1.
Bishopric of Constance
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The Bishopric of Constance, or Prince-Bishopric of Constance, was a Prince-Bishopric and Imperial Estate of the Holy Roman Empire from the mid–12th century until its secularisation in 1802–1803. The much larger Roman Catholic Diocese of Konstanz existed from about 585 until its dissolution in 1821 and it belonged to the ecclesiastical province of Mainz since 780/782. They did not include the Imperial City of Constance nor Petershausen Abbey, in the south, the bishops territory bordered on the Landgraviate of Thurgau which was conquered by the Swiss Confederacy in 1460. While the Prince-Bishop was the ruler in his prince-bishopric, his powers in his diocese were limited to the pastoral duties exercised by any bishop. Originally subordinated to the Archdiocese of Besançon, Constance became suffragan to the Archdiocese of Mainz in 782, a deed by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1155 confirmed the princely status of the bishop and of his bishopric as an Imperial Estate. The territory of the prince-bishopric contracted during the centuries under pressure from both the Swiss Confederacy and the House of Habsburg. Furthermore, the city of Konstanz was granted the status of an imperial city. In 1527, during the Protestant Reformation, the seat of the Prince-Bishop was finally moved to Meersburg across Lake Constance. In the course of the German Mediatisation in 1803, the Prince-Bishopric was dissolved, while Wessenberg was supported by the government of Baden, the Pope never recognized his election as he disagreed with Wessenbergs liberal views. By a bull of 16 August 1821, the pope dissolved the diocese in order to prevent Wessenberg from becoming bishop, gebhard I von Wetterau, von Tegerfelden 27. Conrad I36 Warmann von Dillingen 32, Franz Johann von Vogt von Altensumerau und Prasberg 96. Johann Franz I. von Praßberg und Altensummerau 97, Johann Franz Schenk von Stauffenberg 99. Karl Theodor von Dahlberg Ignaz Heinrich von Wessenberg, elected in 1817 but never recognised by Pius VII, caspar Burchard Tuberflug, O. P. Daniel Zehender, O. F. M
2.
Meersburg
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Meersburg is a town of Baden-Württemberg in the southwest of Germany at Lake Constance. It is known for its medieval city, the lower town and upper town are reserved for pedestrians only, and connected by two stairways and a steep street. The name of the town means Castle on the Sea, referring to a castle which, the commune obtained the status of free city in 1299, though nominally still under the Bishop of Constance. In 1803 it was annexed to the Land of Baden, after World War II, Meersburg was in the French military occupation area in Germany. The town is home to two castles, the Old Castle and the New Castle, the Old Castle, built by Merovingian King Dagobert I in the seventh century, accepts visitors. German poet Annette von Droste-Hülshoff lived there for eight years, the New Castle was built in the eighteenth century. Originally the residence of the bishop of Constance, it was used for various purposes after the Secularization of 1803, there is an entity of Half-timber houses. Also two medieval town-gates can be seen, which are the remainders of the fortification, Meersburg is the northern terminus of a car ferry to Constance. At the opposite side Meersburg is connected to the region by the B31, to exit to Meersburg and to go to the car ferry, one takes B33 to Meersburg and Constance. Meersburg is also reachable by boats from Lake Constance to Überlingen, to Lindau, Bregenz. One of Germanys most celebrated poets, Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, lived her final years at Meersburg Castle and she also owned the small vine-covered villa known as Fürstenhäusle. The famous eighteenth-century doctor Franz Anton Mesmer died in 1815 in Meersburg and is buried near the old wall of the graveyard about 0.5 kilometres northeast of the upper town-gate Obertor, the Meersburg vineyards at the northern banks of Lake Constance are famous within Germany. The rosée Weissherbst wine is a specialty of the region
3.
Grand Duchy of Baden
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The Grand Duchy of Baden was a state in the southwest of Germany on the east bank of the Rhine. It existed between 1806 and 1918 and it came into existence in the 12th century as the Margraviate of Baden and subsequently split into different lines, which were unified in 1771. After World War II, the French military government in 1945 created the state of Baden out of the half of the former Baden. This portion of the former Baden was declared in its 1947 constitution to be the successor of the old Baden. The northern half of the old Baden was combined with northern Württemberg, becoming part of the American military zone, both Baden and Württemberg-Baden became states of West Germany upon its formation in 1949. In 1952 Baden merged with Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern to form Baden-Württemberg and this is the only merger of states that has taken place in the history of the Federal Republic of Germany. The unofficial anthem of Baden is called Badnerlied and consists of four or five traditional verses, however, over the years, many more verses have been added – there are collections with up to 591 verses of the anthem. Baden came into existence in the 12th century as the Margraviate of Baden, in 1803 Baden was raised to Electoral dignity within the Holy Roman Empire. Upon the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Baden became the much-enlarged Grand Duchy of Baden, in 1815 it joined the German Confederation. During the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, Baden was a centre of revolutionist activities, in 1849, in the course of the Baden Revolution, it was the only German state that became a republic for a short while, under the leadership of Lorenzo Brentano. The revolution in Baden was suppressed mainly by Prussian troops, the Grand Duchy of Baden remained a sovereign country until it joined the German Empire in 1871. After the revolution of 1918, Baden became part of the Weimar Republic as the Republic of Baden, when the French Revolution threatened to overflow into the rest of Europe in 1792, Baden joined forces against France, and its countryside was devastated once more. In 1796, the margrave Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden, was compelled to pay an indemnity, fortune, however, soon returned to his side. Changing sides in 1805, he fought for Napoleon, with the result that, by the peace of Pressburg in that year, he obtained the Breisgau and other territories at the expense of the Habsburgs. In 1806, he joined the Confederation of the Rhine, declared himself a prince, became a grand duke. The Baden contingent continued to assist France, and by the Peace of Vienna in 1809, Charles fought for his father-in-law until after the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, when he joined the Allies. In 1815 Baden became a member of the German Confederation established by the Act of 8 June, however, in the haste of winding up the Congress, the question of the succession to the grand duchy did not get settled, a matter that would soon become acute. A controversy between Bavaria and Baden ensued, which was decided in favour of the Höchberg claims by a treaty signed by Baden
4.
