1.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
2.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
3.
Reimund Neugebauer
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Reimund Neugebauer is a German mechanical engineer and professor who has been working in the field of machine tools and forming processes. On October 1,2012, he took office as the tenth President of the Fraunhofer Society, reimund Neugebauer graduated in 1979 from the Dresden University of Technology with a degree in Machine Tool Design. From 1979 until 1984 he was an associate and a senior scientific assistant at the TU Dresden. After the founding of the Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology IWU in 1992 he became one of the Managing Directors, after the departure of Rolf Umbach in 1994 he was appointed as the sole managing director of Fraunhofer IWU. He held this position for 21 years, until September 2012, on October 1,2012, he took office as the tenth President of the Fraunhofer Society, the largest research organization in Europe, from Hans-Jörg Bullinger. Neugebauer is a Fellow of the International Academy for Production Engineering, from 2010 to 2011 he was the acting president of the German Academic Society for Production Engineering. Since 2015, he has been serving as a member of the European Commission’s High-level Group of Personalities on Defence Research chaired by Elżbieta Bieńkowska. fraunhofer. de
4.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
5.
Max Planck Society
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The society is funded by the federal and state governments of Germany as well as other sources. According to its goal, the Max Planck Society supports fundamental research in the natural, life and social sciences. The society has a staff of approximately 17,000 permanent employees, including 5,470 scientists. Society budget for 2015 was about €1.7 billion, the Max Planck Institutes focus on excellence in research. In 2013, the Nature Publishing Index placed the Max Planck institutes fifth worldwide in terms of published in Nature journals. In terms of total volume, the Max Planck Society is only outranked by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The Max Planck Society and its predecessor Kaiser Wilhelm Society hosted several renowned scientists in their fields, including such as Otto Hahn, Werner Heisenberg. The organization was established in 1911 as the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, or Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, the KWG was one of the worlds leading research organisations, its board of directors included scientists like Walther Bothe, Peter Debye, Albert Einstein, and Fritz Haber. In 1946, Otto Hahn assumed the position of President of KWG, and in 1948, the society was renamed the Max Planck Society after its former President Max Planck, the Max Planck Society has a world-leading reputation as a science and technology research organization. The domain mpg. de attracted at least 1.7 million visitors annually by 2008 according to a Compete. com study. Since 2004, the Max Planck Research Award is conferred annually to two internationally renowned scientists, one of works in Germany and one in another country. Calls for nominations for the award are invited on a rotating basis in specific sub-areas of the natural sciences and engineering, the life sciences. Adolf von Harnack Max Planck Carl Bosch Albert Vögler Max Planck Otto Hahn Adolf Butenandt Reimar Lüst Heinz Staab Hans F, the society has its registered seat in Berlin, while the administrative headquarters are located in Munich. In 2002 the cell biologist Peter Gruss became the MPG president, funding is provided predominantly from federal and state sources, but also from research and licence fees and donations. One of the donations was the castle Schloss Ringberg near Kreuth in Bavaria. It passed to the Society after the duke died in 1973, the Max Planck Society consists of over 80 research institutes. In addition, the society funds a number of Max Planck Research Groups, the purpose of establishing independent research groups at various universities is to strengthen the required networking between universities and institutes of the Max Planck Society. The research units are located across Europe, in 2007 the Society established its first non-European centre, with an institute on the Jupiter campus of Florida Atlantic University focusing on neuroscience
6.
Scientist
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A scientist is a person engaging in a systematic activity to acquire knowledge that describes and predicts the natural world. In a more restricted sense, a scientist may refer to an individual who uses the scientific method, the person may be an expert in one or more areas of science. The term scientist was coined by the theologian, philosopher and historian of science William Whewell and this article focuses on the more restricted use of the word. Scientists perform research toward a comprehensive understanding of nature, including physical, mathematical and social realms. Philosophers aim to provide an understanding of fundamental aspects of reality and experience, often pursuing inquiries with conceptual, rather than empirical. When science is done with a goal toward practical utility, it is called applied science, an applied scientist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is conducting research with the aim of developing new technologies and practical methods. When science seeks to answer questions about aspects of reality it is sometimes called natural philosophy. Science and technology have continually modified human existence through the engineering process, as a profession the scientist of today is widely recognized. Jurisprudence and mathematics are often grouped with the sciences, some of the greatest physicists have also been creative mathematicians and lawyers. There is a continuum from the most theoretical to the most empirical scientists with no distinct boundaries, in terms of personality, interests, training and professional activity, there is little difference between applied mathematicians and theoretical physicists. Scientists can be motivated in several ways, many have a desire to understand why the world is as we see it and how it came to be. They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality, other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige, or the desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of peoples health, the nations, the world, nature or industries. Scientists tend to be motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with other professions which require a similar amount of training. The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country, for instance, there are only 4 full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India while this number is 79 for the United Kingdom and the United States. According to the US National Science Foundation 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the United States in 2015, across all disciplines, the figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, 5% of scientists worked for the federal government and about 3. 5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men, 59% of US scientists were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions
7.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
8.
States of Germany
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Germany is a federal republic consisting of sixteen federal states. Since todays Germany was formed from a collection of several states, it has a federal constitution. The remaining 13 states are called Flächenländer, the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 was through the unification of the western states created in the aftermath of World War II. West Berlin, while not part of the Federal Republic, was largely integrated and considered as a de facto state. In 1952, following a referendum, Baden, Württemberg-Baden, in 1957, the Saar Protectorate rejoined the Federal Republic as the Saarland. Federalism is one of the constitutional principles of Germany. After 1945, new states were constituted in all four zones of occupation, in 1949, the states in the three western zones formed the Federal Republic of Germany. This is in contrast to the development in Austria, where the Bund was constituted first. The use of the term Länder dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, before this time, the constituent states of the German Empire were called Staaten. Today, it is common to use the term Bundesland. However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law of 1949, three Länder call themselves Freistaaten, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia. He summarizes the arguments for boundary reform in Germany. The German system of dual federalism requires strong Länder that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation, too many Länder also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated. But several proposals have failed so far, territorial reform remains a topic in German politics. Federalism has a tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states numbering more than 300 around 1796, the number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars. After the Congress of Vienna,39 states formed the German Confederation, the new German Empire included 25 states and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The empire was dominated by Prussia, which controlled 65% of the territory, after the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation
9.
