1.
Bissone
–
Bissone is a municipality in the district of Lugano, in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. Bissone is first mentioned in 735 and again in 854 as Blixuni, in German it was known as Byssen, though that name is no longer used. In the 8th Century it was home to a Lombard garrison and supported the fortresses in Campione dItalia, starting in the 9th Century, the monastery of S. Ambrogio in Milan owned property in Bissone. The parish church of St. Carpoforo, became independent in 1474 from the mother church at Riva San Vitale. It became fully independent in 1622, but retained a relationship with the monastery of San Pietro in Ciel dOro in Pavia, the Oratory of St. Rocco was built around 1630. During the Middle Ages, at the site of todays Casa Tencalla, the castle is first mentioned in 1054. On the mountain surrounded by fortified walls, were the entrance gates to the village. Bissone was the center of the Ghibellines resistance during the dispute between Milan and Como, following the French invasion in 1798 and the end of the Old Swiss Confederacy, it became a stronghold of supporters of the Cisalpine Republic. However, on 3 March 1798 it was taken over by Pro-Swiss forces from Lugano, Bissone was the birthplace of the architect Francesco Borromini and home of numerous construction and architecture dynasties such as the Maderno, Gaggini, Tencalla and Garovaglio families. The local economy relied primarily on fishing and the fish trade. Under the Old Swiss Confederacy, Bissone, Morcote and Melide had a monopoly on selling fish in Lugano, another source of income was providing ferries across the lake. During the 14th to 17th Centuries a number of houses with impressive arcades were built for the local merchants. Later, emigration together with wine, olive and hemp cultivation became the sources of income. With the construction of the Melide causeway, carrying the road and railway from Melide, the highway was built in 1966, and separated the old village from the newer housing developments. Since 1950 the economic structure is dominated by the services sector, Bissone is part of the tourist region on Lake Lugano. Bissone has an area, as of 1997, of 1.82 square kilometers, of this area,0.22 km2 or 12. 1% is used for agricultural purposes, while 1.48 km2 or 81. 3% is forested. Of the rest of the land,0.38 km2 or 20. 9% is settled, of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 12. 1% and transportation infrastructure made up 7. 7%. While parks, green belts and sports made up 1. 1%
2.
Old Swiss Confederacy
–
The Old Swiss Confederacy was a precursor of the modern state of Switzerland. It was a confederation of independent small states which formed during the 14th century. From a nucleus in what is now Central Switzerland, the confederacy expanded to include the cities of Zurich and this formed a rare union of rural and urban communes, all of which enjoyed imperial immediacy in the Holy Roman Empire. Its success resulted in the addition of more confederates, increasing the number of cantons to thirteen by 1513, the confederacy pledged neutrality in 1515 and 1647, although many Swiss served privately as mercenaries in the Italian Wars and during the Early Modern period. After the Swabian War of 1499 the confederacy was a de facto independent state throughout the modern period. The Swiss Confederacy fell to invasion by the French Revolutionary Army in 1798, the adjective “old” was introduced after the Napoleonic era with Ancien Régime, retronyms distinguishing the pre-Napoleonic from the restored confederation. During its existence the confederacy was known as Eidgenossenschaft or Eydtgnoschafft, in reference to treaties among cantons, territories of the confederacy came to be known collectively as Schweiz or Schweizerland, with the English Switzerland beginning during the mid-16th century. From that time the Confederacy was seen as a single state, the foundation of the Confederacy is marked by the Rütlischwur or the 1315 Pact of Brunnen. Since 1889, the Federal Charter of 1291 among the communes of Uri, Schwyz. The initial pact was augmented by pacts with the cities of Lucerne, Zürich, in several battles with Habsburg armies, the Swiss were victorious, they conquered the rural areas of Glarus and Zug, which became members of the confederacy. From 1353 to 1481, the federation of eight cantons—known in German as the Acht Orte —consolidated its position, the members enlarged their territory at the expense of local counts—primarily by buying judicial rights, but sometimes by force. The Eidgenossenschaft, as a whole, expanded through military conquest, the Aargau was conquered in 1415, in both cases, the Swiss profited from weakness in the Habsburg dukes. In the south, Uri led a military territorial expansion that would by 1515 lead to the conquest of the Ticino, none of these territories became members of the confederacy, they had the status of condominiums. At this time, the eight cantons gradually increased their influence on neighbouring cities, individual cantons concluded pacts with Fribourg, Appenzell, Schaffhausen, the abbot and the city of St. Gallen, Biel, Rottweil, Mulhouse and others. These allies became closely associated with the confederacy, but were not accepted as full members, the Burgundy Wars prompted a further enlargement of the confederacy, Fribourg and Solothurn were accepted in 1481. In the Swabian War against Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, the Swiss were victorious, the associated cities of Basel and Schaffhausen joined the confederacy as a result of that conflict, and Appenzell followed suit in 1513 as the thirteenth member. The federation of thirteen cantons constituted the Old Swiss Confederacy until its demise in 1798, the expansion of the confederacy was stopped by the Swiss defeat in the 1515 Battle of Marignano. Only Berne and Fribourg were still able to conquer the Vaud in 1536, the Reformation in Switzerland led to doctrinal division amongst the cantons
3.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
4.
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane
–
The church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, also called San Carlino, is a Roman Catholic church in Rome, Italy. The church was designed by the architect Francesco Borromini and it was his first independent commission and he received the commission in 1634, under the patronage of Cardinal Francesco Barberini, whose palace was across the road. However, this financial backing did not last and subsequently the project suffered various financial difficulties. It is one of at least three churches in Rome dedicated to San Carlo, including San Carlo ai Catinari and San Carlo al Corso. The monastic buildings and the cloister were completed first after which construction of the church took place during the period 1638-1641, Berninis oval church of SantAndrea al Quirinale would later be built further along the Strada Pia. The inscriptions found in San Carlo, a valuable source illustrating the history of the church, have collected and published by Vincenzo Forcella. The concave-convex facade of San Carlo undulates in a non-classic way, tall corinthian columns stand on plinths and bear the main entablatures, these define the main framework of two storeys and the tripartite bay division. The medallion once contained a 1677 fresco by a Pietro Giarguzzi of the Holy Trinity, the plan and section show the layout of the cramped and difficult site, the church is on the corner with the cloister next to it and both face onto the Via Pia. The monastic buildings straddle the site, beyond which Borromini intended to design a garden, the church interior is both extraordinary and complex. The three principal parts can be identified vertically as the order at ground level, the transition zone of the pendentives. In the lower part of the church, the altar is on the same longitudinal axis as the door. One altar is dedicated to Saint Michael de Sanctis, the dedicated to Saint John Baptist of the Conception. Between these, and arranged in groups of four, sixteen columns carry a broad and this creates an undulating movement effect which is enhanced by the variation in treatment of the bays between the columns with niches, mouldings, and doors. The pendentives are part of the area where the undulating almost cross-like form of the lower order is reconciled with the oval opening to the dome. The oval entablature to the dome has a crown of foliage and frames a view of deep set interlocking coffering of octagons, crosses, light floods in from windows in the lower dome that are hidden by the oval opening and from windows in the side of the lantern. Flanking the apse of the altar is a pair of identical doorways. The right door leads to the convent through which the crypts below may be accessed, the door on the left leads to an external chapel known as Capella Barberini which contains a shrine to blessed Elisabeth Canori Mora. The crypt below follows the size and form of the church and has a low pierced vault, chapels open off this space, including an octagonal chapel on the south-east side where Borromini intended to be buried
5.
Sant'Agnese in Agone
–
SantAgnese in Agone is a 17th-century Baroque church in Rome, Italy. It faces onto the Piazza Navona, one of the urban spaces in the historic centre of the city. Construction began in 1652 under the architects Girolamo Rainaldi and his son Carlo Rainaldi, after numerous quarrels, the other main architect involved was Francesco Borromini. The church is a titular deaconry, with Gerhard Ludwig Müller being the current Cardinal-Deacon, the building of the church was begun in 1652 at the instigation of Pope Innocent X whose family palace, the Palazzo Pamphili, is adjacent to this church. The church was to be effectively a chapel annexed to their residence. The first designs for a centralised Greek Cross church were prepared by the Pamphili family architect, Girolamo Rainaldi, the original drawings are lost but it is thought that the Piazza Navona facade design included a narthex between two towers and broad stairs descending to the piazza. The idea of the twin towers framing a central dome may be indebted to Berninis bell towers on the facade of Saint Peters basilica, nonetheless, Rainaldis design of a concave facade and a central dome framed by twin towers was influential on subsequent church design in Northern Europe. In 1653, the Rainaldis were replaced by Borromini and his façade was to have eight columns and a broken pediment over the entrance. He designed the towers as single storey, above which there was to be a complex arrangement of columns. By the time of Innocents death in 1655, the façade had reached the top of the lower order, Innocents nephew, Camillo Pamphili, failed to take interest in the church and Borromini became disheartened, eventually leading to his resignation in 1657. Carlo Rainaldi was reappointed and made a number of modifications to Borrominis design including an additional storey to the flanking towers, on the death of Camillo, his wife Olympia, commissioned Bernini to take over. He was responsible for the pediment above the main entrance. In 1668, Olympias son, Camillo, took responsibility for the church. He reinstated Carlo Rainaldi as architect and engaged Ciro Ferri to create frescoes for the interior of the dome, further decorations were added, there were large scale sculptures and polychrome marble effects. None of these are likely to have intended by Borromini. The cupola is frescoed with the Assumption of Mary, begun in 1670 by Ciro Ferri, the pendentives of the dome were painted with the Cardinal Virtues by Berninis protégé, Giovanni Battista Gaulli. In the sacristy, there is a canavas depicting the Glory of St Agnese by Paolo Gismondi, the near-circular interior, actually a Greek cross design, is circumferentially surrounded by marble sculptural masterpieces by Baroque, dedicated to individual martyred saints. There are four altars in the pillars with reliefs, unusually set in semi-circular niches, Algardi provided a small model while a full scale plaster model was made by his assistants Ercole Ferrata and Guidi
6.
Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza
–
SantIvo alla Sapienza is a Roman Catholic church in Rome. Built in 1642-1660 by the architect Francesco Borromini, the church is a masterpiece of Roman Baroque architecture, the church is at the rear of a courtyard at 40, Corso del Rinascimento, the complex is now used by the Archives of the City of Rome. In the 14th century, there was a chapel here for the palace of the University of Rome, the University is called La Sapienza, and the church was dedicated to Saint Ivo. When a design was commissioned from Borromini in the 17th century, the corkscrew lantern of the dome was novel. The complex rhythms of the interior have a dazzling geometry to them, the main artwork of the interior is the altarpiece by Pietro da Cortona, portraying St. Yves. The church rises at the end of a courtyard, known as the courtyard of Giacomo della Porta, the façade is concave, molding the church into the courtyard as if completing it rather than disrupting it. The façade itself looks like a continuation of the courtyard arches except with the filled in with small windows, a door. Above the façade is a large parapet structure so that only the stages of the church is seen past the façade. A key exterior aspect is the top of the church, the lantern of SantIvo is topped with a spiral shape, the interior of SantIvo is unique because of the shapes incorporated into the rotunda. Borromini was well known for fusing of geometrical shapes as well as his pairing of columns in order to facilitate curves, but for SantIvo, Borromini did not blend the different shapes. The rotunda of SantIvo is contrived of distinct shapes, a triangle with its three angles cut as if bitten off, and semi-circles located in between the three lines. Borromini utilized curves and edges in equal amounts to define the shape of the rotunda and this blending of edges and curves is arguably Borromini’s most distinguishable signature. Another detail is that associated with the round sections of the dome are larger than those associated with the edges. One of the sections is where the entrance is located while the altar is located on the opposite end. The two other round and edgy sections to the sides are identical in features, through the perforations in the lantern, sunlight illuminates the dome through an oculi. The aisles of arches surrounding the right and left wings of SantIvo are themselves not halted by the church, here, the space between the arches and the walls in the aisles still continues past the church’s sides. Each aisle has a lateral entrance to the church. These hindered side entrances lead to rooms, and these hexagonal rooms are connected to the rotunda as well as the smaller façade windows
7.
Oratorio dei Filippini
–
The Oratorio dei Filippini is a building located in Rome and erected between 1637 and 1650 under the supervision of architect Francesco Borromini. The oratory is adjacent to the Chiesa Nuova Santa Maria in Vallicella, in front of the two sides was a small closed square, now integrated in the Corso Vittorio Emanuele II. Borromini won a competition for designing the structure against many including Paolo Maruscelli and he was employed in the task for 13 years, often a testy process. By 1640, the oratory was in use, and by 1643, the striking facade adjacent to the church entrance has little regard for the structures behind. Inside the oratory is articulated by half columns and a rhythm of pilasters. The facade provides a summary of Borrominis characteristics of innovations style, the main body is divided into five parts by pilasters following a concave curve. In the central part, a dialectic set appears between the level, whose curve moves outward. At the top, the tympanum, created for the first time after an mistiligne angle, at the corner of the oratory, on the Piazza dellOrologio, Borromini raised a turret with a clock. In the staircase leading up to the one can admire the full scale plaster models of Alessandro Algardis reliefs of The Encounter of Attila and Pope Leo. Anthony Blunt, Vita e opere di Borromini, Laterza, Rome-Bari,1983 Paolo Portoghesi, Francesco Borromini, Elemond-Electa, Milan,1990
8.
Ticino
–
Ticino /tᵻˈtʃiːnoʊ/, formally the Republic and Canton of Ticino is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. The land now occupied by the canton was annexed from Italian cities in the 15th century by various Swiss forces in the last transalpine campaigns of the Old Swiss Confederacy, in the Helvetic Republic, established 1798, it was divided between the two new cantons of Bellinzona and Lugano. The creation of the Swiss Confederation in 1803 saw these two cantons combine to form the canton of Ticino. The name Ticino was chosen for the newly established canton in 1803, known as Ticinus in Roman times, the river appears on the Tabula Peutingeriana as Ticenum. Johann Kaspar Zeuss attributed Celtic origins to the name, tracing it to the Celtic tek, itself from an Indo-European root tak, in ancient times, the area of what is today Ticino was settled by the Lepontii, a Celtic tribe. Later, probably around the rule of Augustus, it part of the Roman Empire. After the fall of the Western Empire, was ruled by the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, around 1100 it was the centre of struggle between the free communes of Milan and Como, in the 14th century it was acquired by the Visconti, Dukes of Milan. In the fifteenth century the Swiss Confederates conquered the south of the Alps in three separate conquests. Between 1403 and 1422 some of these lands were annexed by forces from the Canton of Uri. Uri conquered the Leventina Valley in 1440, in a second conquest Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden gained the town of Bellinzona and the Riviera in 1500. Some of the land and Bellinzona itself were previously annexed by Uri in 1419, the third conquest was fought by troops from the entire Confederation. In 1512 Locarno, the Maggia Valley, Lugano and Mendrisio were annexed, subsequently, the upper valley of the Ticino River, from the St. Gotthard to the town of Biasca was part of Uri. The remaining territory was administered by the Twelve Cantons and these districts were governed by bailiffs holding office for two years and purchasing it from the members of the League. The lands of the canton of Ticino are the last lands to be conquered by the Swiss Confederation, the Confederation gave up any further conquests after their defeat at the battle of Marignano in 1515 by Francis I of France. The Val Leventina revolted unsuccessfully against Uri in 1755, in February 1798 an attempt of annexation by the Cisalpine Republic was repelled by a volunteer militia in Lugano. During the Napoleonic Wars, many Ticinesi served in Swiss military units allied with the French, the canton minted its own currency, the Ticinese franco, between 1813 and 1850, when it began use of the Swiss franc. In the early 19th century, the contemporary Franco-Danish scholar Conrad Malte-Brun stated that, “The canton of Tesino is the poorest, until 1878 the three largest cities, Bellinzona, Lugano and Locarno, alternated as capital of the canton. In 1878, however, Bellinzona became the only and permanent capital, the current cantonal constitution dates from 1997
9.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
10.
Pietro da Cortona
–
Pietro da Cortona was an Italian Baroque painter and architect. Along with his contemporaries and rivals Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Francesco Borromini and he was also an important designer of interior decorations. He was born Pietro Berrettini, but is known by the name of his native town of Cortona in Tuscany. He worked mainly in Rome and Florence, only a limited number of his architectural projects were built but nonetheless they are as distinctive and as inventive as those of his rivals. Berrettini was born into a family of artisans and masons, in Cortona and he trained in painting in Florence under Andrea Commodi, but soon he departed for Rome at around 1612/3, where he joined the studio of Baccio Ciarpi. In Rome, he had encouragement from many prominent patrons, according to Cortonas biographers his gifted copy of Raphaels Galatea fresco brought him to the attention of Marcello Sacchetti, papal treasurer during the Barberini papacy. Such contacts helped him gain a major commission in Rome. In 1633, Pope Urban VIII commissioned from Cortona a large painting for the main salon ceiling of the Barberini family palace. It was completed six years later, following Cortonas influential visit to northern Italy where he would have seen at first hand perspectival works by Paolo Veronese, Cortonas huge Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power marks a watershed in Baroque painting. The ornamented architectural framework essentially forms five compartments, the central and most significant part celebrates the glorification of the reign of Urban VIII in a light filled scene populated with allegorical figures and Barberini family emblems. The illusion of spatial extension through paint, the grandiose theme, the first two represented the ages of silver and gold. In 1641, he was recalled to paint the Bronze Age and he began work on the decoration of the grand-ducal reception rooms on the first floor of the Palazzo Pitti, now part of the Palatine Gallery. These highly ornate ceilings with frescoes and elaborate stucco work essentially celebrate the Medici lineage, Pietro left Florence in 1647, and his pupil and collaborator, Ciro Ferri, completed the cycle by the 1660s. For a number of years, Cortona was involved for decades in the decoration of the frescoes in the Oratorian Chiesa Nuova in Rome. Other frescoes are in Palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona, in 1660, he executed The Stoning of Saint Stephen for the church of San Ambrogio della Massima in Rome. The work currently hangs in the Hermitage, towards the end of his life he devoted much of his time to architecture, but he published a treatise on painting in 1652 under a pseudonym and in collaboration. He refused invitations to both France and Spain and he was elected as director of the Academy of St Luke the painters guild in Rome, in 1634. It was at the Academy in 1636 that Cortona and Andrea Sacchi were involved in controversies regarding the number of figures that were appropriate in a painted work
11.
Architecture
–
Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
12.
Michelangelo
–
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of Western art. Considered to be the greatest living artist during his lifetime, he has since described as one of the greatest artists of all time. A number of Michelangelos works of painting, sculpture, and architecture rank among the most famous in existence and he sculpted two of his best-known works, the Pietà and David, before the age of thirty. As an architect, Michelangelo pioneered the Mannerist style at the Laurentian Library, at the age of 74, he succeeded Antonio da Sangallo the Younger as the architect of St. Peters Basilica. Michelangelo transformed the plan so that the end was finished to his design, as was the dome, with some modification. Michelangelo was unique as the first Western artist whose biography was published while he was alive, in his lifetime he was often called Il Divino. One of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his terribilità, the attempts by subsequent artists to imitate Michelangelos impassioned and highly personal style resulted in Mannerism, the next major movement in Western art after the High Renaissance. Michelangelo was born on 6 March 1475 in Caprese near Arezzo, at the time of Michelangelos birth, his father was the Judicial administrator of the small town of Caprese and local administrator of Chiusi. Michelangelos mother was Francesca di Neri del Miniato di Siena, the Buonarrotis claimed to descend from the Countess Mathilde of Canossa, this claim remains unproven, but Michelangelo himself believed it. Several months after Michelangelos birth, the returned to Florence. There Michelangelo gained his love for marble, as Giorgio Vasari quotes him, If there is good in me. Along with the milk of my nurse I received the knack of handling chisel and hammer, as a young boy, Michelangelo was sent to Florence to study grammar under the Humanist Francesco da Urbino. The young artist, however, showed no interest in his schooling, preferring to copy paintings from churches, the city of Florence was at that time the greatest centre of the arts and learning in Italy. Art was sponsored by the Signoria, by the merchant guilds and by patrons such as the Medici. The Renaissance, a renewal of Classical scholarship and the arts, had its first flowering in Florence, the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti had laboured for fifty years to create the bronze doors of the Baptistry, which Michelangelo was to describe as The Gates of Paradise. The exterior niches of the Church of Orsanmichele contained a gallery of works by the most acclaimed sculptors of Florence – Donatello, Ghiberti, Andrea del Verrocchio, and Nanni di Banco. The interiors of the churches were covered with frescos, begun by Giotto. During Michelangelos childhood, a team of painters had been called from Florence to the Vatican, among them was Domenico Ghirlandaio, a master in fresco painting, perspective, figure drawing, and portraiture who had the largest workshop in Florence at that period
13.