Animal magnetism
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He believed that the force could have physical effects, including healing. He tried persistently but without success to achieve recognition of his theories. The theory attracted numerous followers in Europe and the United States and was popular into the 19th century, practitioners were often known as magnetizers, rather than mesmerists. For about 75 years from its beginnings in 1779 it was an important specialty in medicine, hundreds of books were written on the subject between 1766 and 1925. Today it is almost entirely forgotten, the terms magnetizer and mesmerizer have been applied to people who study and practice animal magnetism. The magnetiser and the hypnotist is, the first uses animal magnetism, the etymology of the word magnetizer comes from the French magnetiseur, which in turn is derived from the French verb magnetiser. The term refers to an individual who has the power to manipulate the magnetic fluid with effects upon other people present that were regarded as analogous to magnetic effects. This sense of the term is found, for example, in the expression of Antoine Joseph Gorsas, at the time, some magnetizers attempted to channel what they thought was a magnetic fluid, and sometimes they attempted this with a laying on of hands. Reported effects included various feelings, intense heat, trembling, trances, many practitioners took a scientific approach, such as Joseph Philippe François Deleuze, a French physician, anatomist, gynecologist, and physicist. One of his pupils was Théodore Léger, who wrote that the label mesmerism was most improper, the commission included Majault, Benjamin Franklin, Jean Sylvain Bailly, J. B. Le Roy, Sallin, Jean Darcet, de Borey, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, Antoine Lavoisier, Poissonnier, Caille, Mauduyt de la Varenne, Andry, and de Jussieu. The report says, Among the conclusions were, Abbé Faria was one of the disciples of Franz Anton Mesmer who continued with Mesmers work following the conclusions of the Royal Commission. Hypnotism, a designation coined by the Scottish surgeon, James Braid, originates in Braids the response to an exhibition of animal magnetism, by Charles Lafontaine, in Manchester. The purpose of the treatment was to shock the body into convulsion in order to remove obstructions in the system that were causing sicknesses. A patient under crisis was believed to be able to see through the body and find the cause of illness, the Marquis of Puységurs miraculous healing of a young man named Victor in 1784 was attributed to, and used as evidence in support of, this crisis treatment. The Marquis was allegedly able to hypnotize Victor and, while hypnotized, Victor was said to have been able to speak articulately, jacob Melo discusses in his books some mechanisms by which the perceived effects of animal magnetism have been claimed to operate. The study of animal magnetism spurred the creation of the Societies of Harmony in France, doctor John Bell was a member of the Philosophical Harmonic Society of Paris, and was certified by the society to lecture and teach on animal magnetism in England. Popularization of animal magnetism was denounced and ridiculed by newspaper journals, many deemed animal magnetism to be nothing more than a theatrical falsity or quackery. ”The novelist and playwrighter Elizabeth Inchbald wrote the farce Animal Magnetism in the late 1780s
5.
Physician
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Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world. Degrees and other qualifications vary widely, but there are common elements, such as medical ethics requiring that physicians show consideration, compassion. Around the world the term refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties. This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications and this term is at least nine hundred years old in English, physicians and surgeons were once members of separate professions, and traditionally were rivals. Henry VIII granted a charter to the London Royal College of Physicians in 1518 and it was not until 1540 that he granted the Company of Barber/Surgeons its separate charter. In the same year, the English monarch established the Regius Professorship of Physic at the University of Cambridge, newer universities would probably describe such an academic as a professor of internal medicine. Hence, in the 16th century, physic meant roughly what internal medicine does now, currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals, such hospitalists now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, in Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Around the world, the term physician and surgeon is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, in modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing and these meanings and variations are explained below. In the United States and Canada, the term physician describes all medical practitioners holding a professional medical degree, the American Medical Association, established in 1847, as well as the American Osteopathic Association, founded in 1897, both currently use the term physician to describe members. However, the American College of Physicians, established in 1915, does not, its title uses physician in its original sense. A physician trained in the United States has either a Doctor of Medicine degree, all boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for a chosen specialty. Recertification varies by particular specialty between every seven and every ten years, graduates of osteopathic medical schools in the United States should not be confused with osteopaths, who are trained in the European and Commonwealth nations. Their training is similar to physical therapy and they are not licensed to prescribe medications or perform surgeries, also in the United States, the American Podiatric Medical Association defines podiatrists as physicians and surgeons that fall under the department of surgery in hospitals
6.
Astronomy
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Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets, while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, more generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earths atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole, Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, during the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can play an active role, especially in the discovery. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, Astronomy means law of the stars. Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. Generally, either the term astronomy or astrophysics may be used to refer to this subject, however, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Few fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics, some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field includeThe Astronomical Journal, The Astrophysical Journal and Astronomy and Astrophysics. In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye, in some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical purpose. Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye, most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon, the Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a cycle known as a saros
7.
James Braid (surgeon)
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James Braid was a Scottish surgeon and gentleman scientist. He was a significant innovator in the treatment of club-foot and an important and influential pioneer of hypnotism and he is regarded by many as the first genuine hypnotherapist and the Father of Modern Hypnotism. Braid was the son, and the seventh and youngest child, of James Braid. He was born at Ryelaw House, in the parish of Portmoak, Kinross, on 17 November 1813, at the age of 18, Braid married Margaret Mason, aged 21, the daughter of Robert Mason and Helen Mason, née Smith. They had four children, all of whom were born at Leadhills in Lanarkshire, two died in their infancy, James Braid and Charles Anderson Braid. Two survived, Anne Daniel, née Braid, and James Braid, Braid was apprenticed to the Leith surgeons Thomas and Charles Anderson. Braid obtained the diploma of the Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons of the City of Edinburgh, the Lic. R. C. S. in 1815, which entitled him to refer to himself as a member of the college. Braid was appointed surgeon to Lord Hopetouns mines at Leadhills, Lanarkshire, in 1816, and in 1825 he set up in private practice at Dumfries. One of his Dumfries patients, Alexander Petty, a Scot, employed as a traveller for Scarr, Petty and Swain, Braid moved to Manchester in 1828, continuing to practise from there until his death in 1860. Braid was a skilled and very successful surgeon, educated at Edinburgh University. Up to 1841 he had operated on 262 cases of talipes,700 cases of strabismus, Braid was amongst the medical men who were invited onto the platform by Lafontaine. Braid examined the condition of Lafontaines magnetised subjects and concluded that they were, indeed. Braid attended two more of Lafontaines demonstrations, and, by the demonstration, Braid was convinced of the veracity of some of Lafontaines effects. He also rejected outright the assertion that the transformation in question had proceeded from, Braid then performed his experimentum crucis. Braid emphatically proved his point by his self-experimentation with his upwards and inwards squint, and, at the same time, by using himself as a subject, Braid also conclusively proved that none of Lafontaines phenomena were due to magnetic agency. He then, moved into a confusing admixture of philippic, and polemic, in particular, he attacked Braid as a man, a scientist, a philosopher, and a medical professional. He claimed that Braid and Lafontaine were one and the same kind, the sermon was reported on at some length in the Liverpool Standard, two days later. Yet, despite Braid’s courtesy, in raising his deeply felt concerns directly to M‘Neile, in private correspondence, despite being initially accepted for presentation, the paper was controversially rejected at the last moment, but Braid arranged for a series of Conversaziones at which he presented its contents
8.
Hypnosis
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Hypnosis is a state of human consciousness involving focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness and an enhanced capacity to respond to suggestion. The term may refer to an art, skill, or act of inducing hypnosis. Theories explaining what occurs during hypnosis fall into two groups, altered state theories see hypnosis as an altered state of mind or trance, marked by a level of awareness different from the ordinary conscious state. In contrast, nonstate theories see hypnosis as a form of imaginative role enactment, during hypnosis, a person is said to have heightened focus and concentration. The person can concentrate intensely on a thought or memory. Hypnotised subjects are said to show a response to suggestions. Hypnosis is usually induced by a known as a hypnotic induction involving a series of preliminary instructions. The use of hypnotism for therapeutic purposes is referred to as hypnotherapy, stage hypnosis is often performed by mentalists practicing the art form of mentalism. The term hypnosis comes from the ancient Greek word ὕπνος hypnos, sleep, and the suffix -ωσις -osis, or from ὑπνόω hypnoō, put to sleep and the suffix -is. The words hypnosis and hypnotism both derive from the term neuro-hypnotism, all of which were coined by Étienne Félix dHenin de Cuvillers in 1820 and these words were popularized in English by the Scottish surgeon James Braid around 1841. Braid based his practice on that developed by Franz Mesmer and his followers, a person in a state of hypnosis is relaxed, has focused attention, and has increased suggestibility. It could be said that suggestion is explicitly intended to make use of the placebo effect. For example, in 1994, Irving Kirsch characterised hypnosis as a placebo, i. e. a method that openly makes use of suggestion. Have defined hypnosis in terms of dissociation, Social psychologists Sarbin and Coe. have described hypnosis in terms of role theory. Hypnosis is a role that play, they act as if they were hypnotised. Defined hypnosis in terms of behavioural parameters, such as task motivation. Conceptualised hypnosis as a state of enhanced suggestibility and he has defined hypnotism as a form of influence by one person exerted on another through the medium or agency of suggestion. Described hypnosis by using the concept of regression in the service of the ego
9.