Joseph von Fraunhofer
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Joseph Ritter von Fraunhofer was a German physicist. He is known for discovering the dark absorption lines known as Fraunhofer lines in the Suns spectrum, Joseph Fraunhofer was born in Straubing, in the Electorate of Bavaria, to Franz Xaver Fraunhofer and Maria Anna Frohlich. He was orphaned at the age of 11, and started working as an apprentice to a harsh glassmaker named Philipp Anton Weichelsberger, in 1801, the workshop in which he was working collapsed and he was buried in the rubble. The rescue operation was led by Prince-Elector Maximilian Joseph, the prince entered Fraunhofers life, providing him with books and forcing his employer to allow the young Fraunhofer time to study. Joseph Utzschneider was also at the site of the disaster, a fact which turned out to be important, with the money given to him by the prince upon his rescue and the support he received from Utzschneider, Fraunhofer was able to continue his education alongside his practical training. In 1806 Utzschneider and Georg von Reichenbach then brought Fraunhofer into their Institute at Benediktbeuern, there he discovered how to make the worlds finest optical glass and invented incredibly precise methods for measuring dispersion. It was at the Institute that Fraunhofer met Pierre Louis Guinand, a Swiss glass technician, in 1809 the mechanical part of the Optical Institute was chiefly under Fraunhofers direction, and that same year he became one of the members of the firm. In 1814, Guinand left the firm, as did Reichenbach, and Fraunhofer became a partner in the firm, in 1818, he became the director of the Optical Institute. Due to the optical instruments he had developed, Bavaria overtook England as the centre of the optics industry. Even the likes of Michael Faraday were unable to produce glass that could rival Fraunhofers and his illustrious career eventually earned him an honorary doctorate from the University of Erlangen in 1822. In 1824, Fraunhofer was appointed an Knight of the Order of Merit of the Bavarian Crown by King Maximilian I, the same year, he was also made an honorary citizen of Munich. Like many glassmakers of his era who were poisoned by heavy metal vapours, Fraunhofer died young and his most valuable glassmaking recipes are thought to have gone to the grave with him. One of the most difficult operations of practical optics was to polish the spherical surfaces of large object glasses accurately, Fraunhofer invented a machine which rendered the surface more accurately than traditional grinding. He found that the English crown glass and the German table glass both contained defects occasioning irregular refraction, in the thicker and larger glasses, there would be more of such defects, so that in larger telescopes this kind of glass would not be fit for object glasses. Fraunhofer therefore made his own crown glass, thus in 1814, Fraunhofer invented the spectroscope. In the course of his experiments he discovered the bright fixed line which appears in the color of the spectrum when it is produced by the light of fire. This line enabled him afterward to determine the power of refraction in different substances. These dark fixed lines were shown to be atomic absorption lines, as explained by Kirchhoff
10.
Information technology
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Information technology is the application of computers to store, study, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. IT is considered a subset of information and communications technology, the term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are associated with technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that the new technology not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology, based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development, pre-mechanical, mechanical, electromechanical, electronic. This article focuses on the most recent period, which began in about 1940, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick. Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s, the electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the worlds first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. Colossus, developed during the Second World War to decrypt German messages was the first electronic digital computer, although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory, programming was carried out using plugs, the first recognisably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948. The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, by comparison the first transistorised computer, developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version. Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes. IBM introduced the first hard drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system. Most digital data today is stored magnetically on hard disks. Until 2002 most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time. As of 2007 almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally, 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007. Database management systems emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly, one of the earliest such systems was IBMs Information Management System, which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later
11.
Biomedical engineering
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Biomedical engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes. Biomedical engineering has recently emerged as its own study, compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields. Biomedical engineering has existed for centuries,1895, Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovered that a cathode-ray tube could make a sheet of paper coated with barium platinocyanide glow, even when the tube and the paper were in separate rooms. Roentgen decided the tube must be emitting some kind of penetrating rays,1791, Luigi Galvani invented the frog galvanoscope. 1851, Hermann von Helmholtz invented the ophthalmoscope,1881, Samuel von Basch invented the blood pressure meter. 1895, Conrad Roentgen discovered the X-ray using gas discharged tubes,1896, Henry Becquerel discovered X-rays were emitted from uranium ore. 1901, Roentgen received the Nobel Prize for discovery of X-rays,1903, Willem Einthoven invented the electrocardiogram. 1921, First formal training in engineering was started at Oswalt Institute for Physics in Medicine, Frankfurt. 1927, Invention of the Drinker respirator,1929, Hans Berger invents the electroencephalogram. 1930, X-rays were being used to visualize most organ systems using radio-opaque materials, refrigeration, mid 1930s – early 1940s, Antibiotics, sulfanilamide and pencillin reduced cross-infection in hospitals. 1943, The International Bio-Physical Society was formed,1948, The first conference of Engineering in Medicine & Biology was held in the United States. 1950s – early 1960s, Nuclear medicine,1969, Case Western Reserve created a MD/PhD program 1970, computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. 1980, Gamma camera, positron emission tomography and SPECT,1997, First Indigenous endovascular coronary stent was developed by the Care Foundation. Biomedical engineering has provided advances in technology to improve human health. As per the statistics of the National Academy of Engineering, about 32000 biomedical engineers are working in various areas of health care technology. Bioinformatics is a field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of candidate genes and nucleotides
12.
Computer graphics
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Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers to computer-generated image data created with help from specialized hardware and software. It is a vast and recent area in computer science, the phrase was coined in 1960, by computer graphics researchers Verne Hudson and William Fetter of Boeing. It is often abbreviated as CG, though sometimes referred to as CGI. The overall methodology depends heavily on the sciences of geometry, optics. Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and meaningfully to the user and it is also used for processing image data received from the physical world. Computer graphic development has had a significant impact on many types of media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games, the term computer graphics has been used a broad sense to describe almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Such imagery is found in and on television, newspapers, weather reports, a well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, thesis, many tools have been developed to visualize data. Computer generated imagery can be categorized into different types, two dimensional, three dimensional, and animated graphics. As technology has improved, 3D computer graphics have become more common, Computer graphics has emerged as a sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Screens could display art since the Lumiere brothers use of mattes to create effects for the earliest films dating from 1895. New kinds of displays were needed to process the wealth of information resulting from such projects, early projects like the Whirlwind and SAGE Projects introduced the CRT as a viable display and interaction interface and introduced the light pen as an input device. Douglas T. Ross of the Whirlwind SAGE system performed an experiment in 1954 in which a small program he wrote captured the movement of his finger. Electronics pioneer Hewlett-Packard went public in 1957 after incorporating the decade prior, and established ties with Stanford University through its founders. This began the transformation of the southern San Francisco Bay Area into the worlds leading computer technology hub - now known as Silicon Valley. The field of computer graphics developed with the emergence of computer graphics hardware, further advances in computing led to greater advancements in interactive computer graphics. In 1959, the TX-2 computer was developed at MITs Lincoln Laboratory, the TX-2 integrated a number of new man-machine interfaces
13.