Guarino Guarini
–
Camillo-Guarino Guarini was an Italian architect of the Piedmontese Baroque, active in Turin as well as Sicily, France, and Portugal. He was a Theatine priest, mathematician, and writer and he was accepted as a Theatine novice in 1639, spent his novitiate at the monastery of San Silvestro al Quirinale in Rome, and returned to Modena in 1647, where he was ordained in 1648. He rose quickly in the Theatine hierarchy, becoming first auditor, then superintendent of works, treasurer, lecturer in philosophy, procuratore, prince Alfonso supported another candidate and Guarini was soon replaced and had to leave Modena. The next few years are poorly documented and he wrote four mathematical books in both Latin and Italian, of which Euclides adauctus is a work on descriptive geometry. In 1665, he published a mathematical-philosophical tract Placita Philosophica defending the universe against Copernicus. The Palazzo Carignano is regarded as one of the finest urban palaces of the half of the 17th century in Italy. Guarini appears to have influenced by Borromini. Between 1657 and 1659 he stayed in Spain, where he studied Moorish buildings, in architecture, his successors include Filippo Juvarra, and Juvarras pupil Bernardo Vittone. The latter published his designs in Architettura Civile in 1737 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Guarini, Camillo-Guarino. Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600–1750, optical Illusion and Projection, A Study of Guarino Guarinis Dome in Santissima Sindone Books on line, http, //architectura. cesr. univ-tours. fr/Traite/Auteur/Guarini. asp. param=en
14.
John Soane
–
Sir John Soane RA was an English architect who specialised in the Neo-Classical style. The son of a bricklayer, he rose to the top of his profession, becoming professor of architecture at the Royal Academy and he received a knighthood in 1831. His best-known work was the Bank of England, a building which had an effect on commercial architecture. He also designed Dulwich Picture Gallery, which, with its galleries, was a major influence on the planning of subsequent art galleries. The museum is described in the Oxford Dictionary of Architecture as one of the most complex, intricate, Soane was born in Goring-on-Thames on 10 September 1753. He was the surviving son of John Soan and his wife Martha. The e was added to the surname by the architect in 1784 on his marriage and his father was a builder or bricklayer, and died when Soane was fourteen in April 1768. He was educated in nearby Reading in a school run by William Baker. After his fathers death Soanes family moved to nearby Chertsey to live with Soanes brother William,12 years his elder, William Soane introduced his brother to James Peacock, a surveyor who worked with George Dance the Younger. Soane began his training as an architect age 15 under George Dance the Younger and joining the architect at his home and office in the City of London at the corner of Moorfields and Chiswell Street. Dance was a member of the Royal Academy and doubtless encouraged Soane to join the schools there on 25 October 1771 as they were free. There he would have attended the lectures delivered by Thomas Sandby. Dances growing family was probably the reason that in 1772 Soane continued his education by joining the household, Soane, a non-swimmer, was going to be with the party but decided to stay home and work on his design for a Triumphal Bridge. By 1777, Soane was living in his own accommodation in Hamilton Street, in 1778 he published his first book Designs in Architecture. He sought advice from Sir William Chambers on what to study, must discover their true beauties, and the secrets by which they are produced. Using his traveling scholarship of £60 per annum for three years, plus an additional £30 travelling expenses for each leg of the journey, Soane set sail on his Grand Tour, his ultimate destination being Rome, at 5,00 am,18 March 1778. His travelling companion was Robert Furze Brettingham, they travelled via Paris and they finally reached Rome on 2 May 1778. Soane wrote home my attention is taken up in the seeing and examining the numerous
15.
Lugano
–
Lugano is a city in southern Switzerland in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino bordering Italy. It has a population of 71,500, and an urban agglomeration over 145,000, the 9th largest Swiss city, it is the largest in Ticino and largest with an Italian speaking majority outside Italy. The city lies on Lake Lugano, surrounded by the mountains of the Lugano Prealps, the toponym is first recorded in 804, in the form Luanasco, in 874 as Luano, and from 1189 as Lugano. German-language variants of the name were Lowens, Lauis, Lauwis, the etymology of the name is uncertain, suggestions include derivation from lucus grove, from a vulgar Latin lakvannus lake-dweller and from the god Lugus. The blazon of the coat of arms is Gules, a cross throughout argent. The coat of arms dates from around 1200, the four letters on the coat of arms are an abbreviation of the name Lugano. The shores of Lake Lugano have been inhabited since the Stone Age, within the modern city limits a number of ground stones or quern-stones have been found. In the area surrounding Lugano, items from the Copper Age, there are Etruscan monuments at Davesco-Soragno, Pregassona, and Viganello. Graves with jewelry and household items have been found in Aldesago, Davesco, Pazzallo, the region around Lake Lugano was settled by the Romans by the 1st century BC. There was an important Roman city north of Lugano at Bioggio, there are fewer traces of the Romans in Lugano, but several inscriptions, graves and coins indicate that some Romans lived in what would become Lugano. Other documents, dating from 804 and 844 refer to Lake Lugano as Laco Luanasco, during the fighting between Guelphs and Ghibellines and the new disputes between Como and Milan, during the 14th and 15th centuries, Lugano was the scene of clashes between opposing forces. After a long rule by the Rusca family, Lugano was freed from the domination of Como, at the same time the link between town and the valley strengthened. By 1405–06 documents attest to a vallis comunitas Lugani et, which was a body that was independent of Como. The new community included the parishes of Lugano, Agno, Riva San Vitale, in 1416 the Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti conquered the region of Lugano and the Rusca valley and made it a fief. A year later, Luganos freedoms were first documented in a series of statutes modeled on those of Como, the town was able to secure complete independence. Between 1433 and 1438 the Duke of Milan, Aloisio Sanseverino sat as a feudal lord over Lugano and he compensated the Rusca family with the ownership of Locarno. Under the reign of his heirs in the following decades rebellions and riots broke out and it was the object of continuous disputes between the Dukes of Como and Milan until it became a Swiss dominion in 1513. Swiss control lasted until 1798 when Napoleon conquered the Old Swiss Confederation, in 1746, the Agnelli brothers opened the first printing press and bookshop in Lugano
16.
Milan
–
Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
17.
Carlo Maderno
–
Carlo Maderno was an Italian architect, born in todays Ticino, who is remembered as one of the fathers of Baroque architecture. His façades of Santa Susanna, St. Peters Basilica and SantAndrea della Valle were of key importance in the evolution of the Italian Baroque and he is often referred to as the brother of sculptor Stefano Maderno, but this is not universally agreed upon. He worked initially as a cutter, and his background in sculptural workmanship would help mold his architecture. The structure is a rhythm of columns and pilasters, with a protruding central bay. There is an incipient playfulness with the rules of classic design, the Santa Susanna façade won the attention of Pope Paul V, who in about 1603 appointed him chief architect of St Peters. Maderno was forced to modify Michelangelos plans for the Basilica and provide designs for a nave with a palatial façade. The façade is constructed to allow for Papal blessings from the emphatically enriched balcony above the central door. This forward extension of the basilica has been criticized because it blocks the view of the dome when seen from the Piazza, Maderno did not have as much freedom in designing this building as he had for others structures. Most of Madernos work continued to be the remodelling of existing structures, even Madernos masterpiece, the church of SantAndrea della Valle, is not entirely his. There he designed the façade and executed the dome, the second largest in the Roman skyline, the crossing contains the high altar, lit under Madernos dome on its high windowed drum. The earliest design is of 1608, construction took from 1621 to 1625, at Madernos death, the façade remained half built, it was completed to Madernos original conception by Carlo Fontana. His other works include the Roman churches of Gesù e Maria, San Giacomo degli Incurabili, Santa Lucia in Selci, in addition, he worked on the Quirinal Palace, the Papal palace in Castel Gandolfo and the Palazzo Barberini and for the Barberini Pope Urban VIII. In the Palazzo Barberini at Quattro Fontane, Madernos work is overshadowed at times by details added by Bernini and Borromini and his design of palaces is best represented by his design of Palazzo Mattei. Maderno was called upon to design chapels within existing churches, the Chapel of St Lawrence in San Paolo fuori le Mura and the Cappella Caetani in Santa Pudenziana. He designed the base supporting the Marian column in front of Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Carlo Maderno and Roman Architecture 1580–1630. Vitruvio site, Carlo Maderno Wittkower, Rudolf, pelican History of Art, Art and Architecture Italy, 1600-1750. Works by or about Carlo Maderno in libraries
18.
St. Peter's Basilica
–
The Papal Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican, or simply St. Peters Basilica, is an Italian Renaissance church in Vatican City, the papal enclave within the city of Rome. While it is neither the church of the Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome. It has been described as holding a position in the Christian world. Catholic tradition holds that the Basilica is the site of Saint Peter, one of Christs Apostles. Saint Peters tomb is supposedly directly below the altar of the Basilica. For this reason, many Popes have been interred at St. Peters since the Early Christian period, construction of the present basilica, which would replace Old St. Peters Basilica from the 4th century AD, began on 18 April 1506 and was completed on 18 November 1626. St. Peters is famous as a place of pilgrimage and for its liturgical functions. The Pope presides at a number of liturgies throughout the year, drawing audiences of 15,000 to over 80,000 people, either within the Basilica or the adjoining St. Peters Square. St. Peters has many associations, with the Early Christian Church, the Papacy. As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age, St. Peters is one of the four churches in the world that hold the rank of Major Basilica, all four of which are in Rome. Contrary to popular misconception, it is not a cathedral because it is not the seat of a bishop, St. Peters is a church built in the Renaissance style located in the Vatican City west of the River Tiber and near the Janiculum Hill and Hadrians Mausoleum. Its central dome dominates the skyline of Rome, the basilica is approached via St. Peters Square, a forecourt in two sections, both surrounded by tall colonnades. The first space is oval and the second trapezoid, the basilica is cruciform in shape, with an elongated nave in the Latin cross form but the early designs were for a centrally planned structure and this is still in evidence in the architecture. The central space is dominated both externally and internally by one of the largest domes in the world, the entrance is through a narthex, or entrance hall, which stretches across the building. One of the bronze doors leading from the narthex is the Holy Door. The interior is of vast dimensions when compared with other churches and this in its turn overwhelms us. The nave which leads to the dome is in three bays, with piers supporting a barrel-vault, the highest of any church. The nave is framed by wide aisles which have a number of chapels off them, there are also chapels surrounding the dome
19.