Lake Constance
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Lake Constance is a lake on the Rhine at the northern foot of the Alps, and consists of three bodies of water, the Obersee, the Untersee, and a connecting stretch of the Rhine, called the Seerhein. The lake is situated in Germany, Switzerland and Austria near the Alps and its shorelines lie in the German states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, and the Swiss cantons of Thurgau, St Gallen and Schaffhausen. Freshwater Lake Constance is central Europes third largest, after Lake Balaton and it is 63 km long, and at its widest point, nearly 14 km. It covers approximately 571 km2, and is 395 m above sea level, the greatest depth is 252 metres in the middle of the eastern part. Its volume is approximately 10×10^9 m3, the regulated Rhine flows into the lake in the southeast, through the Obersee, the city of Konstanz and the Untersee, and flows out near Stein am Rhein. The lake itself is an important drinking water source for southwestern Germany, the culminating point of the lakes drainage basin is the Tödi at 3,614 metres above sea level. Car ferries link Romanshorn to Friedrichshafen, and Konstanz to Meersburg, Lake Constance was formed by the Rhine Glacier during the ice age and is a zungenbecken lake. The Rhine, the Bregenzer Ache, and the Dornbirner Ache carry sediments from the Alps to the lake, thus decreasing the depth. Lake Constance was first mentioned by the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela about 43 AD and he noted that the Rhine flows through two lakes, and gave them the Latin names Lacus Venetus and Lacus Acronius. Pliny the Elder used the name Lacus Brigantinus, after the Roman city of Brigantium, the lake is also colloquially known as the Swabian Sea. The lake was frozen in the years 1077,1326,1378,1435,1465,1477,1491,1517,1571,1573,1600,1684,1695,1709,1795,1830,1880, and 1963. Approximately 1,000 tonnes of fish were caught by 150 professional fishermen in 2001 which was below the ten year average of 1,200 tonnes per year. The Lake Constance trout was almost extinct in the 1980s due to pollution, Lake Constance is the home of the critically endangered species of trout Salvelinus profundus, and formerly also the now extinct Lake Constance whitefish. After the Council of Constance, the Latin-speaking Catholic world gave the lake its current international name and it was derived from the city of Konstanz, that, in turn, was named after a Roman emperor. The German name, Bodensee, derives from the town of Bodman, Lake Constance is the only area in Europe where no borders exist, because there is no legally binding agreement as to where the borders lie between Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Legal questions pertaining to transport and fishing are regulated in separate treaties. One concerns a houseboat which was moored in two states, another concerns the rights to fish in the Bay of Bregenz, in relation to the latter, an Austrian family was of the opinion that it alone had the right to fish in broad portions of the bay. However, this was accepted neither by the Austrian courts nor by the organs, a 100-year flood around June 1999 raised the level about 2 metres above normal, flooding harbors and many shoreline buildings and hotels
10.
Swabia
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Swabia is a cultural, historic and linguistic region in southwestern Germany. This territory would include all of the Alemannic German area, but the concept of Swabia is more restricted. Swabians are the natives of Swabia and speakers of Swabian German and their number was estimated at close to 0.8 million by SIL Ethnologue as of 2006, compared to a total population of 7.5 million in the regions of Tübingen, Stuttgart and Bavarian Swabia. Like many cultural regions of Europe, Swabias borders are not clearly defined, like all of Southern Germany, Swabia was part of the La Tène culture, and as such has a Celtic substrate. In the Roman era, it was part of the Raetia province, in the third century, it was gradually settled by the Elbe Germanic Suebi and other components that came to make up the Alemanni. The Alemanni were ruled by independent kings throughout the fourth and fifth centuries, Swabia became a duchy under the Frankish Empire in 496, following the Battle of Tolbiac. Swabia was one of the stem duchies of East Francia. Due to the foundation of the important abbeys of St. Gallen and Reichenau, in the following years the original duchy gradually broke up into many smaller units. Rudolf I of Habsburg, elected in 1273 as emperor, tried to restore the duchy, but met the opposition of the higher nobility who aimed to limit the power of the emperor. The rural regions were merged into the Reichslandvogtei of Swabia, which was given as Imperial Pawn to Duke Leopold III of Austria in 1379 and again to Sigismund and he took the title of a Prince of Swabia and integrated the Landvogtei of Swabia in the realm of Further Austria. Charlemagnes family is known to have hailed from Swabia, the major dynasties that arose out of the region were the Habsburgs and the Hohenzollerns, who rose to prominence in Northern Germany. Also stemming from Swabia are the dynasties of the dukes of Württemberg. The Welf family went on to rule in Bavaria and Hanover, smaller feudal dynasties eventually disappeared, however, for example, branches of the Montforts and Hohenems lived until modern times, and the Fürstenberg survive still. The territory of Swabia as understood today emerges in the modern period. It corresponds to the Swabian Circle established in 1512, the Old Swiss Confederacy was de facto independent from Swabia from 1499 as a result of the Swabian War, while the Margraviate of Baden had been detached from Swabia since the twelfth century. Fearing the power of the princes, the cities and smaller secular rulers of Swabia joined to form the Swabian League in the fifteenth century. The region was divided by the Reformation. In the wake of the reorganization of the empire of 1803 by the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss
11.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
12.
Society of Jesus
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
13.
University of Ingolstadt
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The University of Ingolstadt was founded in 1472 by Louis the Rich, the Duke of Bavaria at the time, and its first Chancellor was the Bishop of Eichstätt. It consisted of five faculties, humanities, sciences, theology, law and medicine, the university was modeled after the University of Vienna. Its chief goal was the propagation of the Christian faith, the university closed in May 1800, by order of the Prince-elector Maximilian IV. Among its most famous instructors in the late 15th century were the poet Conrad Celtes, the Hebrew scholar Johannes Reuchlin, and the Bavarian historian Johannes Thurmair. The Illuminati movement was founded on May 1,1776, in Ingolstadt, by Jesuit-taught Adam Weishaupt, the movement was made up of freethinkers, as an offshoot of the Enlightenment. Writers at the time, such as Seth Payson, believed the movement represented a conspiracy to infiltrate, the groups adherents were given the name Illuminati, although they called themselves Perfectibilists. The group has also called the Illuminati Order and the Bavarian Illuminati. In 1777, Karl Theodor became ruler of Bavaria and he was a proponent of Enlightened Despotism and, in 1784, his government banned all secret societies, including the Illuminati. The Illuminatis members pledged obedience to their superiors, and were divided into three classes, each with several degrees. The order had its branches in most countries of the European continent, the organization had its attraction for literary men, such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Gottfried Herder, and even for the reigning dukes of Gotha and Weimar. Weishaupt had modeled his group to some extent on Freemasonry, internal rupture and panic over succession preceded its downfall, which was effected by the Secular Edict made by the Bavarian government in 1785. In Ecks wake, many Jesuits were appointed to key positions in the school, noted scholars of this period include the theologian Gregory of Valentia, the astronomer Christopher Scheiner, Johann Baptist Cysat, and the poet Jacob Balde. The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II received his education at the university, the 18th century gave rise to the Enlightenment, a movement that in some quarters was opposed to the church-run universities of which Ingolstadt was a prime example. On November 25,1799, the elector Maximilian IV announced that the depleted finances had become too great a weight for him to bear. In 1826 King Ludwig I moved the university to the capital Munich, the modern successor of Bavarias oldest university is the WFI - Ingolstadt School of Management, one of Germanys foremost business schools. Victor Frankenstein from Mary Shelleys novel Frankenstein was a student at the University of Ingolstadt. In the 1931 film adaptation, the school is called Goldstadt Medical College
14.