Digital media
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Digital media is any media that is encoded in a machine-readable format. Digital media can be created, viewed, distributed, modified and preserved on digital electronics devices, Digital media are frequently contrasted with print media, such as printed books, newspapers and magazines, and other traditional or analog media, such as pictures, film or audio tape. Combined with the Internet and personal computing, digital media has caused disruption in publishing, journalism, entertainment, education, commerce, Digital media has a significant, wide-ranging and complex impact on society and culture. Machine-readable media predates the Internet, modern computers and electronics, machine-readable codes and information were first conceptualized by Charles Babbage in the early 1800s. Babbage imagined that these codes would provide instructions for his Difference Engine and Analytical Engine, between 1822 and 1823, Ada Lovelace, a mathematician, wrote the first instructions for calculating numbers on Babbages engines. Lovelaces instructions are now believed to be the first computer program, there are in all extensions of human power, or additions to human knowledge, various collateral influences, besides the main and primary object attained. Other early machine-readable media include the instructions for player pianos and jacquard looms, though they used machine-readable media, Babbages engines, player pianos, jacquard looms and many other early calculating machines were themselves analog computers, with physical, mechanical parts. The first truly digital media came into existence with the rise of digital computers, Digital computers use binary code and Boolean logic to store and process information, allowing one machine in one configuration to perform many different tasks. The first modern, programmable, digital computers, the Manchester Mark 1, though different in many ways from modern computers, these machines had digital software controlling their logical operations. They were encoded in binary, a system of ones and zeroes that are combined to make hundreds of characters, the 1s and 0s of binary are the digits of digital media. Bush envisioned a system of devices that could be used to help scientists, doctors, historians and others, store, analyze and communicate information. Calling this then-imaginary device a memex, Bush wrote, The owner of the memex, let us say, is interested in the origin, specifically he is studying why the short Turkish bow was apparently superior to the English long bow in the skirmishes of the Crusades. He has dozens of possibly pertinent books and articles in his memex, first he runs through an encyclopedia, finds an interesting but sketchy article, leaves it projected. Next, in a history, he finds another pertinent item, thus he goes, building a trail of many items. Occasionally he inserts a comment of his own, either linking it into the trail or joining it by a side trail to a particular item. He inserts a page of longhand analysis of his own, thus he builds a trail of his interest through the maze of materials available to him. Bush hoped that the creation of this memex would be the work of scientists after World War II and it was recognized as a significant work even at the time of its publication. In the years since the invention of the first digital computers, computing power, personal computers and smartphones put the ability to access, modify, store and share digital media in the hands of billions of people
14.
Fraunhofer Institute for High-Speed Dynamics
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The Fraunhofer Institute for High-Speed Dynamics, commonly known as the Ernst Mach Institute and also by the abbreviation Fraunhofer EMI, is a facility of the Fraunhofer Society in Germany. The Institute is based in Freiburg im Breisgau and its activities are applied research and development in the fields of materials science and high-speed measurement techniques. The Institute also has offices in Efringen-Kirchen and Kandern, the name Ernst Mach Institute is named for the physicist Ernst Mach, who first used high-speed photography to visualize ballistic and gas-dynamic processes
15.
Ernst-Mach-Institut
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The Fraunhofer Institute for High-Speed Dynamics, commonly known as the Ernst Mach Institute and also by the abbreviation Fraunhofer EMI, is a facility of the Fraunhofer Society in Germany. The Institute is based in Freiburg im Breisgau and its activities are applied research and development in the fields of materials science and high-speed measurement techniques. The Institute also has offices in Efringen-Kirchen and Kandern, the name Ernst Mach Institute is named for the physicist Ernst Mach, who first used high-speed photography to visualize ballistic and gas-dynamic processes
16.
Industrial engineering
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Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems or organizations. Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, man-hours, machine time, energy, according to the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, they figure out how to do things better, they engineer processes and systems that improve quality and productivity. Some engineering universities and educational agencies around the world have changed the term industrial to broader terms such as production or systems, the various topics concerning industrial engineers include, Process engineering, design, operation, control, and optimization of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Systems engineering, a field of engineering that focuses on how to design. Safety engineering, a discipline which assures that engineered systems provide acceptable levels of safety. Value engineering, a method to improve the value of goods or products. Quality engineering, a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products, Project management, is the process and activity of planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling resources, procedures and protocols to achieve specific goals in scientific or daily problems. It includes the movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, ergonomics, the practice of designing products, systems or processes to take proper account of the interaction between them and the people that use them. Logistics, the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to some requirements. Many of the tools and principles of engineering can be applied to the configuration of work activities within a project. The application of engineering and operations management concepts and techniques to the execution of projects has been thus referred to as Project Production Management. Traditionally, an aspect of industrial engineering was planning the layouts of factories and designing assembly lines. And now, in manufacturing systems, industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy. There is a consensus among a historian that the roots of the Industrial Engineering Profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The concept of the system had its genesis in the factories created by these innovations. Eli Whitney and Simeon North proved the feasibility of the notion of Interchangeable parts in the manufacture of muskets, under this system, individual parts were mass-produced to tolerances to enable their use in any finished product. The result was a significant reduction in the need for skill from specialized workers, frederick Taylor is generally credited as being the father of the Industrial Engineering discipline. He earned a degree in engineering from Stevens University
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Biotechnology
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Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the fields of bioengineering, biomedical engineering, biomanufacturing, molecular engineering, etc. For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production, the term is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by Hungarian engineer Károly Ereky. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies, as per European Federation of Biotechnology, biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services. Biotechnology also writes on the biological sciences. By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches for interfacing with. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and this can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals. Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the definition of utilizing a biotechnological system to make products. Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise, Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best suited crops, having the highest yields and these processes also were included in early fermentation of beer. These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, in brewing, malted grains convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol, later other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteurs work in 1857, before the time of Charles Darwins work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwins theory of natural selection, for thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics, for example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops. In the early twentieth century scientists gained an understanding of microbiology. Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics, in 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium
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Laser