Palazzo Barberini
–
The Palazzo Barberini is a 17th-century palace in Rome, facing the Piazza Barberini in Rione Trevi. It houses the Galleria Nazionale dArte Antica, the sloping site had formerly been occupied by a garden-vineyard of the Sforza family, in which a palazzetto had been built in 1549. The sloping site passed from one cardinal to another during the sixteenth century, when Cardinal Alessandro Sforza met financial hardships, the still semi-urban site was purchased in 1625 by Maffeo Barberini, of the Barberini family, who became Pope Urban VIII. Three great architects worked to create the Palazzo, each contributing his own style, Maderno began in 1627, assisted by his nephew Francesco Borromini. When Maderno died in 1629, Borromini was passed over and the commission was awarded to Bernini, Borromini stayed on regardless and the two architects worked together, albeit briefly, on this project and at the Palazzo Spada. Works were completed by Bernini in 1633, after the Wars of Castro and the death of Urban VIII, the palace was confiscated by Pamphili Pope Innocent X and was only returned to the Barberini in 1653. The palazzo is disposed around a forecourt centered on Berninis grand two-storey hall backed by an oval salone, with an extended wing dominating the piazza, which lies on a lower level. At the rear, a long wing protected the garden from the piazza below, the main block presents three tiers of great arch-headed windows, like glazed arcades, a formula that was more Venetian than Roman. On the uppermost floor, Borrominis windows are set in a perspective that suggests extra depth. Flanking the hall, two sets of stairs lead to the piano nobile, a large squared staircase by Bernini to the left, the salon ceiling is graced by Pietro da Cortonas masterpiece, the Baroque fresco of the Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power. Also in the palace is a masterpiece by Andrea Sacchi, a critic of the Cortona style. The garden is known as a giardino segreto, for its concealment from an outsiders view and it houses a monument to Bertel Thorwaldsen, who had a studio in the nearby Teatro delle Quattro Fontane in 1822-1834. Today, Palazzo Barberini houses the Galleria Nazionale dArte Antica, one of the most important painting collections in Italy and it includes Raphaels portrait La fornarina, Caravaggios Judith Beheading Holofernes and a Hans Holbein portrait of Henry VIII. The palace also houses the Italian Institute of Numismatics, the European Convention on Human Rights, which created the European Court of Human Rights, was signed here on 4 November 1950, a milestone in the protection of human rights. Hidden in the cellars of the part of the building. Blunt, Anthony, The Palazzo Barberini, Journal of the Warburg, il palazzo Barberini, official site Rome Art-Lover, Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Barberini and Veneto Rome guide Italian army ends museum stand-off, BBC News, Friday,13 October 2006 Google Maps. The complex constituting the Palazzo Barberini is in the center, set back from the road on all sides, on the lower side of the image are the start of the Quirinal Palace gardens. Below, and in the first corner on the right, is the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, diagonally opposite and above is the triangular Piazza Barberini with the Triton Fountain
20.
Charles Borromeo
–
Charles Borromeo was a cardinal who was archbishop of Milan from 1564 to 1584. Among the great reformers of the sixteenth century, Borromeo, with St. Ignatius of Loyola, St. Philip Neri. He was a leading figure during the Counter-Reformation and was responsible for significant reforms in the Catholic Church and he is honoured as a saint in the Catholic Church and his feast day is November 4. Charles biography was written by three of his contemporaries, Agostino Valerio and Carlo Bascape, who wrote their contributions in Latin, and Pietro Giussanno. Father Giussannos account was the most detailed of the three, Charles was a descendant of nobility, the family of Borromeo was one of the most ancient and wealthy in Lombardy, made famous by several notable men, both in the church and state. The aristocratic Borromeo familys coat of arms included the Borromean rings, Charles father Gilbert was Count of Arona, his mother Margaret was a member of the Milan branch of the House of Medici. The third son in a family of six children, he was born in the castle of Arona on Lake Maggiore, thirty-six miles from Milan, Borromeo received the tonsure when he was about twelve years old. At this time his uncle, Julius Caesar Borromeo, turned over to him the income from the rich Benedictine abbey of Sts. Gratinian and Felin, one of the ancient perquisites of this noble family, the young man attended the University of Pavia, where he applied himself to the study of civil and canon law. Due to a slight impediment of speech, he was regarded as slow, yet his thoroughness, in 1554 his father died, and although he had an elder brother, Count Federico, he was requested by the family to take the management of their domestic affairs. After a time, he resumed his studies, and on 6 December 1559 he earned a doctorate in utroque iure, on 25 December 1559, his uncle, Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Medici, was raised to the pontificate as Pope Pius IV. The newly elected pope required his nephew Charles Borromeo to come to Rome, shortly thereafter, on 31 January 1560, the pope created him cardinal, and thus Charles as cardinal-nephew was entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the ecclesiastical state. He was also entrusted in the government of the Papal States and appointed supervisor of the Franciscans, Carmelites, Charles committed to organize the third and last section of the Council of Trent, in 1562-63. He took a share in the creation of the Tridentine Catechism. In 1561, Borromeo founded and endowed a college at Pavia, today known as Almo Collegio Borromeo, on 19 November 1562, his older brother, Federico, suddenly died. His family urged Charles to leave the church to marry and have children, so that the name would not become extinct. Charles was appointed administrator of the Archdiocese of Milan on 7 February 1560, after his decision to put into practice the role of bishop, he decided to be ordained priest and on 7 December 1563 he was consecrated bishop in the Sistine Chapel by Cardinal Giovanni Serbelloni. Charles made his entry into Milan as archbishop on 23 September 1565
21.
Quirinal Hill
–
The Quirinal Hill is one of the Seven Hills of Rome, at the north-east of the city center. It is the location of the residence of the Italian head of state. The Quirinal Palace has an extension of 1.2 million square feet and it was originally part of a group of hills that included Collis Latiaris, Mucialis, Salutaris. These are now lost due to building in the 16th century, according to Roman legend, the Quirinal Hill was the site of a small village of the Sabines, and king Titus Tatius would have lived there after the peace between Romans and Sabines. These Sabines had erected altars in the honour of their god Quirinus, some authors consider it possible that the cult of the Capitoline Triad could have been celebrated here well before it became associated with the Capitoline Hill. The sanctuary of Flora, an Osco-Sabine goddess, was here too, according to Livy, the hill first became part of the city of Rome, along with the Viminal Hill, during the reign of Servius Tullius, Rome sixth king, in the 6th century BC. In 446 BC, a temple was dedicated on the Quirinal in honour of Semo Sancus Dius Fidius, augustus, too, ordered the building of a temple, dedicated to Mars. On a slope of the Quirinal were the gardens of Sallust. On the Quirinal Hill Constantine ordered the erection of his baths and these are now lost, having been incorporated into Renaissance Rome, with only some drawings from the 16th century remaining. In the Middle Ages, the Torre delle Milizie and the convent of St, in the same palazzo were also the two statues of river gods that Michelangelo moved to the steps of Palazzo Senatorio on the Capitoline Hill. According to the division of the center of Rome, the Hill belongs to the rione Trevi. The Quirinal Hill is today identified with the Palazzo del Quirinale, before the abolition of the Italian monarchy in 1946, it was the residence of the king of Italy, and before 1871 it was, as originally, a residence of the Pope. The healthy cool air of the Quirinal Hill attracted aristocrats and papal families that built villas where the gardens of Sallust had been in antiquity, in the 18th century, Ferdinando Fuga built the long wing called the Manica Lunga, which stretched 360 meters along via del Quirinale. In front lies the sloping Piazza del Quirinale where the pair of gigantic Roman marble Horse Tamers representing Castor and Pollux, in Piranesis view, the vast open space is unpaved. The Palazzo del Quirinale was the residence of the popes until 1870, when Rome was united to the Kingdom of Italy, the Quirinale became the residence of the kings until 1946. Several collections are in this Palazzo, including tapestries, paintings, statues, old carriages, watches, furniture and it formerly housed Mussolinis ministry of colonial affairs. The hill is the site of important monuments and buildings. The Piazza and Palazzo Barberini, built by Bernini and Maderno, Palazzo Volpi di Misurata, across from San Carlino, built in the 18th century
22.
Trinitarian Order
–
From the very outset, a special dedication to the mystery of the Holy Trinity has been a constitutive element of the Orders life. Papl documents refer to the founder only as Brother John, but tradition identifies him as St. John de Matha, the founding-intention for the Order was the ransom of Christians held captive by non-Christians, a consequence of crusading and of pirating along the Mediterranean coast of Europe. The Order has the initials O. SS. T, the Order’s distinctive cross of red and blue can be traced to its beginnings. According to James W. Raids by militias, bands, the redemption of captives is listed among the corporal works of mercy. The period of the Crusades, when so many Christians were in danger of falling into the hands of non-Christians, pope Innocent III granted the order and its rule approval with his letter Operante divine dispositionis clementia, issued on 17 December 1198. Soon after papal approbation, the Trinitarian ministry to Christian captives was incorporated into the Orders title, Order of the Holy Trinity, in addition to the Orders purpose of ransoming Christian captives, each local community of Trinitarians served the people of its area. And so, their ministry included, hospitality, care of the sick and poor, churches, education, eventually, the Trinitarians also assumed the work of evangelization. Trinitarian tradition considers St. Felix of Valois co-founder of the Order and companion of John of Matha at Cerfroid, in Cerfroid the first Trinitarian community was established and it is considered the mother house of the whole Order. The first generation of Trinitarians could count some fifty foundations, in northern France, the Trinitarians were known as “Mathurins” because they were based in the church of Saint-Mathurin in Paris from 1228 onwards. Fundraising and economic expertise constituted important aspects of the Orders life, the Rules requirement of the tertia pars, or setting aside one-third of all income for the ransom of Christian captives, became a noted characteristic of the Order. Louis IX installed a house of their order in his château of Fontainebleau and he chose Trinitarians as his chaplains, and was accompanied by them on his crusades. The Master of the Trinity was taken together with Saint Louis after the Battle of Al Mansurah. Throughout the centuries, the Trinitarian Rule underwent several revisions, notably in 1267 and it has been complemented by statutes and constitutions. The thirteenth century was a time of vitality, whereas the following centuries brought periods of difficulty, the Council of Trent was a major turning-point in the life of the Church. Its twenty-fifth session dealt with regulars and nuns and the reform of religious orders, reforming interests and energies manifested themselves among Trinitarians in France with the foundation at Pontoise, north of Paris, during the last quarter of the sixteenth century. Far-reaching periods of growth and development followed this rebirth, in succeeding centuries, European events such as revolution, government suppression and civil war had very serious consequences for the Trinitarian Order and it declined significantly. During the last decades of the century, the Trinitarians began to grow slowly in Italy. Its members dedicated themselves to fostering and promoting devotion to the Holy Trinity, evangelising non-Christians, assisting immigrants, educating the young, today the Trinitarian Family is composed of priests, brothers, women as well as committed laity
23.
