art classes. In 2001, the Henry R. Luce Pavilion Complex opened with the Honolulu Museum of Art Café, Museum Shop, the Honolulu Museum of Art has a large collection of Asian art, especially Japanese and Chinese works. Major collections include the Samuel H, other collections include the James A. Michener collection of ukiyo-e prints and the Hawaiian art collection, which chronicles the history of art in Hawaiʻi. The permanent collection is presented in 32 galleries and six courtyards, the Honolulu Museum of Art occupies 3.2 acres near downtown Honolulu, not far from Waikīkī beach. The Museum is open to the public Tuesday through Sunday, admission is free to members, children and for some events, but otherwise a fee is charged. Some events and certain days offer free admission to all, an optional audio guide includes 40 selections from the collection. Guided tours are offered several times daily, tours in the Japanese language, for the hearing impaired and specialty group tours for 10 or more are also available. The museum is open 10 a. m. to 4,30 p. m. on Tuesday to Saturday,1 p. m. to 5 p. m. on Sunday, and closed on Monday. The museums second location, Spalding House, is located in lush Makiki Heights and features galleries of art, a café, on permanent view is David Hockneys installation Lenfant et les sortilèges, the artists interpretation of his original stage designs for the 1981 Metropolitan Opera production. The Doris Duke Theatre at the Museum seats 280 and it hosts movies, concerts, lectures, and presentations. The theatre is home to Hawaiis GLBT film festival the Rainbow Film Festival. It is currently run by Theatre Manager, Taylour Chang, in 1927, the Robert Allerton Art Research Library opened with 500 books. In 1955, it was expanded and named for Robert Allerton, Collections include 45,000 books and periodicals, biographical files on artists, and auction catalogues dating to the beginning of the 20th century
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Venus Consoling Love
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Venus Consoling Love is a painting by François Boucher, from 1751. The painting depicts a scene, where Venus, the goddess of Love, depicted as a young, charming. She is about to disarm Cupid, by taking away his arrows, in Enlightenment France the dedicated search to define truth engendered a re–evaluation of the natural. The belief that it was right to follow nature, and that the pursuit of pleasure was natural, Venus sits beside the pond with doves, the goddess symbol. The white doves at her feet, her complexion, the pearls in her hair are just as luxurious like the silk draperies that were wrapped around her, Boucher painted the artwork with soft pastel tones using a dim silvery light. The painting was made with technical skill. The principal charm of Rococo art is its sensuality and seductivity, the painting belonged to Mme de Pompadour, the French kings mistress, dislplayed at Château de Bellevue, who commissioned it, and it was Madame de Pompadour who allegedly posed for the painting. Artists liked to work for her not only for the prestige of working for the aristocracy, but also because she paid her bills regularly
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Neue Pinakothek
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The Neue Pinakothek is an art museum in Munich, Germany. Its focus is European Art of the 18th and 19th century and is one of the most important museums of art of the century in the world. Together with the Alte Pinakothek and the Pinakothek der Moderne it is part of Munichs Kunstareal, the museum was founded by the former King Ludwig I of Bavaria in 1853. The original building constructed by Friedrich von Gärtner and August von Voit was destroyed during World War II, the ruin of the Neue Pinakothek was demolished in 1949. Designed by architect Alexander Freiherr von Branca the new building with features such as arched windows, keystones, bay windows and stairways. It combines a concrete construction with a stone facade design, Ludwig began to collect contemporary art already as crown prince in 1809 and his collection has been steadily enlarged. Owing to the preference of Ludwig I there was initially a strong focus on paintings of German Romanticism. Also dynastic considerations played a role as Greece had become a secundogeniture of Bavaria in 1832, the so-called Tschudi Contribution between 1905 and 1914 brought the Pinokathek an extraordinary collection of masterpieces of Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. Hugo von Tschudi was dismissed by Kaiser Wilhelm as a penalty for his bringing Gauguins The Birth of Christ into the National Gallery in Berlin and he went on to become the director of the Pinokathek. As general director of the State Collections, Tschudi acquired 44 paintings, nine sculptures and 22 drawings, since public funds could not be used to purchase these works, Tschudi’s associates raised the money from private contributions after his death in 1911. The delimitation to the modern painters displayed in the Pinakothek der Moderne was later fixed by taking the restart of Henri Matisse, consequentially a painting of Matisse acquired by the Tschudi Contribution is now displayed in the Pinakothek der Moderne. In 1915, the Neue Pinakothek became the property of the Bavarian state, a self-portrait of Vincent van Gogh was confiscated in 1938 by the Nazi regime as degenerate art and sold one year later. The museum is under supervision of the Bavarian State Painting Collections which houses a collection of more than 3.000 European paintings from classicism to art nouveau. About 400 paintings and 50 sculptures of these are exhibited in the New Pinakothek, international paintings of the second half of 18th century, Among others the gallery exhibits works of Francisco de Goya, Jacques-Louis David, Johann Friedrich August Tischbein and Anton Graff. German artists of Classicism in Rome like Friedrich Overbeck, Friedrich Wilhelm von Schadow, Heinrich Maria von Hess, Peter von Hess, German Romanticism with paintings of Caspar David Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Carl Blechen and others. Biedermeier represented by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, Carl Spitzweg, Moritz von Schwind and Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, French Realism and French Romanticism with Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Géricault, Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Honoré Daumier and others. Deutschrömer such as Hans von Marées, Arnold Böcklin, Anselm Feuerbach, history paintings with Wilhelm von Kaulbach, Karl Theodor von Piloty, Franz von Defregger and Hans Makart. German Realism like Wilhelm Leibl, Franz von Lenbach and Adolph Menzel, German Impressionists especially Max Liebermann, Lovis Corinth, August von Brandis and Max Slevogt
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Media related to François Boucher at Wikimedia Commons
Boucher's Madame de Pompadour at Smarthistory.