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A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently, spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances, Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i. e. they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond, Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a great distance along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum, most single wavelength lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies, often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously, there are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all devices are classified as lasers based on their method of producing light. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies. The word laser started as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, in the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser, this term is now obsolete. A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been noted that the acronym LOSER, for light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation. With the widespread use of the acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as laser amplifiers. The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning to produce light, especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser. Further use of the laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser
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Machine tool
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A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping, all machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Thus the relative movement between the workpiece and the tool is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent. The precise definition of the machine tool varies among users. While all machine tools are machines that help people to make things, today machine tools are typically powered other than by human muscle, used to make manufactured parts in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds of deformation. With their inherent precision, machine tools enabled the production of interchangeable parts. In this view of the definition, the term, arising at a time when all tools up till then had been hand tools and this lathe produced screw threads out of wood and employed a true compound slide rest. The mechanical toolpath guidance grew out of various concepts, First is the spindle concept itself. The machine slide, which has many forms, such as dovetail ways, box ways, Machine slides constrain tool or workpiece movement linearly. If a stop is added, the length of the line can also be accurately controlled, tracing, which involves following the contours of a model or template and transferring the resulting motion to the toolpath. Cam operation, which is related in principle to tracing but can be a step or two removed from the traced elements matching the reproduced elements final shape. For example, several cams, no one of which matches the desired output shape. Abstractly programmable toolpath guidance began with mechanical solutions, such as in musical box cams, later, electromechanical solutions and soon electronic solutions were added, leading to numerical control and computer numerical control. The value that machine tools added to these human talents is in the areas of rigidity, accuracy and precision, efficiency, as an example, it is physically possible to make interchangeable screws, bolts, and nuts entirely with freehand toolpaths. But it is practical to make them only with machine tools. In the 1930s, the U. S. National Bureau of Economic Research referenced the definition of a tool as any machine operating by other than hand power which employs a tool to work on metal. The narrowest colloquial sense of the reserves it only for machines that perform metal cutting—in other words. These processes are a type of deformation that produces swarf, thus presses are usually included in the economic definition of machine tools
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Metal foam
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A metal foam is a cellular structure consisting of a solid metal with gas-filled pores comprising a large portion of the volume. The pores can be sealed or interconnected, the defining characteristic of metal foams is a high porosity, typically only 5–25% of the volume is the base metal, making these ultralight materials. The strength of the material is due to the square-cube law, metallic foams typically retain some physical properties of their base material. Foam made from non-flammable metal remains non-flammable and can generally be recycled as the base material and its coefficient of thermal expansion is similar while thermal conductivity is likely reduced. Open celled metal foam, also called metal sponge, can be used in heat exchangers, energy absorption, flow diffusion, the high cost of the material generally limits its use to advanced technology, aerospace, and manufacturing. Fine-scale open-cell foams, with smaller than can be seen unaided, are used as high-temperature filters in the chemical industry. Metallic foams are used in heat exchangers to increase heat transfer at the cost of reduced pressure. However, their use permits substantial reduction in size and fabrication costs. Most models of materials use idealized and periodic structures or averaged macroscopic properties. Metal sponge has very large surface area per unit weight and catalysts are often formed into metal sponge, such as black, platinum sponge. Metals such as osmium and palladium hydride are metaphorically called metal sponges, open cell foams are manufactured by foundry or powder metallurgy. In the powder method, space holders are used, as their name suggests, they occupy the pore spaces, in casting processes, foam is cast with an open-celled polyurethane foam skeleton. Closed-cell metal foam was first reported in 1926 by Meller in a French patent where foaming of light metals, two patents on sponge-like metal were issued to Benjamin Sosnik in 1948 and 1951 who applied mercury vapor to blow liquid aluminium. Closed-cell metal foams were developed in 1956 by John C. Elliott at Bjorksten Research Laboratories, although the first prototypes were available in the 1950s, commercial production began in the 1990s by Shinko Wire company in Japan. Closed-cell metal foams are used as an impact-absorbing material, similarly to the polymer foams in a bicycle helmet. Unlike many polymer foams, metal foams remain deformed after impact and they are light and stiff and are frequently proposed as a lightweight structural material. However, they have not been used for this purpose. Closed-cell foams retain the fire resistance and recycling potential of other metallic foams, foams are commonly made by injecting a gas or mixing a foaming agent into molten metal
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Manufacturing engineering
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The manufacturing engineers primary focus is to turn raw materials into a new or updated product in the most economic, efficient, and effective way possible. It is a broad area which includes the design and development of products. Manufacturing engineering is considered to be a subdiscipline of industrial engineering and has very strong overlaps with mechanical engineering. Manufacturing engineers success or failure directly impacts the advancement of technology and this field of manufacturing engineering emerged from tool and die discipline in the early 20th century. It expanded greatly from the 1960s when industrialized countries introduced factories with,1, numerical control machine tools and automated systems of production. Advanced statistical methods of quality control, These factories were pioneered by the American electrical engineer William Edwards Deming, the same methods of quality control later turned Japanese factories into world leaders in cost-effectiveness and production quality. This cut costs and improved production speed, the history of manufacturing engineering can be traced to factories in the mid 19th century USA and 18th century UK. Founded in 1104 in the Republic of Venice several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution, the Venice Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day and, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Many historians regard Matthew Boultons Soho Manufactory as the first modern factory, similar claims can be made for John Lombes silk mill in Derby, or Richard Arkwrights Cromford Mill. The Cromford Mill was purpose-built to accommodate the equipment it held, one historian, Murno Gladst, contends that the first factory was in Potosí. The Potosi factory took advantage of the abundant silver that was mined nearby, british colonies in the 19th century built factories simply as buildings where a large number of workers gathered to perform hand labor, usually in textile production. This proved more efficient for the administration and distribution of materials to individual workers than earlier methods of manufacturing and this experience formed the basis for the later studies of manufacturing engineering. Between 1820 and 1850, non-mechanized factories supplanted traditional artisan shops as the predominant form of manufacturing institution, henry Ford further revolutionized the factory concept and thus manufacturing engineering in the early 20th century with the innovation of mass production. Highly specialized workers situated alongside a series of rolling ramps would build up a product such as an automobile and this concept dramatically decreased production costs for virtually all manufactured goods and brought about the age of consumerism. Modern manufacturing engineering studies include all intermediate processes required for the production and integration of a products components, some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication for these processes. Automation is used in different processes of manufacturing such as machining and welding, automated manufacturing refers to the application of automation to produce goods in a factory. Robotics is the application of mechatronics and automation to create robots and these robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics and mechanics, robots are used extensively in manufacturing engineering