Santa Maria in Vallicella
–
Santa Maria in Vallicella, also called Chiesa Nuova, is a church in Rome, Italy, which today faces onto the main thoroughfare of the Corso Vittorio Emanuele and the corner of Via della Chiesa Nuova. St. Gregory the Great built the first church on the site, by the 12th century, it was dedicated to Santa Maria in Vallicella. In 1575, Pope Gregory XIII recognised Neris group as a religious Congregation and gave them the church, st. Philip Neri, helped by Cardinal Pier Donato Cesi and Pope Gregory XIII, had the church rebuilt, starting in 1575. When Pierdonato died, his brother Angelo Cesi, Bishop of Todi, initially the architect was Matteo di Città di Castello, but he was replaced later by Martino Longhi the Elder. The nave was completed in 1577, and the church was consecrated in 1599, the facade, designed by Fausto Rughesi, was completed in 1605 or 1606. The Cesi heraldry is still evident in the church, the ground plan follows the Counter-Reformation design of churches established at the Gesù, a single main nave with transepts and side chapels, leading towards the High Altar. It is renowned for its altarpieces by Barocci, Pietro da Cortonas ceilings, Pietro da Cortonas decorations include the Trinity in the dome. The prophets Isiah, Jeremiah, Daniel and Ezechiel in the four pendentives were painted in 1655–56, Cortonas nave vault fresco of the Miracle of the Madonna della Vallicella was executed in 1664–65. This is clearly set within a gold frame, a quadro riportato. The first altarpiece on the right is a Crucifixion by Pulzone with a fresco painted by Lanfranco. The third altarpiece is an Ascension by Girolamo Muziano, the fourth, a Pentecost by Giovanni Maria Morandi, the fifth, in the transept is a Coronation of Mary by the Cavaliere dArpino, who also painted the first altarpiece on the right. In the right presbytery, is the Spada family chapel completed in 1593 by Rainaldi, inside, a Madonna with Child and Santi Carlo Borromeo and Ignazio di Loyola was painted by Maratta. In the central presbytery, the ciborium was designed by Ciro Ferri in 1681. When installed, the three panels are said to have caused a stir among observers in Rome, who were generally unaccustomed to the Flemish painterly style. The Rubens altarpiece was commissioned by Monsignor Jacopo Serra for 300 scudi, in the left transept is a Presentation of Mary to the Temple by Federico Barocci. He completed two altarpieces that were admired in his time, including one in the Chapel of the Visitation. The sacristy was begun in 1621 based on plans by Mario Arconio. In the sacristy is a sculptural group of S. Filippo with an Angel by Alessandro Algardi
24.
Sapienza University of Rome
–
The Sapienza University of Rome, also called simply Sapienza or the University of Rome, is a collegiate research university located in Rome, Italy. Formally known as Università degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza, it is the largest European university by enrollments and one of the oldest in history, the University is also the most prestigious Italian university and also the best ranked in Southern Europe. The biggest part of the Italian ruling class studied at this University and he introduced a new tax on wine in order to raise funds for the university, the money was used to buy a palace which later housed the SantIvo alla Sapienza church. However, the Universitys days of splendour came to an end during the sack of Rome in 1527, when the studium was closed and the professors dispersed, Pope Paul III restored the university shortly after his ascension to the pontificate in 1534. In the 1650s the university known as Sapienza, meaning wisdom. University students were newly animated during the 19th-century Italian revival, in 1870, La Sapienza stopped being the papal university and became the university of the capital of Italy. In 1935 the new university campus, planned by Marcello Piacentini, was completed, Sapienza University has many campuses in Rome but its main campus is the Città Universitaria, which covers 439,000 m2 near the Roma Tiburtina Station. The university has satellite campuses outside Rome, the main of which is in Latina. In 2011 a project was launched to build a campus residence halls near Pietralata station. The Department of Philosophy is located in this building, since the 2011 reform, Sapienza University of Rome has eleven faculties and 65 departments. Today Sapienza, with 140,000 students and 8,000 among academic and technical, the university has significant research programmes in the fields of engineering, natural sciences, biomedical sciences and humanities. It offers 10 Masters Programmes taught entirely in English, as of the 2016 Academic Ranking of World Universities, Sapienza is positioned within the 151-200 group of universities and among the top 3% of universities in the world. In 2015, the Center for World University Rankings ranked the Sapienza University of Rome as the 112th in the world, in order to cope with the large demand for admission to the university courses, some faculties hold a series of entrance examinations. The entrance test often decides which candidates will have access to the undergraduate course, for some faculties, the entrance test is only a means through which the administration acknowledges the students level of preparation. Students that do not pass the test can still enroll in their chosen degree courses but have to pass an additional exam during their first year, the title of the speech would have been The Truth Makes Us Good and Goodness is Truth. Some students and professors protested in reaction to a 1990 speech that Pope Benedict XVI gave in which he, in their opinion, endorsed the actions of the church against Galileo in 1633
25.
Archiginnasio of Bologna
–
The construction of the Archiginnasio dates back to the 16th century, when Piazza Maggiore was drastically remodeled under papal orders, the Fountain of Neptune was built during this same period. The building was begun at the end of February 1562, built very quickly, the goal of this project was to create a single place where the Schools of the Legisti and Artisti, previously located in various places across the town, could be hosted together. The building of the new Schools was named Archiginnasio after the term which was used to designate the Studium, as the University was first called. The Archiginnasio ceased from being a University in 1803 when the University was moved to Palazzo Poggi where it is located today. Scuole Pie where housed in building for a few years and later. Archiginnasio Municipal Library is the largest library in Emilia-Romagna and it was first established to keep the books collected from the closure of the religious orders made by Napoleon. All of this material, handwritten and printed collections, are of the utmost importance and they deal with the civil, cultural, religious and social history of Bologna and its territory. Upon entering, visitors are asked to hand over all bags, two stairways lead to the upper floor where are located the study rooms of the legisti, and the artisti. The walls of the form an enormous heraldic complex, made up of six thousand coats of arms painted on its walls. The honor of putting a coat of arms on the walls was reserved for students who were elected by other students as heads of the nationes. The coats of arms indicate the country or city of the student. On the walls of the portico are located a number of busts of the Seventeenth Century portraying lecturers from the University. Moreover, on the walls is also possible to notice the connection with the power, many are the coats of arms with the symbols of the church, triple crowns, St. Peters keys. The upper level of the building houses the Anatomical theatre. It was the used for anatomy lectures and displays. It is shaped like an amphitheater and made from fir wood with a coffer ceiling, decorated with statues. It is overlooked by the seat of the professor, topped by a baldaquin. The two main statues, from left to right, represent Hippocrates and Galen, the most prominent physicians of Greece and Rome, respectively
26.
Giacomo della Porta
–
Giacomo della Porta was an Italian architect and sculptor, who worked on many important buildings in Rome, including St. Peters Basilica. He was born at Porlezza, Lombardy and died in Rome, della Porta was influenced by and collaborated with Michelangelo, and Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, his teacher of architecture. After the death of Vignola in 1573, he continued the construction of Il Gesù, the church of the Jesuit order. From 1573 he was in charge of the construction of St. Peters Basilica. Trinità de Monti Fontana di Piazza alli Monti Cupola of St. Peters Basilica Fountains at the Piazza di Santa Maria in Campitelli Fountains opposite SS. Venanzio e Ansovino Fontana della Terrina Sculpture Christ delivering the keys of Heaven to St. Peter, altar of the St. Jan Birksted, 183-201
27.
Pope Innocent X
–
Pope Innocent X, born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, was Pope from 15 September 1644 to his death in 1655. Trained as a lawyer, he succeeded Pope Urban VIII on 15 September 1644, as one of the most politically shrewd pontiffs of the era, Giovanni Battista Pamphili was born in Rome on 5 May 1574, the son of Camillo Pamphili, of the Roman Pamphili family. The family, originally from Gubbio, was descended from Pope Alexander VI. In 1594 he graduated from the Collegio Romano and followed a conventional cursus honorum and he served as a Consistorial lawyer in 1601, and in 1604 succeeded his uncle, Cardinal Girolamo Pamphilj, as auditor of the Roman Rota, the ecclesiastical appellate tribunal. He was also a canonist of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary, a second tribunal, in 1623 Pope Gregory XV sent him as nuncio to the court of the Kingdom of Naples. In 1625 Urban VIII sent him to accompany his nephew, Francesco Barberini, in January 1626 Pamphili was appointed titular Latin Patriarch of Antioch. The 1644 conclave for the election of a successor to Urban VIII was long and stormy, the large French faction led by Pope Urbans nephews objected to the Spanish candidate, as an enemy of Cardinal Mazarin, who guided French policy. They put up their own candidate but could not establish enough support for him and agreed to Pamphilj as an acceptable compromise, Mazarin, bearing the French veto of Cardinal Pamphilj, arrived too late, and the election was accomplished. Soon after his accession, Innocent X initiated legal action against the Barberini for misappropriation of public funds, the brothers Francesco Barberini, Antonio Barberini and Taddeo Barberini fled to Paris, where they found a powerful protector in Cardinal Mazarin. The French parliament declared the ordinance void in France. In 1653, Innocent X with the Cum occasione papal bull condemned five propositions of Janseniuss Augustinus, inspired by St. Augustine, as heretical and close to Lutheranism. The death of Pope Urban VIII is said to have been hastened by chagrin at the result of the First War of Castro, a war he had undertaken against Odoardo Farnese, the duke of Parma. Hostilities between the papacy and the Duchy of Parma resumed in 1649, and forces loyal to Pope Innocent X destroyed the city of Castro on 2 September 1649, the protests were ignored by the European powers. Olimpia Maidalchini, who had married to his late brother, was believed to be Innocent Xs mistress because of her influence over him in matters of promotion. The relationship between Olimpia and Innocent X, both before and during his papacy, is the concern of the book Mistress of the Vatican by Eleanor Hermann. The less-than-subtle political statement still hangs in a chapel of the Capuchin friars Church of the Conception in Rome. During the papacy of Pope Urban VIII, Giovanni Battista Pamphilj was the popes most significant rival among the College of Cardinals, Antonio Barberini, the popes brother, was a cardinal who had begun his career with the Capuchin brothers. He raised Colegio de Nuestra Senora del Santisimo Rosario to a University in November 20,1645 during his pontificate, in 1650, Innocent X celebrated a Jubilee
28.
Piazza Navona
–
Piazza Navona is a piazza in Rome, Italy. It is built on the site of the Stadium of Domitian, built in 1st century AD, the ancient Romans went there to watch the agones, and hence it was known as Circus Agonalis. It is believed that time the name changed to in avone to navone. Piazza Navona has two other fountains, at the southern end is the Fontana del Moro with a basin and four Tritons sculpted by Giacomo della Porta to which, in 1673, Bernini added a statue of a Moor, or African, wrestling with a dolphin. At the northern end is the Fountain of Neptune also created by Giacomo della Porta, during its history, the piazza has hosted theatrical events and other ephemeral activities. From 1652 until 1866, when the festival was suppressed, it was flooded on every Saturday and Sunday in August in elaborate celebrations of the Pamphilj family. The pavement level was raised in the 19th century, and in 1869 the market was moved to the nearby Campo de Fiori, a Christmas market is held in the piazza. During June 2008, Ron Howard directed several scenes of the adaptation of Angels & Demons on the southern section of the piazza. The piazza is featured in scenes of director Mike Nichols 1970 adaptation of Joseph Hellers novel. The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi was used in the 1990 film Coins in the Fountain, the characters threw coins into the fountain as they made wishes. The Trevi Fountain was used in the 1954 version of the film, the piazza is featured in Eugene Levys Once Upon A Crime film. In the early hours of 3 September 2011, the Fontana del Moro was damaged by a vandal, roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture, Its Elements, History, and Meaning. Birds eye view of Piazza Navona, virtual Tour of Piazza Navona Bernini Fountains Video Introduction
29.