Medicine
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Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
15.
University of Vienna
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The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is one of the oldest universities in the German-speaking world. With its long and rich history, the University of Vienna has developed one of the biggest universities in Europe. It is associated with 15 Nobel prize winners and has been the home of a large number of figures both of historical and academic importance. The University was founded on 12 March 1365 by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, the University of Vienna was modelled after the University of Paris. However, Pope Urban V did not ratify the deed of foundation that had been sanctioned by Rudolf IV and this was presumably due to pressure exerted by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who wished to avoid competition for the Charles University in Prague. Approval was finally received from the Pope in 1384 and the University of Vienna was granted the status of a full university, the first university building opened in 1385. It grew into the biggest university of the Holy Roman Empire, in its early years, the university had a partly hierarchical, partly cooperative structure, in which the Rector was at the top, while the students had little say and were settled at the bottom. The Magister and Doctors constituted the four faculties and elected the academic officials from amidst their ranks, the students, but also all other Supposita, were divided into four Academic Nations. Their elected board members, mostly graduates themselves, had the right to elect the Rector and he presided over the Consistory which included procurators of each of the nations and the faculty deans, as well as over the University Assembly, in which all university teachers participated. Complaints or appeals against decisions of faculty by the students had to be brought forward by a Magister or Doctor, being considered a Papal Institution, the university suffered quite a setback during the Reformation. In addition, the first Siege of Vienna by Ottoman forces had devastating effects on the city, leading to a sharp decline, with only 30 students enrolled at the lowest point. For King Ferdinand I, this meant that the university should be tied to the church to a stronger degree. It was only in the Mid-18th century that Empress Maria Theresa forced the university back under control of the monarchy. Her successor Joseph II helped in the reform of the university. Big changes were instituted in the wake of the Revolution in 1848, with the Philosophical Faculty being upgraded into equal status as Theology, Law and Medicine. Led by the reforms of Leopold, Count von Thun und Hohenstein, the current main building on the Ringstraße was built between 1877 and 1884 by Heinrich von Ferstel. The previous main building was located close to the Stuben Gate on Iganz Seipel Square, current home of the old University Church, women were admitted as full students from 1897, although their studies were limited to Philosophy
16.
Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
17.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
18.
Moon
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The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth, being Earths only permanent natural satellite. It is the fifth-largest natural satellite in the Solar System, following Jupiters satellite Io, the Moon is second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known. The average distance of the Moon from the Earth is 384,400 km, the Moon is thought to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth. It is the second-brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earths sky, after the Sun and its surface is actually dark, although compared to the night sky it appears very bright, with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt. Its prominence in the sky and its cycle of phases have made the Moon an important cultural influence since ancient times on language, calendars, art. The Moons gravitational influence produces the ocean tides, body tides, and this matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future. The Moons linear distance from Earth is currently increasing at a rate of 3.82 ±0.07 centimetres per year, since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, the Moon has been visited only by uncrewed spacecraft. The usual English proper name for Earths natural satellite is the Moon, the noun moon is derived from moone, which developed from mone, which is derived from Old English mōna, which ultimately stems from Proto-Germanic *mǣnōn, like all Germanic language cognates. Occasionally, the name Luna is used, in literature, especially science fiction, Luna is used to distinguish it from other moons, while in poetry, the name has been used to denote personification of our moon. The principal modern English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar, a less common adjective is selenic, derived from the Ancient Greek Selene, from which is derived the prefix seleno-. Both the Greek Selene and the Roman goddess Diana were alternatively called Cynthia, the names Luna, Cynthia, and Selene are reflected in terminology for lunar orbits in words such as apolune, pericynthion, and selenocentric. The name Diana is connected to dies meaning day, several mechanisms have been proposed for the Moons formation 4.51 billion years ago, and some 60 million years after the origin of the Solar System. These hypotheses also cannot account for the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. This hypothesis, although not perfect, perhaps best explains the evidence, eighteen months prior to an October 1984 conference on lunar origins, Bill Hartmann, Roger Phillips, and Jeff Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists, You have eighteen months. Go back to your Apollo data, go back to computer, do whatever you have to. Dont come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moons birth, at the 1984 conference at Kona, Hawaii, the giant impact hypothesis emerged as the most popular. Afterward there were only two groups, the giant impact camp and the agnostics. Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System, computer simulations of a giant impact have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the present angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system
19.
Planet
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The term planet is ancient, with ties to history, astrology, science, mythology, and religion. Several planets in the Solar System can be seen with the naked eye and these were regarded by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of deities. As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception of the planets changed, in 2006, the International Astronomical Union officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System. This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of mass based on where or what they orbit. The planets were thought by Ptolemy to orbit Earth in deferent, at about the same time, by careful analysis of pre-telescopic observation data collected by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler found the planets orbits were not circular but elliptical. As observational tools improved, astronomers saw that, like Earth, the planets rotated around tilted axes, and some shared such features as ice caps and seasons. Since the dawn of the Space Age, close observation by space probes has found that Earth and the planets share characteristics such as volcanism, hurricanes, tectonics. Planets are generally divided into two types, large low-density giant planets, and smaller rocky terrestrials. Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System, in order of increasing distance from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, then the four giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites, several thousands of planets around other stars have been discovered in the Milky Way. e. in the habitable zone. On December 20,2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets, Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f, orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20. A2012 study, analyzing gravitational microlensing data, estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way, around one in five Sun-like stars is thought to have an Earth-sized planet in its habitable zone. The idea of planets has evolved over its history, from the lights of antiquity to the earthly objects of the scientific age. The concept has expanded to include not only in the Solar System. The ambiguities inherent in defining planets have led to much scientific controversy, the five classical planets, being visible to the naked eye, have been known since ancient times and have had a significant impact on mythology, religious cosmology, and ancient astronomy. In ancient times, astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky, as opposed to the fixed stars, ancient Greeks called these lights πλάνητες ἀστέρες or simply πλανῆται, from which todays word planet was derived. In ancient Greece, China, Babylon, and indeed all pre-modern civilizations, it was almost universally believed that Earth was the center of the Universe and that all the planets circled Earth. The first civilization known to have a theory of the planets were the Babylonians
20.
Isaac Newton
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His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus. Newtons Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists view of the universe for the next three centuries. Newtons work on light was collected in his influential book Opticks. He also formulated a law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound. Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint and his father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before. Born prematurely, he was a child, his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Newtons mother had three children from her second marriage. From the age of twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The Kings School, Grantham which taught Latin and Greek. He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Henry Stokes, master at the Kings School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a bully, he became the top-ranked student. In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge and he started as a subsizar—paying his way by performing valets duties—until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M. A. He set down in his notebook a series of Quaestiones about mechanical philosophy as he found it, in 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his B. A. degree in August 1665, in April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity. Fellows were required to become ordained priests, although this was not enforced in the restoration years, however, by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way. Nevertheless, Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II. A and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672. Newtons work has been said to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied and his work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newtons mathematical papers
21.