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Logistics
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Logistics is generally the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. In a general sense, logistics is the management of the flow of things between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet requirements of customers or corporations. The resources managed in logistics can include items such as food, materials, animals, equipment. The logistics of physical items usually involves the integration of information flow, material handling, production, packaging, inventory, transportation, warehousing, and often security. In military science, logistics is concerned with maintaining army supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy, since an armed force without resources and transportation is defenseless. Military logistics was already practiced in the ancient world and as modern military have a significant need for logistics solutions, in military logistics, logistics officers manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed. The complexity of logistics can be modeled, analyzed, visualized, the minimization of the use of resources is a common motivation in all logistics fields. A professional working in the field of management is called a logistician. The prevalent view is that the term comes from the late 19th century. Others attribute a Greek origin to the word, λόγος, meaning reason or speech, λογιστικός, the Oxford English Dictionary defines logistics as the branch of military science relating to procuring, maintaining and transporting material, personnel and facilities. As such, logistics is commonly seen as a branch of engineering that creates people systems rather than machine systems and that being said, from a modeling perspective, there are similarities between operations management and logistics, and companies sometimes use hybrid professionals, with for ex. Director of Operations or Logistics Officer working on similar problems, furthermore, the term supply chain management originally refers to, among other issues, having an integrated vision in of both production and logistics from point of origin to point of production. All these terms may suffer from semantic change as an effect of advertising. Outbound logistics is the related to the storage and movement of the final product. Advance Logistics consists of the required to set up or establish a plan for logistics activities to occur. Distribution logistics has, as main tasks, the delivery of the products to the customer. It consists of processing, warehousing, and transportation. Distribution logistics is necessary because the time, place, and quantity of production differs with the time, place, disposal logistics has as its main function to reduce logistics cost and enhance service related to the disposal of waste produced during the operation of a business
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Medical image computing
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Medical image computing is an interdisciplinary field at the intersection of computer science, data science, electrical engineering, physics, mathematics and medicine. This field develops computational and mathematical methods for solving problems pertaining to medical images and their use for biomedical research, the main goal of MIC is to extract clinically relevant information or knowledge from medical images. While closely related to the field of imaging, MIC focuses on the computational analysis of the images. The methods can be grouped into broad categories, image segmentation, image registration, image-based physiological modeling. Medical image computing typically operates on uniformly sampled data with regular x-y-z spatial spacing, at each sample point, data is commonly represented in integral form such as signed and unsigned short, although forms from unsigned char to 32-bit float are not uncommon. The particular meaning of the data at the sample point depends on modality, for example a CT acquisition collects radiodensity values, longitudinal, time-varying acquisitions may or may not acquire images with regular time steps. Fan-like images due to such as curved-array ultrasound are also common and require different representational. Other data forms include sheared images due to tilt during acquisition, and unstructured meshes, such as hexahedral and tetrahedral forms. Segmentation is the process of partitioning an image into different segments, in medical imaging, these segments often correspond to different tissue classes, organs, pathologies, or other biologically relevant structures. Medical image segmentation is made difficult by low contrast, noise, although there are many computer vision techniques for image segmentation, some have been adapted specifically for medical image computing. Below is a sampling of techniques within this field, the implementation relies on the expertise that clinicians can provide, methods of this style are typically referred to as atlas-based segmentation methods. Parametric atlas methods typically combine these training images into a single atlas image, atlas-based methods usually require the use of image registration in order to align the atlas image or images to a new, unseen image. Shape-Based Segmentation, Many methods parametrize a template shape for a given structure, the entire shape is then deformed to match a new image. Two of the most common shape-based techniques are Active Shape Models and these methods have been very influential, and have given rise to similar models. Image-Based segmentation, Some methods initiate a template and refine its shape according to the data while minimizing integral error measures, like the Active contour model. Interactive Segmentation, Interactive methods are useful when clinicians can provide some information, an algorithm can then iteratively refine such a segmentation, with or without guidance from the clinician. Manual segmentation, using such as a paint brush to explicitly define the tissue class of each pixel. Recently, principles from feedback control theory have been incorporated into segmentation, however, there are some other classification of image segmentation methods which are similar to above categories
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Molecular biology
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Writing in Nature in 1961, William Astbury described molecular biology as. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however and it must at the same time inquire into genesis and function. Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology but increasingly combine these techniques and ideas from genetics. There is not a line between these disciplines. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules, the study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry. Genetics is the study of the effect of differences on organisms. This can often be inferred by the absence of a normal component, the study of mutants – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called wild type or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions can often confound simple interpretations of such knockout studies, molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the processes of replication, transcription, translation, and cell function. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA, much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at its interface with computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. In the early 2000s, the study of structure and function. There is also a tradition of studying biomolecules from the ground up in biophysics. One of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is molecular cloning, in this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is cloned using PCR and/or restriction enzymes into a plasmid. A vector has 3 distinctive features, an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, the origin of replication will have promoter regions upstream from the replication/transcription start site. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells, introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation via uptake of naked DNA, conjugation via cell-cell contact or by transduction via viral vector. Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, electroporation, microinjection, the plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, a variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell, polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA
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Ecology