Palazzo Pamphilj
–
See also Palazzo Doria Pamphilj Palazzo Pamphilj, also spelled Palazzo Pamphili, is a palace facing onto the Piazza Navona in Rome. It was built between 1644 and 1650, in 1644, Cardinal Giambattista Pamphilj of the powerful Pamphilj family, who already owned a palace between the Piazza Navona and the Via Pasquino, became Pope Innocent X. With this election came the desire for a more magnificent building to reflect his family’s increased prestige. Further land was bought, the architect Girolamo Rainaldi received the commission and construction began in 1646, the new project was to incorporate some existing buildings, including the former palace of the Pamphilj and the Palazzo Cibo. In 1647, the Baroque architect Francesco Borromini was consulted about the design, however, the prevailing preference was for Rainaldi’s more staid and conservative design. The Gallery extends through the width of the block with a large Serliana window at either end, between 1651 and 1654, the painter Pietro da Cortona was commissioned to decorate the Gallery vault. His secular fresco cycle depicts scenes from the life of Aeneas, the Pamphili claim to be descended from Aeneas. So Cortona devised a series of scenes around a central painted framed ‘Apotheosis of Aeneas’ into the Olympian heavens, the elaborate doorframes regularly spaced along the longer walls of the Gallery display a combination of motifs typically used by Borromini and by Cortona The plan has three courtyards. The rooms on the piano nobile have frescoes and friezes by artists such as Giacinto Gimignani, Gaspard Dughet, Andrea Camassei, Giacinto Brandi, Francesco Allegrini, carlo Rainaldi, the son of Girolamo, completed the building around 1650. The new palazzo became the home of Innocents widowed and unpopular sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini and she was the mother of Camillo Pamphilj, the one time cardinal, who through his marriage came into the possession of the Palazzo Aldobrandini, now known as the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj. Confusingly, until the unification of the Doria and Pamphilj surnames both palazzi were known as Palazzo Pamphilj, or in the case of todays Doria Pamphilj sometimes Palazzo Pamfilio, both spellings Pamphilj and Pamphili are in common Italian usage, even though the family prefers Pamphilj. The Palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona, Constructing Identity In Early Modern Rome,2008, Rome in the Age of Bernini, volume II, Almquist & Wiksell, Stockholm,1986, Chapter 1 Innocent X Brazilian Embassy in Rome Official website Palazzo Pamphilj Virtual tour
30.
Carlo Rainaldi
–
Carlo Rainaldi was an Italian architect of the Baroque period. Born in Rome, Rainaldi was one of the architects of 17th century Rome. He worked at first with his father, Girolamo Rainaldi, a late Mannerist architect in Rome, after his fathers death, he fully embraced the monumental Baroque style. He gained ascendancy in Rome when the Barberini pontificate of Pope Urban VIII was replaced by that of the more austere Pamphilj papacy of Innocent X. His works include the façade of SantAndrea della Valle, the churches of Santa Maria dei Miracoli and Santa Maria in Montesanto. He was unable to complete the facade of SantAgnese in Agone during work in 1653-1657, beyond his work as an architect in stone, Rainaldi also designed stage sets for religious rituals and events. In 1650, he designed the sets for the Quarantore, or Forty Hours Devotion, in 1665, he designed a catafalque commemorating the death of Philip IV of Spain. Fasolo, F. Lopera di Hieronimo e Carlo Rainaldi
31.
Santa Maria dell'Anima
–
Santa Maria dellAnima is a Roman Catholic church in central Rome, Italy, just west of the Piazza Navona and near the Santa Maria della Pace church. It was founded during the course of the 14th century by Dutch merchants, in the course of the 15th century, it became the national church of the whole Holy Roman Empire in Rome and henceforth the national church of Germany and hospice of German-speaking people in Rome. According to tradition, the received its name, from the picture of Our Lady which forms its coat of arms. Among the artworks housed inside is the Holy Family by Giulio Romano and it is the resting place of the Dutch Pope Adrian VI as well as of Cardinals William of Enckenvoirt and Andrew of Austria. Santa Maria dellAnima is one of the medieval charity institutions built for pilgrims in Rome. The church found its origin in 1350, when Johannes and Katharina Peters of Dordrecht bought three houses and turned it into a hospice for pilgrims, at the occasion of the Jubilee of 1350. Jan Peters may have been a Dutch merchant or papal soldier and they named the hospice Beatae Mariae Animarum. It was erected on its present site in 1386, the foundation of the hospice was confirmed by the bull of Pope Boniface IX on 9 November 1399, which granted it indulgences. In 1406, it was raised to the rank of an institution and united with a Brotherhood governed by Provisors. On 21 May 1406 Pope Innocent VII in his bull Piae Postulatio declared the hospice exempt from all but papal jurisdiction, in 1418, it was greatly enriched by the legacy of its second founder, Diedrich of Niem. The Popes of the century, with the exception of Pope Sixtus IV. In 1431 a church was built on the place of the hospices chapel, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Santa Maria dellAnima became the national and religious centre as well as burial place in Rome of the Holy Roman Empire. Johann Burchard from Strasbourg joined the Confraternity of Santa Maria dellAnima, while he held this office, the decision was made to rebuild the church for the Jubilee of 1500. The present church which owes its Renaissance style to the influence of Bramante, was built by German subscriptions and it stands on the site of the older church, built between 1431 and 1499, and was decorated by the great artists of the period. The church was built in the style of a church that was typical for Northern Europe. Andrea Sansovino was retained as architect, the facade was completed by Giuliano da Sangallo. The new church was consecrated only on 25 November 1542, during the Napoleonic occupation, the church was plundered and the sacristy used as a horse stable. In 1844, the Belgian community moved to the Church of St. Julian of the Flemings, Dutch Catholics retained the Anima as their national church, but after extended conflicts left it in 1939
32.
Ciro Ferri
–
Ciro Ferri was an Italian Baroque sculptor and painter, the chief pupil and successor of Pietro da Cortona. He was born in Rome, where he working under Cortona. He collaborated with Cortona and completed for him the extensive frescoed ceilings and his independent masterpiece is considered an extensive series of scriptural frescoes in the church of Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. In addition, also known is his an altarpiece of St Ambrose Healing the Sick in the church of SantAmbrogio della Massima in Rome. He executed also an amount of miscellaneous designs, such as etchings and frontispieces for books. Ferri was appointed to direct the Florentine students in Rome, as regards style, Ferri ranks as chief of the grand manner of Cortona, as opposed to the more sober and spare style promulgated by Andrea Sacchi, and continued by Carlo Maratta and others. The 1911 Britannica refers to this as the so-called Machinists movement, Ciro Ferri became a member of the Accademia di San Luca on 3 June 1657. His ciborium for the altar of Santa Maria in Vallicella is a masterpieces of 17th-century bronze decorative sculpture. Among the pupils sent there from Florence were Anton Domenico Gabbiani, Giovanni Battista Foggini, Atanasio Bimbacci, Carlo Marcellini, Ferri was also responsible for the Reliquary of the Arm of St. John the Baptist which is found in the St Johns Co-Cathedral in Malta. Ciro Ferri contributed five illustrations to the missal of Pope Alexander VII Chigi and it also contained works by fellow artists in Rome, including Pietro da Cortona, Carlo Cesi, Guglielmo Cortese, Carlo Maratti, Jan Miel, Cornelis Bloemaert, and Pier Francesco Mola. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Ferri
33.
Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
–
The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples in Rome is the congregation of the Roman Curia responsible for missionary work and related activities. It is perhaps better known by its title, the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. It was renamed by Pope John Paul II in 1982 and its mission continues unbroken, the early Congregation was established in the Palazzo Ferratini, donated by Juan Bautista Vives, to the south of the Piazza di Spagna. The current Prefect of the Congregation is Cardinal Fernando Filoni, the current Secretary is Archbishop Savio Hon Tai-Fai from Hong Kong. The Adjunct Secretary is Archbishop Protase Rugambwa, the Under-Secretary is Father Tadeusz Wojda, S. A. C. The Archivist of the Archives of the Congregation is Bishop Luis Manuel Cuña Ramos, monsignors Lorenzo Piva and Camillus Nimalan Johnpillai assist as Office Heads of the Congregation. The Congregation was originally housed in a palace, the Palazzo Ferratini, donated by Vives. In 1634 a small chapel was built according to designs by Bernini. In 1642, Father Valerio, with Bernini, redesigned the façade to the Piazza di Spagna, and the development was continued along the Via Due Macelli by Gaspare de’Vecchio from 1639-1645. Initially Borromini designed an oval chapel plan but this was superseded by a rectilinear design, with the greater length parallel to the street. Construction of the chapel commenced in 1660 and although the part was built by 1665. The Re Magi chapel, dedicated to the Three Kings, has a plan with four side chapels and galleries above. On the interior, the wall and the vault are differentiated horizontally by a line but there is a vertical continuity of wall. The criss cross arrangement in the Re Magi Chapel is such that an octagon is formed at the centre and his first designs for the façade onto the Via di Propaganda Fide had five bays but he expanded this to seven. The façade is dominated by the giant pilasters that originally supported a balustrade above the narrow entablature, the central door leads into the courtyard where Borromini intended a curved arcade but this was not built. Only the left side of the façade relates to the chapel. Other parts of the College have further minor works by Borromini, the intrinsic importance of its duties and the extraordinary extent of its authority and of the territory under its jurisdiction caused the Cardinal Prefect of Propaganda to be known as the red pope. This was the direction for the Catholic Church to look for evangelizing
34.