Richard Mead
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Richard Mead was an English physician. His work, A Short Discourse concerning Pestilential Contagion, and the Method to be used to prevent it, was of importance in the understanding of transmissible diseases. The eleventh child of Matthew Mead, an Independent minister, Richard was born at Stepney and he studied at Utrecht for three years under JG Graevius. Having decided to follow the profession, he then went to Leiden and attended the lectures of Paul Hermann. In 1695 he graduated in philosophy and physic at Padua, and in 1696 he returned to London, entering at once on a successful practice. His Mechanical Account of Poisons appeared in 1702, and, in 1703, he was admitted to the Royal Society, in the same year, he was elected physician to St. Thomas Hospital, and appointed to read anatomical lectures at the Surgeons Hall. While in the service of the king, Mead got involved in the creation of a new charity and he is even supposed to have influenced the architect, Theodore Jacobsen, into incorporating a large courtyard to promote the children exercising. A full size portrait of Dr. Mead, donated by the artist Allan Ramsay in 1747, the painting currently hangs at the Foundling Museum. Dr Richard Mead was also a Fellow of the Royal Society, Mead was a collector of paintings, rare books, classical sculpture, gems and zoological specimens, which he made available for study at the library in his Bloomsbury house. His collection consisted of more than 100,000 volumes, after his death, it took 56 days to auction them to book collectors from England and abroad. Meads country estate was at Old Windsor in Berkshire, but he died at his house in Bloomsbury in 1754 and his London home later formed the basis of Great Ormond Street Hospital. Mead was buried in Temple Church, a monument to him was placed in the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, with a bust by Peter Scheemakers. One of Sternes correspondents later complained that he was reviving widespread rumours that Mead had gone due to paying for elaborate sexual favours. Sterne defended himself on the grounds that all he did was most distantly hint at a droll foible in his character. known before by every chamber-maid and footman within the bills of mortality. Grund & Holle, Hamburgi 1752 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf Life of Mead by Dr Matthew Maty appeared in 1755
22.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
23.
La finta semplice
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La finta semplice, K.51 is an opera buffa in three acts for seven voices and orchestra, composed in 1768 by then 12-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Young Mozart and his father Leopold were spending the year in Vienna and he was acting on a suggested request from the Emperor Joseph II that the young boy should write an opera. Leopold chose an Italian libretto by the Vienna court poet Marco Coltellini, during rehearsals, the opera was the victim of intrigues from competing composers claiming that the work was not from the 12-year-old boy, but from his father. Threatened with a sabotaged first night by the impresario Giuseppe Affligio, the opera was never staged in Vienna. It was performed the year in Salzburg at the request of the Prince-Archbishop on 1 May 1769. Mozart produced a score of three acts,26 numbers, in a manuscript of 558 pages. It includes an overture/Sinfonia, one coro, one duet, three ensembles, and 21 arias, the opera was recorded in its entirety by Leopold Hager for Orfeo in January 1983 with Helen Donath and Teresa Berganza, a performance lasting two hours 45 minutes. Another recording was made in November 1989, with Barbara Hendricks and Ann Murray and this version was selected by Philips to be part of The Complete Mozart Edition of all the works of Mozart, published in 1991. However, since its premiere in 1769, the opera was not staged until modern times and it was performed at the 2006 Salzburg festival, as part of the production of all of 22 Mozarts operas. The performances were published in the collection of DVDs known as M-22 by Deutsche Grammophon, the opera was something of a temporary career setback for Mozart, amid a childhood otherwise characterized by universal success and stardom. The instigation of the work was a made by Emperor Joseph II to Mozarts father Leopold during a visit made to the Imperial capital of Vienna by the Mozart family. Leopold wanted to promote the talent of young Mozart with the hope of establishing him as an opera composer. The Emperor suggested to Leopold that Wolfgang write an opera for performance in Vienna to show his skills to the Viennese public as he had already done all over Europe. Leopold needed a good libretto, and he had the choice between seria and buffa and he noted that the seria singers available in Milan were mediocre, while the buffa singers were excellent. There are no singers here for serious opera, even Glucks tragic opera Alceste was performed entirely by opera buffa singers. He too is now writing an opera buffa, together they selected a libretto by Goldoni, the master of the commedia dellarte genre. Coltellini modified the libretto somewhat, especially act 3, hermann Abert describes the problems in more precise detail the facts of this fiasco in his monumental book W. A. MOZART. 82-95, which provided the following quotes, the first act completed, Mozart sent it off to the singers, who, according to Leopold, expressed their total satisfaction
24.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood, already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, while visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame, during his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons and he composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote, posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria, née Pertl and this was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in what is now Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy and his elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart, nicknamed Nannerl. Mozart was baptized the day after his birth, at St. Ruperts Cathedral in Salzburg, the baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself Wolfgang Amadè Mozart as an adult, Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, Germany, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg, Leopold became the orchestras deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his sons birth, Leopold published a textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule. When Nannerl was 7, she began lessons with her father. Years later, after her brothers death, she reminisced, He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and he could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. At the age of five, he was composing little pieces
25.
Bastien und Bastienne
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Bastien und Bastienne, K.50 is a one-act singspiel, a comic opera, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Bastien und Bastienne was one of Mozarts earliest operas, written in 1768 when he was twelve years old. After its supposed premiere in Mesmers garden theater, it was not revived again until 1890 and it is not clear whether this piece was performed in Mozarts lifetime. The first known performance was on 2 October 1890 at Architektenhaus in Berlin, the opera is written in both French and German manners. Many of the melodies are French in manner, but Bastiennes first aria is true German lied and this melody is also used in Mozarts Trio in G for Piano, Violin and Violoncello, K.564. Another purely German lied is Bastiennes aria I feel certain of his heart, Mozart utilizes the orchestra sparingly, with the exception of the reconciliation scene. Mozarts overture uses the opening theme as Beethovens Symphony No. It is doubtful that Beethoven was familiar with this then unpublished piece, a likely explanation is that both composers took the theme from another unknown source. Although he was young, Mozart already had excellent vocal writing skills. Bastien und Bastienne is possibly the easiest to perform of Mozarts juvenile works, before she can leave, however, she runs into Colas, the village soothsayer. Bastienne requests the help of his powers to help win back her Bastien. Colas knows all about the problem, and comforts her with the knowledge that Bastien has not abandoned her, rather and his advice is to act coldly towards Bastien, which will make him come running back. Bastien is heard approaching, so Bastienne hides herself, Bastien swaggers in, proclaiming how much he loves Bastienne. Colas informs him that Bastienne has a new lover, Bastien is shocked and asks the magician for help. Colas opens his book of spells and recites a nonsense aria filled with random syllables, Colas declares the spell a success and that Bastienne is in love with Bastien once more. Bastienne, however, decides to keep up the game a bit longer, Bastien threatens suicide, which Bastienne merely shrugs off. Finally, the two decide that they have gone far enough and agree to reconcile, Colas joins them as they all sing a final trio in praise of the magician
26.