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Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment. It is a field that includes biology, geography. Ecology includes the study of interactions that organisms have with other, other organisms. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the communities make up. Ecosystem processes, such as production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits, biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services. Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, natural history and it is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function, Ecology is a human science as well. For example, the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment out there and it is not treated as separate from humans. Organisms and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living and non-living components of the planet, the word ecology was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics, ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology became a more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory, the scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level to a planetary scale phenomena. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms, an ecosystems area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem. Several generations of a population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, support diverse bacterial communities, biodiversity describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are ways to index, measure, characterize
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Nondestructive testing
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The terms nondestructive examination, nondestructive inspection, and nondestructive evaluation are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection, eddy-current testing, innovations in the field of nondestructive testing have had a profound impact on medical imaging, including on echocardiography, medical ultrasonography, and digital radiography. NDT methods may rely upon use of radiation, sound. The inside of a sample can be examined with penetrating radiation, such as X-rays, sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast between a defect and the bulk of the sample may be enhanced for visual examination by the eye by using liquids to penetrate fatigue cracks. One method involves using dyes, fluorescent or non-fluorescent, in fluids for non-magnetic materials, another commonly used NDT method used on ferrous materials involves the application of fine iron particles that are applied to a part while it is in an externally magnetized state. The particles will be attracted to leakage fields within the test object, Magnetic particle testing can reveal surface & some sub-surface defects within the part. Thermoelectric effect uses thermal properties of an alloy to quickly and easily characterize many alloys, the chemical test, or chemical spot test method, utilizes application of sensitive chemicals that can indicate the presence of individual alloying elements. Electrochemical methods, such as electrochemical fatigue crack sensors, utilize the tendency of metal structural material to oxidize readily in order to detect progressive damage, analyzing and documenting a non-destructive failure mode can also be accomplished using a high-speed camera recording continuously until the failure is detected. Detecting the failure can be accomplished using a detector or stress gauge which produces a signal to trigger the high-speed camera. These high-speed cameras have advanced recording modes to capture some non-destructive failures, after the failure the high-speed camera will stop recording. The capture images can be played back in slow motion showing precisely what happen before, during and after the non-destructive event, NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide range of industrial activity, with new NDT methods and applications, being continuously developed. In manufacturing, welds are used to join two or more metal parts. Because these connections may encounter loads and fatigue during product lifetime, the typical welding defects could cause a structure to break or a pipeline to rupture. Welding techniques may also be monitored with acoustic emission techniques before production to design the best set of parameters to use to properly join two materials. In the case of stress or safety critical welds, weld monitoring will be employed to confirm the specified welding parameters are being adhered to those stated in the welding procedure. This verifies the weld as correct to procedure prior to nondestructive evaluation, structure can be complex systems that undergo different loads during their lifetime, e. g. Lithium-ion batteries
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Silicate
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A silicate is a compound containing an anionic silicon compound. The great majority of the silicates are oxides, but hexafluorosilicate, orthosilicate is the anion SiO4−4 or its compounds. Related to orthosilicate are families of anions with the formula 2n−, important members are the cyclic and single chain silicates n and the sheet-forming silicates n. Silicates constitute the majority of Earths crust, as well as the terrestrial planets, rocky moons. Sand, Portland cement, and thousands of minerals are examples of silicates, silicate compounds, including the minerals, consist of silicate anions whose charge is balanced by various cations. Myriad silicate anions can exist, and each can form compounds with many different cations, hence this class of compounds is very large. Both minerals and synthetic materials fit in this class, in the vast majority of silicates, including silicate minerals, the Si occupies a tetrahedral environment, being surrounded by 4 oxygen centres. In these structures, the bonds to silicon conform to the octet rule. These tetrahedra sometimes occur as isolated SiO4−4 centres, but most commonly, commonly the silicate anions are chains, double chains, sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. All these such species have negligible solubility in water at normal conditions, silicates are well characterized as solids, but are less commonly observed in solution. The anion SiO4−4 is the base of silicic acid, Si4. Instead, solutions of silicates are usually observed as mixtures of condensed, the nature of soluble silicates is relevant to understanding biomineralization and the synthesis of aluminosilicates, such as the industrially important catalysts called zeolites. Although the tetrahedron is the coordination geometry for silicon compounds. A well-known example of such a high number is hexafluorosilicate. Octahedral coordination by 6 oxygen centres is observed, at very high pressure, even SiO2 adopts this geometry in the mineral stishovite, a dense polymorph of silica found in the lower mantle of the Earth. This structure is formed by shock during meteorite impacts. In geology and astronomy, the silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals. On Earth, a variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that form
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Silicon
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Silicon is a chemical element with symbol Si and atomic number 14. A hard and brittle crystalline solid with a metallic luster. It is a member of group 14 in the table, along with carbon above it and germanium, tin, lead. It is not very reactive, although more reactive than germanium, Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure element in the Earths crust. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids, over 90% of the Earths crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earths crust after oxygen. Most silicon is used commercially without being separated, and often with little processing of the natural minerals, such use includes industrial construction with clays, silica sand, and stone. Silicate is used in Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and mixed with sand and gravel to make concrete for walkways, foundations. Silicates are used in whiteware ceramics such as porcelain, and in traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass, Silicon compounds such as silicon carbide are used as abrasives and components of high-strength ceramics. Elemental silicon also has an impact on the modern world economy. Most free silicon is used in the refining, aluminium-casting. Silicon is the basis of the widely used synthetic polymers called silicones, Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces are required by animals. However, various sea sponges and microorganisms, such as diatoms and radiolaria, silica is deposited in many plant tissues, such as in the bark and wood of Chrysobalanaceae and the silica cells and silicified trichomes of Cannabis sativa, horsetails and many grasses. Silicon is a solid at room temperature, with a point of 1,414 °C. Like water, it has a density in a liquid state than in a solid state and it expands when it freezes. With a relatively high conductivity of 149 W·m−1·K−1, silicon conducts heat well. In its crystalline form, pure silicon has a gray color, like germanium, silicon is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping. Silicon, like carbon and germanium, crystallizes in a cubic crystal structure with a lattice spacing of 0.5430710 nm. The outer electron orbital of silicon, like that of carbon, has four valence electrons, the 1s, 2s, 2p and 3s subshells are completely filled while the 3p subshell contains two electrons out of a possible six
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Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems
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The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE is an institute of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft. Located in Freiburg, Germany, The Institute performs applied scientific and engineering research, since 2006, Prof. Dr. Eicke R. Weber is the director of Fraunhofer ISE. With over 1,100 employees, Fraunhofer ISE is the largest institute for applied solar energy research in Europe, the 2012 Operational Budget including investments is 74.3 million euro. Fraunhofer ISE was founded in 1981 by Prof. Adolf Goetzberger in Freiburg and it was the first non-university establishment for applied solar energy research in Europe. Already in 1983, the first fully electronic so-called ISE inverter was developed for use in autonomous photovoltaic systems, in 1986, the first serial product using fluorescent collectors as a power supply was produced. Within the PV small device program, numerous other products were developed. When the clean room was put into operation in 1989, the production of high efficiency solar cells began, in 1998, selective solar absorber coatings, which were developed at Fraunhofer ISE for solar thermal collectors, were put into industrial-scale production. In 2011 Fraunhofer ISE celebrated its 30th anniversary, since its founding, the scientists have received many prestigious prizes and awards for their research results in the field. To this purpose, the institute develops materials, components, systems and processes for basic research, through its involvement in the International Energy Agency, the Institute contributes in the establishment of the international boundary conditions for the realization of these concepts. In this business area, many disciplines come together, from research and coating development through to component and system development. Applied Optics and functional Surfaces Solar energy systems convert solar radiation incident on the earth into thermal, electrical or chemical energy, in order to better transmit, reflect, absorb, filter, redirect or concentrate the incoming radiation, Fraunhofer ISE develops optical components and systems. Solar Thermal Systems This business area covers the markets of low, Solar thermal collectors and collector systems with flat or evacuated tube collectors find numerous applications in the practice. These include process water and solar heating systems, cooling and ventilation systems, with linear concentrating collectors, operating temperatures from 150 °C to over 400 °C are achieved. Silicon Photovoltaics Especially due to the market introduction programs in Japan and Germany, more than 85% of the solar cells produced worldwide are based on crystalline silicon. Photovoltaic Modules and Systems Module technology converts solar cells into a robust product for reliable operation in PV power plants, Fraunhofer ISE supports the product development concentrating on increasing efficiencies, reducing costs and achieving the highest reliability. Over and above, the Institute offers its services for quality assurance of modules, the technology of the dye solar cells has developed well beyond the laboratory stage and organic solar cells are attractive especially due to the expected low manufacturing costs. Renewable Power Supply The construction of grid-connected systems is the largest market for the branch today. The Institute provides consultancy services for planning, characterizes solar modules and carries out the technical analysis
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Thin films
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A thin film is a layer of material ranging from fractions of a nanometer to several micrometers in thickness. The controlled synthesis of materials as thin films is a step in many applications. A familiar example is the mirror, which typically has a thin metal coating on the back of a sheet of glass to form a reflective interface. The process of silvering was once used to produce mirrors. It is also being applied to pharmaceuticals, via thin-film drug delivery, a stack of thin films is called a multilayer. In addition to their applied interest, thin films play an important role in the development and study of materials with new, examples include multiferroic materials, and superlattices that allow the study of quantum confinement by creating two-dimensional electron states. The act of applying a thin film to a surface is thin-film deposition – any technique for depositing a film of material onto a substrate or onto previously deposited layers. Thin is a term, but most deposition techniques control layer thickness within a few tens of nanometres. Molecular beam epitaxy and atomic layer deposition allow a single layer of atoms to be deposited at a time and it is useful in the manufacture of optics, electronics, packaging, and in contemporary art. Deposition techniques fall into two categories, depending on whether the process is primarily chemical or physical. Here, a fluid precursor undergoes a change at a solid surface. An everyday example is the formation of soot on an object when it is placed inside a flame. Chemical deposition is further categorized by the phase of the precursor, Plating relies on liquid precursors, some plating processes are driven entirely by reagents in the solution, but by far the most commercially important process is electroplating. It was not commonly used in processing for many years. Chemical solution deposition or chemical bath deposition uses a liquid precursor and this is a relatively inexpensive, simple thin film process that is able to produce stoichiometrically accurate crystalline phases. This technique is known as the sol-gel method because the sol gradually evolves towards the formation of a gel-like diphasic system. The speed at which the solution is spun and the viscosity of the sol determine the thickness of the deposited film. Repeated depositions can be carried out to increase the thickness of films as desired, thermal treatment is often carried out in order to crystallize the amorphous spin coated film
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Fraunhofer Institute for Telecommunications
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The institute engages in applied research and development in the fields of physics, electrical engineering and computer sciences. The Fraunhofer Heinrich Hertz Institute develops mobile and stationary broadband communication networks, focal points of independent and contract research conducted by Fraunhofer HHI are photonic components and systems, fiber optic sensor systems, and image signal processing and transmission. Future applications for broadband networks are developed as well, scientists at the institute work together with national and international research and industry partners. Work on the video compression standards received the Technology and Engineering Emmy award multiple times. The research and development work of the Fraunhofer HHI takes place in six departments, the focus is on increasing the capacity as well as improving security and energy efficiency. The Photonic Components department develops optoelectronic semiconductor components as well as integrated circuits for data transmission. Another focus is on infrared sensor systems, terahertz spectroscopy and high-performance semiconductor lasers for industrial and medical applications, the sensors are characterized by extreme miniaturization, excellent communication and network capabilities and high energy efficiency. The research focus of the Wireless Communications and Networks department is on radio-based information transmission, the department provides contributions to the theory and technical feasibility of radio systems and develops hardware prototypes. This is supplemented by scientific studies, simulations and evaluations at the link, the Video Coding & Analytics department is researching actively the efficient encoding, transport, processing and analysis of video signals as well as machine learning. The focus in the Vision & Imaging Technologies department is on complex 2D/3D analysis and synthesis methods, on computer vision as well as camera, sensor, display. The department is researching for the video processing chain from content creation to playback. The external funding ratio was 75 percent,49,8 percent of the budget came from industrial revenues,13 percent from federal and state contract research, and 6,5 percent from funds provided by the European Union. Around 270 employees and 140 students worked at the institute in 2015, effectively, the institute was founded on February 23,1928 as Heinrich Hertz Institute for Oscillation Research. The opening took place in 1930 in Berlin-Charlottenburg, Franklinstrasse 1, with the 4 departments, High-Frequency Engineering, Telecommunications and Telegraph Technology, Research focused on radio and television technology, room acoustics and electronic music among other things. The institute was reorganized in 1936 and the name Heinrich Hertz was wiped out from its designation in the course of National Socialist cleansing in the interest of the Third Reich. During the time of the reform and Berlin Blockade in 1950, the institute was split into an eastern section. In 1968 the institute moved into the new building at Einsteinufer 37 in Berlin, the institute was renamed to Heinrich-Hertz-Institut for Nachrichtentechnik Berlin GmbH in 1975 with the state of Berlin and the Federal Republic of Germany as shareholders. Realignment of the entire HHI research profile by Horst Ohnsorge, systematic work on current problems of modern communication technology
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Heinrich Hertz