Archbasilica of St. John Lateran
–
It is the oldest of and has precedence among the four papal major basilicas, all of which are in Rome, because it is the oldest church in the West and houses the cathedra of the Roman Pontiff. It has the title of ecumenical mother church of the Roman Catholic faithful, the current archpriest is Agostino Vallini, Cardinal Vicar General for the Diocese of Rome. The archbasilica stands over the remains of the Castra Nova equitum singularium, the fort was established by Septimius Severus in AD193. Following the victory of Emperor Constantine I over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, the guard was abolished, substantial remains of the fort lie directly beneath the nave. The remainder of the site was occupied during the early Roman Empire by the palace of the gens Laterani, sextius Lateranus was the first plebeian to attain the rank of consul, and the Laterani served as administrators for several emperors. One of the Laterani, Consul-designate Plautius Lateranus, became famous for being accused by Nero of conspiracy against the Emperor, the accusation resulted in the confiscation and redistribution of his properties. The Lateran Palace fell into the hands of the Emperor when Constantine I married his second wife Fausta, known by that time as the Domus Faustae or House of Fausta, the Lateran Palace was eventually given to the Bishop of Rome by Constantine I. The palace basilica was converted and extended, becoming the residence of Pope St. Silvester I, eventually becoming the Cathedral of Rome, Pope Sylvester I presided over the official dedication of the archbasilica and the adjacent Lateran Palace in 324, declaring both to be a Domus Dei. The papal cathedra was placed in its interior, rendering it the cathedral of the Pope qua Bishop of Rome, the archbasilica and Lateran Palace were re-dedicated twice. Pope Sergius III dedicated them to St. John the Baptist in the 10th century in honor of the newly consecrated baptistry of the archbasilica, Pope Lucius II dedicated them to St. John the Evangelist in the 12th century. Consequently, the archbasilica remains dedicated to the Savior, and its titular feast is the Feast of the Transfiguration, the archbasilica became the most important shrine of the two St. Johns, albeit infrequently jointly venerated. In later years, a Benedictine monastery was established in the Lateran Palace, and was devoted to serving the archbasilica, the Lateran Palace has also been the site of five ecumenical councils. During the time the papacy was seated in Avignon, France, the Lateran Palace, two fires ravaged them in 1307 and 1361. After both fires the pope sent money from Avignon to pay for their reconstruction and maintenance, nonetheless, the archbasilica and Lateran Palace lost their former splendor. When the papacy returned from Avignon and the pope again resided in Rome, the archbasilica, the popes resided at the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere and later at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. Eventually, the Palace of the Vatican was built adjacent to the Basilica of St. Peter, which existed since the time of Emperor Constantine I, and it has remained the official residence of the pope. The original Lateran Palace was demolished and replaced with a new edifice, on the square in front of the Lateran Palace is the largest standing obelisk in the world, known as the Lateran Obelisk. It weighs an estimated 455 tons and it was commissioned by the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and erected by Thutmose IV before the great Karnak temple of Thebes, Egypt
35.
Palazzo Spada
–
The Palazzo Spada is a palace in the historic centre of Rome, Italy. It is located in the rione Regola, at Piazza Capo di Ferro,13 and it has a garden facing towards the River Tiber. The palace accommodates a large art collection, the Galleria Spada, bartolomeo Baronino, of Casale Monferrato, was the architect, while Giulio Mazzoni and a team provided lavish stuccowork inside and out. The palazzo was purchased by Cardinal Spada in 1632, borromini was aided in his perspective trick by a mathematician. Palazzo Spada was purchased by the Italian State in 1927 and today houses the Italian Council of State, which meets in its richly frescoed and stuccoed rooms
36.
Santi Apostoli, Naples
–
Santi Apostoli is a Baroque-style church in Naples, Italy. Legend holds that a church at the site was atop a Temple of Mercury by Emperor Constantine. Restored by the Caracciolo Family, it was ceded in 1570 to the Theatine Order, by 1590, the adjacent cloister and monastery was designed by Francesco Grimaldi. In the early 17th century was reconstructed by Giacomo Conforti, in 1638, the work was continued by Bartolomeo Picchiatti. In the 19th century, the Theatine order was suppressed and the church turned over in administrations, the church now belongs to the Liceo Artistico Statale di Napoli. The counter-facade and ceiling panels were frescoed by Giovanni Lanfranco in the 1640s, the cupola has a large fresco depicting Paradise by Giovanni Battista Benasca, who also painted the frescoes in the chapel of St Michael. This chapel has a painting by Marco da Siena The lunnettes in this chapel were painted by Giordano, over the main door is a painting of the Healing Pool by Viviani. The main altar was designed by Fuga, in the choir are five canvases by Solimena. The altar in the Filomarina Chapel at the right of the altar, was designed by Borromini. The chapel has mosaics made by Giovanni Battista Calandra and copied paintings by Reni. The relief on the altar of the four evangelist symbols is by François Duquesnoy, the sacristy was built in 1626 using designs of Ferdinando Sanfelice. The crypt was frescoed by Belisario Corenzio, Vasi, Giovanni Battista de, Ferrari, Mariano. Nuova guida di Napoli, dei contorni di Procida, Ischia e Capri, Compilata su la Guida del Vasi, portions derived from Italian Wikipedia entry
37.
Sant'Andrea delle Fratte
–
SantAndrea delle Fratte is a 17th-century basilica church in Rome, Italy, dedicated to St. Andrew. The Cardinal Priest of the Titulus S. Andreae Apostoli de Hortis is Ennio Antonelli. The current church was built over a one, erected in 1192. The church originally belonged to Augustinian nuns and it became the national church of the Scottish people in Rome, until Scotland became Protestant, when in 1585 Pope Sixtus V assigned it to the Minim friars of Saint Francis of Paola. The Scots College, the seminary for young men studying for the priesthood, was located nearby, on the Via del Tritone, until 1604, in 1942 Pope Pius XII elevated the church to a minor basilica. In 1604 the construction of the new church was begun, to the design of Gaspare Guerra. The project, halted eight years later, was revamped in 1653 by Francesco Borromini, who is responsible of the apse, the tambour of the cupola, after his death, the construction was continued by Mattia De Rossi. The late Renaissance-style façade, with two orders divided by pilasters, was completed in 1826, thanks to funds provided the Testament of Cardinal Ercole Consalvi, the interior has a single nave. The decoration of the cupola is by Pasquale Marini, along the nave in the first chapel is a wooden ‘’tempietto’’ painted by Borgognone and on the wall is a “Baptism of Christ” of Ludovico Gimignani. In the third chapel is the monument of Cardinal Pierluigi Carafa sculpted by Pietro Bracci. In the cloister, the lunettes are frescoed with stories from the Life of Saint Francesco by Marini, Francesco Cozza, and Filippo Gherardi. In the transept, the altar was designed by Filippo Barigioni, the altarpiece of Saint Francis of Paola was painted by Paris Nogari, the presbytery dome has a fresco of the Multiplication of the loaves and fishes by Marini. Behind the altar, is a Crucifixion of Sant’Andrea by Giovanni Battista Lenardi, the Entombment of Sant’Andrea by Francesco Trevisani, and a Death of Saint Andrew by Lazzaro Baldi. The altar in the transept was designed by Luigi Vanvitelli and Giuseppe Valadier with an altarpiece of Saints Anne, Young John the Baptist. At the sides of the presbytery are two angels by Bernini, the Angel with the Crown of Thorns and the Angel with the Scroll. He later founded the Congregation of Notre-Dame de Sion, a group of Catholic priests, lay brothers, in honor of this apparition, the pews of the church are oriented to this altar. In 1950 the chapel was renovated by the architect Marcello Piacentini. This Basilica is the seat of the title of Sancti Andreæ Apostoli de Hortis
38.
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide
–
The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples in Rome is the congregation of the Roman Curia responsible for missionary work and related activities. It is perhaps better known by its title, the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. It was renamed by Pope John Paul II in 1982 and its mission continues unbroken, the early Congregation was established in the Palazzo Ferratini, donated by Juan Bautista Vives, to the south of the Piazza di Spagna. The current Prefect of the Congregation is Cardinal Fernando Filoni, the current Secretary is Archbishop Savio Hon Tai-Fai from Hong Kong. The Adjunct Secretary is Archbishop Protase Rugambwa, the Under-Secretary is Father Tadeusz Wojda, S. A. C. The Archivist of the Archives of the Congregation is Bishop Luis Manuel Cuña Ramos, monsignors Lorenzo Piva and Camillus Nimalan Johnpillai assist as Office Heads of the Congregation. The Congregation was originally housed in a palace, the Palazzo Ferratini, donated by Vives. In 1634 a small chapel was built according to designs by Bernini. In 1642, Father Valerio, with Bernini, redesigned the façade to the Piazza di Spagna, and the development was continued along the Via Due Macelli by Gaspare de’Vecchio from 1639-1645. Initially Borromini designed an oval chapel plan but this was superseded by a rectilinear design, with the greater length parallel to the street. Construction of the chapel commenced in 1660 and although the part was built by 1665. The Re Magi chapel, dedicated to the Three Kings, has a plan with four side chapels and galleries above. On the interior, the wall and the vault are differentiated horizontally by a line but there is a vertical continuity of wall. The criss cross arrangement in the Re Magi Chapel is such that an octagon is formed at the centre and his first designs for the façade onto the Via di Propaganda Fide had five bays but he expanded this to seven. The façade is dominated by the giant pilasters that originally supported a balustrade above the narrow entablature, the central door leads into the courtyard where Borromini intended a curved arcade but this was not built. Only the left side of the façade relates to the chapel. Other parts of the College have further minor works by Borromini, the intrinsic importance of its duties and the extraordinary extent of its authority and of the territory under its jurisdiction caused the Cardinal Prefect of Propaganda to be known as the red pope. This was the direction for the Catholic Church to look for evangelizing
39.
Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori, Rome
–
Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori is a Baroque church in Rome built attached to a convent in the rione of Trastevere, located on Via Garibaldi, near the intersection with Via dei Panieri. Construction of the church was begun in 1643 with plans by Francesco Borromini, annexed to an Augustinian nunnery that was founded by Camilla-Virginia Savelli Farnese, Duchess of Latera. However, when the fortunes of the House of Farnese declined, so did the funding for the church, the convent underwent a number of tribulations during the nineteenth century, however, it was not deconsecrated in 1873, as were many other monasteries. Since then, the nunnery has slowly ebbed and most of the convent is now the Hotel Donna Camilla Savelli, the Diocese presently lists the church as being in the care of the few remaining nuns of the order of Suore Oblate del Santo Bambino Gesù. The monastery also served as a place to hide Jews from the fascist authorities active in the Holocaust during World War II, the facade of the church remains in brick, deprived of decoration. It has concave front and some odd-shaped windows that underscore Borrominis Baroque idiosyncrasies, the interior still contains some of the marble sculptural decorations plus a St Augustine and the Mystery of the Trinity by Carlo Maratta and a canvas by Marco Benefial. Romeartlover with pictures of portal and doorway
40.
San Giovanni in Oleo
–
San Giovanni in Oleo is a small church in Rome, Italy, devoted to Saint John the Evangelist, on the place where, according to tradition, his martyrdom was attempted. According to an ancient tradition, in 92, St. John survived martyrdom through immersion in a vat of boiling oil, attempted by Domitian himself. The old apostle survived a long while without even being burnt and the crowd demanded that he be spared, Domitian condemned him to exile on the island of Patmos. After his exile, he died in Ephesus and this ancient tradition, and the centralized plan of the church, customary for votive oratories on the sites of martyrdoms, support the 5th-century origin of this foundation. The current church is an octagonal 16th century Renaissance chapel, by the Porta Latina, on the door is the coat of arms of the French prelate Benoît Adam, with the motto Au plaisir de Dieu. The frescos showing Saint Johns attempted martyrdom were painted by Lazzaro Baldi
41.