Georg Nikolaus von Nissen
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Georg Nikolaus von Nissen was a Danish diplomat and music historian. He is remembered as the author of one of the first biographies of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Nissen was born in Haderslev, Denmark. He completed his schooling in 1781 and became authorized agent of the General Post Office in Copenhagen in 1781, in 1792 he became a diplomat in the Danish foreign service. As of 1793, he worked in Vienna as chargé daffaires, in 1797, while serving in this post, Nissen first met Mozarts widow Constanze, whose husband had died six years earlier in 1791. The two began living together in September 1798, Constanze had been through an arduous period following Mozarts death, trying to ward off poverty for herself and her two sons. In this she was successful, obtaining a pension from the Emperor, Nissen came to participate in these labors, taking over much of the work of negotiating with publishers. He also helped care for the children, eventually taking the role of a father in the family. Nissen and Constanze were married in 1809, the marriage did not produce any children. In 1812 the couple moved to Copenhagen, where Nissen took up a post as a censor and they dwelt there until 1820, at Lavendelstræde 1, a street where many houses of the period are still preserved. In 1820, Nissen retired, and the moved to Salzburg. Nissen had long been planning a biography of Mozart, and the work seriously in 1823. Nissen benefited greatly when Mozarts now-elderly older sister Nannerl gave him and he worked assiduously to assemble all the biographical material he could, including interviews with still living people who had known the composer. Unfortunately, the collection of the material was still in progress when Nissen died,24 March 1826, only the incomplete Preface can be fully attributed to Nissen himself. The completion of the work, based on his notes, was left to a doctor and Mozart enthusiast living in Pirna. Angermüller and Stafford similarly call the work problematic, adding that large sections are taken from earlier accounts, often of dubious reliability, the letters it quotes were selected and censored. These authors leave open the question of whether it was Nissen or Feuerstein who is to blame, the biography was published posthumously in 1829, titled Biographie W. A. Mozarts. Nach Originalbriefen, Sammlungen alles über ihn Geschriebenen, mit vielen neuen Beylagen, Steindrücken, Nissen died, aged 62, in Salzburg, and was buried there. His tombstone, naming him The husband of Mozarts widow, can still be visited, Nissens work attempted to achieve a compromise between Niemetscheks and Schlichtegrolls point of view
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Stage hypnosis
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Stage hypnosis is hypnosis performed in front of an audience for the purposes of entertainment, usually in a theatre or club. A modern stage hypnosis performance typically delivers a show rather than simply a demonstration to impress an audience with powers of persuasion. Apparent effects of amnesia, mood altering and hallucination may be demonstrated in a normal presentation, Stage hypnosis performances often encourage audience members to look further into the benefits of hypnotism. The causes of behaviour exhibited by volunteers in stage shows is an area of dispute. Some claim it illustrates altered states of consciousness, others maintain that it can be explained by a combination of psychological factors observed in group settings such as disorientation, compliance, peer pressure, and ordinary suggestion. Others yet allege that deception plays a part, Stage hypnosis evolved out of much older shows conducted by Mesmerists and other performers in the 18th and 19th centuries. Scottish surgeon James Braid developed his technique of hypnosis after witnessing a performance by the travelling Swiss magnetic demonstrator Charles Lafontaine in November 1841. They will be deprived of the power of speech, hearing and these extraordinary experiments are really and truly performed without the aid of trick, collusion, or deception, in the slightest possible degree. Likewise, the novelist Mark Twain similarly recounts a Mesmeric performance which clearly resembles 20th century stage hypnosis, indeed, early performers often claimed that they were influencing their subjects by means of telepathy and other supernatural powers. Others, however, were delivering performances that displayed the range of hypnotic manifestations to their audiences. Adkins group included Sylvain A. Lee, Mr. and Mrs. Herbert L. Flint, throughout the 20th century, despite adopting the term hypnotism, stage hypnotists continued to explain their performances to audiences by reference to supernatural powers and animal magnetism. Ormond McGill, e. g. in his Encyclopedia of the subject wrote in 1996 that, the mental energy used appears to be of two types, magnetic energy. Generated within the body and telepathic energy generated within the mind, the two work together as a unit in applying Power Hypnosis. The operation of the two energies in combination is what Mesmer referred to as animal magnetism, Mesmeric and other stage performances changed their names to stage hypnotist in the 19th century. They had originally claimed to produce the effects by means of telepathy and animal magnetism. Hence, many of the precursors of stage hypnosis did not employ hypnotic induction techniques, most notably, the well-known American magician and performer, Kreskin, has frequently carried out typical stage hypnosis demonstrations without using any hypnotic induction. After working as a stage hypnotist and magician for nearly two decades, Kreskin became a skeptic and a whistleblower from within the stage hypnosis field, for nineteen years I had believed in. The sleeplike hypnotic trance, practicing it constantly, though I had nagging doubts at times, I wanted to believe in it
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History of hypnosis
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The development of concepts, beliefs and practices related to hypnosis and hypnotherapy have been documented since prehistoric to modern times. Braid adopted the term hypnotism to contrast his own, unique, subject-centred, according to Patricia Fanthorpe, hypnosis dates back for millennia. Avicenna, a Persian psychologist and physician, was the earliest to make a distinction between sleep and hypnosis, Hypnotism evolved out of a sometimes skeptical reaction to the much earlier work of magnetists and Mesmerists. Paracelsus, a Swiss, was the first physician to use magnets in his work, many people claimed to have been healed after he had passed magnets over their bodies. An Irishman by the name of Valentine Greatrakes was known as the Great Irish Stroker for his ability to heal people by laying his hands on them and passing magnets over their bodies. Johann Joseph Gassner, a Catholic priest of the time, believed that disease was caused by spirits and could be exorcised by incantations. Around 1771, a Viennese Jesuit named Maximilian Hell was using magnets to heal by applying steel plates to the naked body, one of Father Hells students was a young medical doctor from Vienna named Franz Anton Mesmer. Western scientists first became involved in hypnosis around 1770, when Franz Mesmer, Mesmer felt that this particular force/power only resided in the bodies of humans and animals. Mesmer chose the word animal, for its root meaning specifically to identify his force/power as a quality that belonged to all creatures with breath, viz. the animate beings, humans and animals. Mesmer developed his own theory and was inspired by the writings of the English physician Richard Mead. Mesmer found that, after opening a vein and letting the patient bleed for a while. Mesmer additionally discovered that using a stick instead also worked, after moving to Paris and becoming popular with the French aristocracy for his magnetic cures, the medical community challenged him. The French king put together a Board of Inquiry that included chemist Lavoisier, Benjamin Franklin, Mesmer refused to cooperate with the investigation and this fell to his disciple Dr dEslon. Franklin constructed an experiment in which a patient was shown to respond as much to a non-prepared tree as to one that had been magnetised by dEslon. This is considered perhaps the first placebo-controlled trial of a therapy ever conducted, the commission later declared that Mesmerism worked by the action of the imagination. Many of the original mesmerists were signatories to the first declarations that proclaimed the French revolution in 1789, far from surprising, this could perhaps be expected, in that mesmerism opened up the prospect that the social order was in some sense suggested and could be overturned. Magnetism was neglected or forgotten during the Revolution and the Empire, an Indo-Portuguese priest, Abbé Faria, revived public attention to animal magnetism. In the early 19th century, Abbé Faria introduced oriental hypnosis to Paris, Faria came from India and gave exhibitions in 1814 and 1815 without manipulations or the use of Mesmers baquet
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Deirdre Barrett
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Deirdre Barrett, Ph. D. is an author and psychologist who teaches at Harvard Medical School. She is known for her research on dreams, hypnosis and imagery and has written on evolutionary psychology, Barrett is a Past President of The International Association for the Study of Dreams and of the American Psychological Association’s Div. 30, The Society for Psychological Hypnosis and she has written four books for the general public, The Pregnant Man and Other Cases From a Hypnotherapists Couch, The Committee of Sleep, Waistland, and Supernormal Stimuli. She is the editor of four books, Trauma and Dreams, The New Science of Dreaming, Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy. Barrett is best known for her work on dreams and their contributions to creativity and she interviewed modern artists and scientists about their use of their dreams, documenting dramatic anecdotes including Nobel Prizes and MacArthur genius grants whose ideas originated in dreams. Barrett describes dreaming as simply “thinking in different biochemical state” and believes we continue to work on all the same problems—personal, where the person is stuck because the conventional wisdom on how to approach the problem is wrong. She has studied characteristics of dreams in various disorders including depression, barrett’s studies of hypnosis have focused on different types of high hypnotizables, finding two subgroups which she terms fantasizers and dissociaters. Dissociaters usually had a history of abuse or other significant trauma, had learned to escape into numbness. Their association to “daydreaming” was often going blank rather than vividly recalled fantasies, both score equally high on formal scales of hypnotic susceptibility. Barrett is interested in film and has written on techniques which use to represent dreams. The phrase supernormal stimuli was coined by the Dutch scientist Niko Tinbergen in the 1930s, barretts book Waistland explores the weight and fitness crisis in terms of supernormal stimuli for food and rest. ‘’US News and World Report’’, Health, Interview with Deirdre Barrett, the Power of Hypnosis by Deirdre Barrett in ‘’Psychology Today’’, Jan/Feb 2001 The Committee of Sleep,2010
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Hippolyte Bernheim
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Hippolyte Bernheim was a French physician and neurologist, born at Mülhausen, Alsace. He is chiefly known for his theory of suggestibility in relation to hypnotism, Bernheim received his education in his native town and at the University of Strasbourg, where he was graduated as doctor of medicine in 1867. The same year he became a lecturer at the university and established himself as a physician in the city, when, in 1871, after the Franco-Prussian war, Strasbourg passed to Germany, Bernheim moved to Nancy, in the university of which town he became clinical professor. When the medical faculty took up hypnotism, about 1880, Bernheim was very enthusiastic and he became a well-known authority in this new field of medicine. Bernheim also had a significant influence on Sigmund Freud, who had visited Bernheim in 1889 and he would later term himself a pupil of Bernheim, and it was out of his practice of Bernheims suggestion/hypnosis that psychoanalysis would evolve. Bernheim himself increasingly turned from hypnosis to the use of suggestion in a waking state, in 1886, he adopted Hack Tukes term psycho-therapeutic action and in 1891 he used the term psychotherapy in the title of book as a synonym for his suggestive therapeutics. One of the earliest accounts of a memory which was induced by a therapist comes from Bernheim in the 1880s. Bernheim suggested to his patient Marie that she had witnessed an old bachelor rape a young girl, Marie even agreed to testify at a trial, under oath. English translations, Bernheim, H. Suggestive Therapeutics, A Treatise on the Nature and Uses of Hypnotism, new Studies in Hypnotism, International Universitys Press,1980. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company, works by or about Hippolyte Bernheim at Internet Archive
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Gil Boyne
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Gil Boyne was an American pioneer in modern hypnotherapy who focused on training thousands of lay hypnotherapists primarily in Glendale, California, as well as throughout the world. Boyne was mentored by Ormond McGill, with whom he collaborated for the 1977 book Professional Stage Hypnotism, Boyne was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1924 to a deeply religious Irish American family. His early schooling was religiously focused which impacted his spiritual beliefs throughout his life and he served in the Navy in the Pacific theatre during World War II, after which he was assigned to a therapeutic program based on psychoanalysis. Contemporary influences included Dave Elman, Milton Erickson, Fritz Perls Gestalt Therapy, Gil founded and was the director of the Hypnotism Training Institute in Glendale. In 1976, he opened Hypnotherapy training center in the United States offering up to 250 hours of training, including a diploma-offering curriculum in professional hypnotherapy. With his background and experiences and with influences by his contemporaries mentioned above, the resulting program, Transforming Therapy™, was used for decades to train over 12,000 and possibly as many as 15,000 hypnotherapists globally. The Transforming Therapy™ method incorporated aspects of Regression Therapy and Gestalt Therapy as well as focusing on the power of the subconscious mind. It uses a compassionate spiritual approach that simplifies theory in the actual therapy, the approach is generally considered to be rapidly effective. Boyne continued to train hypnotherapists for over 55 years, continuing to evolve many novel techniques in the field, Boyne founded Westwood Publishing, one of the first publishers to focus on hypnotherapy-focused publications. Boyne also founded the American Council of Hypnotist Examiners in 1980, from his Glendale offices near Hollywood, Gil worked with many actors throughout his career, including Sylvester Stallone, Lily Tomlin, and Dolly Parton. Such work often brought international media attention and he was also a technical director or advisor on several films and television series, including The Hypnotic Eye, Above and Beyond, and The Eleventh Hour. In addition, Boyne reportedly worked with professional and olympic athletes,2000, “MAN OF THE CENTURY, International Hypnosis Hall of Fame, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. com Westwood Publishing Hypnotherapy Training Institute American Council of Hypnotist Examiners
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John Milne Bramwell
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John Milne Bramwell was a Scottish physician, surgeon and specialist medical hypnotist. He was born in Perth and educated at the University of Edinburgh, one of his sisters, Elizabeth Ida Bramwell, become famous in Canada as the suffragette Ida Douglas-Fearn. A second sister, Eleanor Oliver Bramwell, married Frank Podmore, psychic researcher, member of the Society for Psychical Research, John the Evangelist Church, at East Dulwich, on 6 July 1875. They had two children, Mary Eleanor Oliver Bramwell and Elsie Dorothy Constant, née Bramwell and he died on 16 January 1925 at the Miramare Palace Grand Hotel in Ospedaletti, Italy. Educated at Perth Grammar School and Edinburgh University, he graduated M. B, C. M. at Edinburgh University in 1873, in the same cohort as Charles Braid, the grandson of James Braid. When Bramwell graduated from Edinburgh University, the Liverpool, Brazil, in the year that he worked for them he made three return trips to Brazil. His father had seen James Esdaile at work and, as a child, on 28 March 1890 Bramwell gave a public demonstration in Leeds of the use of hypnotism for dental and surgical anæsthesia. He travelled widely in Europe and visited most of the important centres of hypnotism, Bramwell, who had visited Charcot, the famous French neurologist, founder of the Hysteria School at the Salpêtrière hospital in Paris, characterised Charcot and his work as a throwback to mesmerism. Bramwell also visited Nancy on two occasions, from his observations and discussions there he felt that Hippolyte Bernheim and Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault had done little except reproduce Braid’s earliest findings. Bramwell had studied medicine at Edinburgh University in the student cohort as Braid’s grandson. Of Braid that were held by the Braid family. He was, perhaps, second only to Preyer in his wide-ranging familiarity with Braid, Braid employed verbal suggestion in hypnosis just as intelligently as any member of the Nancy school. He did not dream of explaining the effects of hypnotism by means of the psychical influence of suggestion. In 1897, Bramwell wrote on Braid’s work for an important French hypnotism journal and he also wrote another article or the same journal on hypnotism and suggestion, strongly emphasizing the importance of Braid and his work. In his response to Bramwells article, Bernheim repeated his entirely mistaken view that Braid knew nothing of suggestion, personally Observed Hypnotic Phenomena, Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, Vol.12, Supplement, pp. 176–203. Bramwell, J. M. James Braid, Surgeon and Hypnotist, Brain, Vol.19, No.1, on the Evolution of Hypnotic Theory, Brain, Vol.19, No.4, pp. 459-568. La Valeur Therapeutique de lHypnotisme et de la Suggestion, Revue de lHypnotisme Revue de lHypnotisme, Vol.12, No.5, pp. 129-137. Bramwell, J. M. James Braid et la Suggestion, Réponse à M. le Professeur Bernheim par M. le Dr. Milne-Bramwell, Revue de lHypnotisme Expérimentale & Thérapeutique, Vol.12, No.12, pp. 353-361