Carlo Fontana
–
Carlo Fontana was an Italian architect originating from todays Canton Ticino, who was in part responsible for the classicizing direction taken by Late Baroque Roman architecture. There seems to be no proof that he belonged to the family of architects of the same name. Born in Brusato, near Como, Fontana went to Rome before 1655 and he became a draughtsman for the architectural plans of Pietro da Cortona, Carlo Rainaldi, and Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Bernini employed him for nearly a decade in diverse projects and his first independent project may be the church of San Biagio in Campitelli, completed by 1665. His façade at San Marcello al Corso is described as one of his most successful works. Among his other works were the designs for a Jesuit complex in Azpeitia, Spain, in the village of Loyola where Saint Ignatius of Loyola. This grandiose basilica was an influence upon baroque architecture of the New World. Fontana was an able artist and a designer, but lacked the innovation that characterized early Baroque architects like Cortona. In addition, he was successful as an architect than as a writer. By order of Innocent XI he wrote a historical description of the Templum Vaticanum. Fontana made a calculation of the expense of St. Peters from the beginning to 1694. He also published works on the Colosseum, the Aqueducts, the inundation of the Tiber, furthermore, twenty seven manuscript volumes of his writings and sketches are preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor. Fontana was principe of the Accademia di San Luca in 1686, fontanas studio was one of the most prolific in Europe, its designs for fountains, tombs, and altars were often imitated or reproduced abroad. Other Fontana pupils include Giovan Battista Contini and Carlo Francesco Bizzaccheri, rebuilding and refurbishing, with Francesco Borromini and others Palazzo Montecitorio, the headquarters of the Camera dei Deputati of the Italian government since 1871. Façade of the church of San Marcello al Corso, the conventional scrolls that ordinarily flank the upper central section are appropriately replaced with the martyrs palms. Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli, in collaboration with Gian Lorenzo Bernini, church of San Biagio in Campitelli. Interior of Basilica dei Santi Apostoli, the fountain in the left of the Piazza San Pietro. The fountain in front of Santa Maria in Trastevere, one of the oldest fountains of Rome, was restored by Fontana The Cybo Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo, sistine Chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore
42.
Palazzo Falconieri
–
The Palazzo Falconieri is a palace in Rome, Italy formed in the seventeenth century as a result of remodelling by the Baroque architect Francesco Borromini. It is the home of the Hungarian Academy Rome, since its foundation in 1927, from 1814, it was occupied by cardinal Joseph Fesch, Napoleons uncle. In 1638, Orazio Falconieri purchased a palace on the Via Giulia which had a courtyard facing the River Tiber. He bought an adjacent property in 1645 and in 1646 and appointed the architect Francesco Borromini to remodel, some of Borromini’s work was lost in the nineteenth century development of Lungotevere, the embankment and road between the Tiber and the buildings which overlook it, but parts remain. The surviving parts of Borromini’s work include the façade to the Via Giulia, the Belvedere overlooking the Tiber, overlooking the Tiber, Borromini added a Belvedere, a three bay loggia with Serliana openings, that stands above the surrounding buildings. On the interior, some of the rooms are ornamented with stucco work designed by Borromini, with the frequent use of heraldic devices and symbolic motifs
43.
Santa Lucia in Selci
–
The Church of Saint Lucy in Selci is an ancient Roman Catholic church, located in Rome, dedicated to Saint Lucy, a 4th-century virgin and martyr. The church was no later than the 8th century above the ruins of a Roman structure. According to the tradition, the first church was built under Pope Symmachus back in the 6th century, the building was restored by Pope Honorius I in the 7th century and again by Pope Leo III in the 9th century. The deaconry of Saint Lucy in Silice created around 300 is one of the seven original deaconries in Rome and it was confirmed by Pope Saint Sylvester I ca. The church was restored by Pope Honorius I ca 630 in the vicinity of the monumental fountain lacus orphei and it was assigned to one of the seven deacons by Pope Agatho ca. According to Liber Pontificalis, this deaconry received donations from Pope Leo III, after the 10th century it was known as Santa Lucia in Silice. The deaconry was suppressed in 1587 by Pope Sixtus V, in the 13th century, a monastery was attached to the church, enclosing it. In 1370, it was granted to the Carthusians, in 1534, it was given to the Benedictines, and in 1568 Pope Pius V granted it to the Augustinians, who still serve the church. Pope Urban VIII altered the monastery in 1624, enlarging it, one was kept by the Augustinians, one was given to Dominican friars and the last was given to the Poor Clares. The monastery was amplified in 1603 according to designs by Bartolomeo Bassi, however, all that remains of this amplification is the portal of the exterior. In 1878 the Italian state expropriated the convent of the Poor Clares, adjacent to San Lorenzo in Panisperna, carlo Maderno reconstructed the church in 1604, keeping it enclosed within the Augustinian monastery. The church was restored in 1637-1638 by Francesco Borromini. The church is built on a ground plan and barrel vault. It has a nave with three shallow chapels on each side. The barrel vault has a 19th-century fresco by an unknown artist that one with the same motif by Giovanni Antonio Lelli. The counterfaçade is decorated with the painting God the Father by Cavaliere dArpino, the high altar dates from the 19th century, and replaces one made by Borromini. The painting above the altar depicting the Annunciation is a work of the Florentine painter Anastasio Fontebuoni. The Landi Chapel, commissioned by the prioress Vittoria Landi, is the first chapel on the left, at the first altar on the right is the painting Martyrdom of St Lucy by Giovanni Lanfranco
44.
San Giovanni dei Fiorentini
–
San Giovanni dei Fiorentini is a minor basilica and a titular church in the Ponte rione of Rome, Italy. The main façade fronts onto the Via Giulia, julius IIs successor, the Florentine Pope Leo X de Medici initiated the architectural competition for a new church in 1518 on the site of the old church of San Pantaleo. Designs were put forward by a number of architects, among them Baldassare Peruzzi, Jacopo Sansovino, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, the dominant initial ideas were for a centralised church arrangement. Sansovino won the competition but the construction was subsequently executed by Sangallo. In 1559, Michelangelo was asked by Cosimo I de Medici, Duke of Tuscany, to designs for the church and he presented a centralised church arrangement. The main construction of the church was carried out in 1583-1602 under the architect Giacomo della Porta based on the Latin cross arrangement, carlo Maderno took over from 1602 to 1620, and directed construction of the dome and the main body of the church completed. However, the main façade, based on a design by Alessandro Galilei, was not finished until 1734, in 1623-24 Giovanni Lanfranco produced paintings for the Sacchetti chapel. In 1634, the Baroque painter and architect Pietro da Cortona was asked by the Florentine nobleman Orazio Falconieri to design the high altar, drawings for the altar and its setting and a model were prepared but the project was not carried out. After Borromini died in 1667, the work was completed and partly modified by Cortona and on his death in 1669, by Ciro Ferri, Cortona’s pupil and associate. By a decree of Pope John XXIII of 12 March 1960 and they were, Joseph-Charles Lefèbvre appointed on 28 March 1960 - died 2 April 1973. Juan Carlos Aramburu appointed on 24 May 1976 - died 18 Nov 2004, carlo Caffarra appointed on 24 March 2006. - present Francesco Borromini is buried under the dome
45.
Ticino (river)
–
The river Ticino is the most important perennial left-bank tributary of the Po River. It has given its name to the Swiss canton through which its upper portion flows, the Ticino joins the Po a few kilometres downstream from Pavia. It is about 248 kilometres long, the highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Grenzgipfel, at 4,618 metres. Beneath it flows the Anza River, a tributary of the Ticino. The river is dammed in Switzerland in order to create hydroelectricity, the legendary Gallic leader Bellovesus was said to have defeated the Etruscans here in circa 600 BC. Val Bedretto, an alpine valley named after the village of Bedretto, culminates in Nufenen Pass, Italian Passo della Novena. Through it runs the border between the cantons of Valais and Ticino, a road constructed in 1964 goes over the pass ultimately leading to the Rhone river valley on the other side. French is mainly spoken in Valais but near the pass German is spoken, the population of Ticino speaks Italian. The road up the val is fairly straight until it approaches the pass, on the slope below the first hairpin at about 2,478 m is an area of springs from which the Ticino river originates. Currently it is a base for skiing and hiking, below it is Ronco at 1,487 m and Bedretto at 1,402 m. The val is subject to avalanches and snow can remain on the ground as late as September, below Bedretto the Ri di Cristallina, Cristallina stream, comes in from the right at Ossasco, and further down Fontana, still in Bedretto. The entire area is laced with hiking trails and mountain huts, airolo in Switzerland, Bellinzona, Locarno. in Italy, Stresa, Vigevano, Pavia. Photo gallery about the Ticino Valley Natural Park made by a UNESCO photographer
46.
Swiss franc
–
The franc is the currency and legal tender of Switzerland and Liechtenstein, it is also legal tender in the Italian exclave Campione dItalia. The Swiss National Bank issues banknotes and the federal mint Swissmint issues coins, the smaller denomination, a hundredth of a franc, is a Rappen in German, centime in French, centesimo in Italian, and rap in Romansh. The ISO code of the used by banks and financial institutions is CHF, although Fr. is used by most businesses and advertisers. Given the different languages used in Switzerland, Latin is used for inscriptions on the coins. In 1798, the Helvetic Republic introduced a currency based on the Berne thaler, the Swiss franc was equal to 6 3⁄4 grams of pure silver or 1 1⁄2 French francs. This franc was issued until the end of the Helvetic Republic in 1803, in order to solve this problem, the new Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848 specified that the federal government would be the only entity allowed to make money in Switzerland. This was followed two years later by the first Federal Coinage Act, passed by the Federal Assembly on 7 May 1850, the franc was introduced at par with the French franc. It replaced the different currencies of the Swiss cantons, some of which had been using a franc which was worth 1 1⁄2 French francs. In 1865, France, Belgium, Italy, and Switzerland formed the Latin Monetary Union, the currency was devalued by 30% following the devaluations of the British pound, U. S. dollar and French franc. In 1945, Switzerland joined the Bretton Woods system and pegged the franc to the U. S. dollar at a rate of $1 =4.30521 francs and this was changed to $1 =4.375 francs in 1949. The Swiss franc has historically considered a safe-haven currency with virtually zero inflation. However, this link to gold, which dates from the 1920s, was terminated on 1 May 2000 following a referendum. By March 2005, following a gold selling program, the Swiss National Bank held 1,290 tonnes of gold in reserves which equated to 20% of its assets. In November 2014, the referendum on the Swiss Gold Initiative which proposed a restoration of 20% gold backing for the Swiss franc was voted down, in March 2011 the franc climbed past the US$1.10 mark. In June 2011 the franc climbed past US$1.20 as investors sought safety amidst the continuation of the Greek sovereign-debt crisis, demand for francs and franc-denominated assets was so strong that nominal short-term Swiss interest rates became negative. In response to the announcement the franc fell against the euro, to 1.22 francs from 1.12 francs, the intervention stunned currency traders since the franc had long been regarded as a safe haven. The franc fell 8. 8% against the euro,9. 5% against the dollar and it was the largest plunge of the franc ever against the euro. The SNB had previously set an exchange rate target in 1978 against the Deutsche mark and maintained it, although at the cost of high inflation