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Jean-Martin Charcot
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Jean-Martin Charcot was a French neurologist and professor of anatomical pathology. He is known as the founder of neurology, and his name has been associated with at least 15 medical eponyms, including Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. Charcot has been referred to as the father of French neurology and his work greatly influenced the developing fields of neurology and psychology, modern psychiatry owes much to the work of Charcot and his direct followers. He was the foremost neurologist of late nineteenth-century France and has called the Napoleon of the neuroses. Born in Paris, Charcot worked and taught at the famous Salpêtrière Hospital for 33 years and his reputation as an instructor drew students from all over Europe. In 1882, he established a clinic at Salpêtrière, which was the first of its kind in Europe. Charcot was a part of the French neurological tradition and studied under and he married a rich widow, Madame Durvis, in 1862 and had two children, Jeanne and Jean-Baptiste, who later became a doctor and a famous polar explorer. He was accused of being an atheist and he named and was the first to describe multiple sclerosis. Summarizing previous reports and adding his own clinical and pathological observations, the three signs of Multiple sclerosis now known as Charcots triad 1 are nystagmus, intention tremor, and telegraphic speech, though these are not unique to MS. Charcot also observed cognition changes, describing his patients as having a marked enfeeblement of the memory and he was also the first to describe a disorder known as Charcot joint or Charcot arthropathy, a degeneration of joint surfaces resulting from loss of proprioception. He researched the functions of different parts of the brain and the role of arteries in cerebral hemorrhage, Charcot was among the first to describe Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease. The announcement was made simultaneously with Pierre Marie of France and Howard Henry Tooth of England, the disease is also sometimes called peroneal muscular atrophy. Charcots studies between 1868 and 1881 were a landmark in the understanding of Parkinsons disease, among other advances he made the distinction between rigidity, weakness and bradykinesia. He also led the disease formerly named paralysis agitans to be renamed after James Parkinson and he also noted apparent variations on PD, such as Parkinsons disease with hyperextension. Charcot received the first European professional chair of clinical diseases for the system in 1882. Charcot is best known today, outside the community of neurologists, for his work on hypnosis, Charcot first began studying hysteria after creating a special ward for non-insane females with hystero-epilepsy. He discovered two forms of hysteria among these women, minor hysteria and major hysteria. His interest in hysteria and hypnotism developed at a time when the public was fascinated in animal magnetism and mesmerization
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Milton H. Erickson
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Milton Hyland Erickson was an American psychiatrist and psychologist specializing in medical hypnosis and family therapy. He is noted for his approach to the mind as creative. He is also noted for influencing brief therapy, strategic family therapy, family therapy, solution focused brief therapy. Erickson frequently drew upon his own experiences to provide examples of the power of the unconscious mind, a great many of his anecdotal and autobiographical teaching stories were collected by Sidney Rosen in the book My Voice Will Go With You. Erickson identified many of his earliest personal experiences as hypnotic or autohypnotic, Erickson grew up in Lowell, Wisconsin, in a modest farming family and intended to become a farmer like his father. He was a developer and was both dyslexic and color blind. At age 17, he contracted polio and was so severely paralysed that the doctors believed he would die, in the critical night when he was at his worst, he had another formative autohypnotic experience. E, As I lay in bed that night, I overheard the three doctors tell my parents in the room that their boy would be dead in the morning. I felt intense anger that anyone should tell a mother her boy would be dead by morning and my mother then came in with as serene a face as can be. I asked her to arrange the dresser, push it up against the side of the bed at an angle and she did not understand why, she thought I was delirious. But at that angle by virtue of the mirror on the dresser I could see through the doorway, I was damned if I would die without seeing one more sunset. If I had any skill in drawing, I could still sketch that sunset, R, Your anger and wanting to see another sunset was a way you kept yourself alive through that critical day in spite of the doctors predictions. But why do you call that an autohypnotic experience, E, I saw that vast sunset covering the whole sky. But I know there was also a tree there outside the window and it was that selective perception that enables you to say you were in an altered state. E, Yes, I did not do it consciously, I saw all the sunset, but I didnt see the fence and large boulder that were there. I blocked out everything except the sunset, after I saw the sunset, I lost consciousness for three days. When I finally awakened, I asked my father why they had taken out that fence, tree, I did not realize I had blotted them out when I fixed my attention so intensely on the sunset. Then, as I recovered and became aware of my lack of abilities, I had already published a paper in a national agricultural journal
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John Elliotson
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Professor of the principles and practice of medicine at University College London, and senior physician to University College Hospital. In concert with William Collins Engledue, M. D, the son of the prosperous London chemist and apothecary John Elliotson and Elizabeth Elliotson, he was born in Southwark on 29 October 1791. In 1831 he was elected professor of the principles and practice of physic in London University, barely 5 ft tall, with dark complexion and a very large head, he was also lame. His appearance presented a strong contrast to his ‘intramural enemy’ Robert Liston, the University College’s Professor of Clinical Surgery, one of the fastest surgeons of all time, who was pale skinned, and at least 6 ft 2in tall. Liston was fiercely opposed to Elliotson’s ‘contamination’ of the hospital with his demonstrations of ‘higher states’ of mesmerism, despite his unusual physical characteristics, Elliotson was greatly admired as a lecturer, both for the structured clarity of his lectures, and the theatrical liveliness of their delivery. He became interested in phrenology, and was founder and first President of the London Phrenological Society and his interest in mesmerism had been aroused initially by the demonstrations conducted by Richard Chenevix in 1829, and re-awakened by Dupotet de Sennevoy’s demonstrations in 1837. This prompted Elliotson to begin experimenting with the Okey Sisters who had admitted to his hospital, in April 1837. Convinced that the sister, Elizabeth, had a talent for medical clairvoyance. A series of examinations conducted by Thomas Wakley and others, in August 1838, conclusively proved to all, by the end of 1838, Elliotson was, in effect, expelled from the hospital. With his female patients, and his experiments upon the bodies of. E. & J. Okey, etc. which is held by the British Library, Elliotson continued to provide mesmeric demonstrations from his own residence at 37 Conduit Street, Hanover Square. In partnership with Engledue, he began publishing The Zoist in 1843, and, in 1849 founded the London Mesmeric Infirmary. As his reputation declined, his once lucrative practice also disappeared. He was highly regarded in literary circles, Elliotson was a friend of Charles Dickens, and introduced Dickens to Mesmerisn. The Institutions of Physiology (Institutiones Physiologicæ,1820, Elliotson, J. Numerous Cases Illustrative of the Efficacy of the Hydrocyanic Or Prussic Prussic Acid in Affections of the Stomach. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown,1820, the Use of the Sulphate of Copper in Chronic Diarrhoea, to which are added some Observations on the use of Acupuncture in Rheumatism, Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, Vol.13, Part 2, pp. 451-468. On the Recent Improvements in the Art of Distinguishing the Various Diseases of the Heart, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green,1830. 1832, Elliotson, J. Acupuncture, pp. 32-34 in Forbes, J. Tweedie, A. & Conolly, the Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine, Comprising Treatises on the Nature and Treatment of Diseases, Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Medical Jurisprudence, etc. etc
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Sigmund Freud
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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital
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"Mesmer, Friedrich Anton". The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
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