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Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was a German physicist who first conclusively proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves theorized by James Clerk Maxwells electromagnetic theory of light. The unit of frequency – cycle per second – was named the hertz in his honor, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was born in 1857 in Hamburg, then a sovereign state of the German Confederation, into a prosperous and cultured Hanseatic family. His father Gustav Ferdinand Hertz was a barrister and later a senator and his mother was Anna Elisabeth Pfefferkorn. Hertzs paternal grandfather, Heinrich David Hertz, was a businessman and their first son, Wolff Hertz, was chairman of the Jewish community. Heinrich Rudolf Hertzs father and paternal grandparents had converted from Judaism to Christianity in 1834 and his mothers family was a Lutheran pastors family. While studying at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums in Hamburg, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz showed an aptitude for sciences as well as languages, learning Arabic and Sanskrit. He studied sciences and engineering in the German cities of Dresden, Munich and Berlin, in 1880, Hertz obtained his PhD from the University of Berlin, and for the next three years remained for post-doctoral study under Helmholtz, serving as his assistant. In 1883, Hertz took a post as a lecturer in physics at the University of Kiel. In 1885, Hertz became a professor at the University of Karlsruhe. In 1886, Hertz married Elisabeth Doll, the daughter of Dr. Max Doll and they had two daughters, Johanna, born on 20 October 1887 and Mathilde, born on 14 January 1891, who went on to become a notable biologist. During this time Hertz conducted his research into electromagnetic waves. Hertz took a position of Professor of Physics and Director of the Physics Institute in Bonn on 3 April 1889, during this time he worked on theoretical mechanics with his work published in the book Die Prinzipien der Mechanik in neuem Zusammenhange dargestellt, published posthumously in 1894. In 1892, Hertz was diagnosed with an infection and underwent operations to treat the illness and he died of granulomatosis with polyangiitis at the age of 36 in Bonn, Germany in 1894, and was buried in the Ohlsdorf Cemetery in Hamburg. Hertzs wife, Elisabeth Hertz née Doll, did not remarry, Hertz left two daughters, Johanna and Mathilde. Hertzs daughters never married and he has no descendants, Hertz always had a deep interest in meteorology, probably derived from his contacts with Wilhelm von Bezold. In 1886–1889, Hertz published two articles on what was to become known as the field of contact mechanics, joseph Valentin Boussinesq published some critically important observations on Hertzs work, nevertheless establishing this work on contact mechanics to be of immense importance. His work basically summarises how two objects placed in contact will behave under loading, he obtained results based upon the classical theory of elasticity. It was natural to neglect adhesion in that age as there were no methods of testing for it
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Toxicology
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Toxicology is a branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. It also studies the effects of chemical, biological and physical agents in biological systems that establishes the extent of damage in living organisms. The relationship between dose and its effects on the organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical toxicity include the dosage, the route of exposure, dioscorides, a Greek physician in the court of the Roman emperor Nero, made the first attempt to classify plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect. Ibn Wahshiyya wrote the Book on Poisons in the 9th or 10th century and this was followed up in 1360 by Khagendra Mani Darpana. Mathieu Orfila is considered the father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal treatment in 1813 in his Traité des poisons. In 1850, Jean Stas became the first person to isolate plant poisons from human tissue. Theophrastus Phillipus Auroleus Bombastus von Hohenheim is also considered the father of toxicology and this is often condensed to, The dose makes the poison or in Latin Sola dosis facit venenum. The goal of toxicity assessment is to identify effects of a substance. Adverse effects depend on two factors, i) routes of exposure and ii) dose. To explore dose, substances are tested in both acute and chronic models, generally, different sets of experiments are conducted to determine whether a substance causes cancer and to examine other forms of toxicity. Factors that influence chemical toxicity, Dosage Both large single exposures, the classic experimental tool of toxicology is testing on non-human animals. As of 2014, such animal testing provides information that is not available by other means about how substances function in a living organism, while testing in animal models remains as a method of estimating human effects, there are both ethical and technical concerns with animal testing. This work requires expert knowledge in molecular modeling and statistics together with expert judgment in chemistry, pivotal events in science include the discovery of penicillin, the elucidation of the DNA double helix, and the development of computers. Toxicity testing is approaching such a scientific pivot point. It is poised to take advantage of the revolutions in biology and biotechnology, as of 2010 that vision was still unrealized. As of 2014 that vision was still unrealized, in some cases shifts away from animal studies has been mandated by law or regulation, the European Union prohibited use of animal testing for cosmetics in 2013. Most chemicals display a dose response curve – at a low dose. A few chemicals have no well-defined safe level of exposure and these are treated with special care
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MP3
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Compared to CD quality digital audio, MP3 compression commonly achieves 75 to 95% reduction in size. MP3 files are thus 1/4 to 1/20 the size of the digital audio stream. This is important for both transmission and storage concerns, the basis for such comparison is the CD digital audio format which requires 1411200 bit/s. A commonly used MP3 encoding setting is CBR128 kbit/s resulting in file size 1/11 of the original CD-quality file, the MP3 lossy compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a continuous sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is referred to as perceptual coding or psychoacoustics. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce the precision of less audible to human hearing. MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group as part of its MPEG-1 standard, the first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hanover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio, which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992. A backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio extension with lower sample and bit rates was published in 1995, MP3 is a streaming or broadcast format meaning that individual frames can be lost without affecting the ability to decode successfully delivered frames. Storing an MP3 stream in a file enables time-shifted playback, the MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency, in 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy and this work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths. A wide variety of compression algorithms were reported in IEEEs refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. The genesis of the MP3 technology is described in a paper from Professor Hans Musmann who chaired the ISO MPEG Audio group for several years. The immediate predecessors of MP3 were Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain, the first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder in hardware, was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips. Another predecessor of the MP3 format and technology is to be found in the perceptual codec MUSICAM based on an integer arithmetics 32 sub-bands filterbank, driven by a psychoacoustic model. It was primarily designed for Digital Audio Broadcasting and digital TV and this codec incorporated into a broadcasting system using COFDM modulation was demonstrated on air and on the field together with Radio Canada and CRC Canada during the NAB show in 1991. F. As a doctoral student at Germanys University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on music compression in the early 1980s
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Solar cell
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A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance. Solar cells are the blocks of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels. Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light and they are used as a photodetector, detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity. The operation of a cell requires three basic attributes, The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons. The separation of carriers of opposite types. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit, in contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A photoelectrolytic cell, on the hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell. Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules that generate power from sunlight. A solar array generates power using solar energy. Multiple solar cells in a group, all oriented in one plane. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the sun-facing side, Solar cells are usually connected in series and parallel circuits or series in modules, creating an additive voltage. Strings of series cells are usually handled independently and not connected in parallel, though as of 2014, individual power boxes are often supplied for each module, and are connected in parallel. Although modules can be interconnected to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity, otherwise, shunt diodes can reduce shadowing power loss in arrays with series/parallel connected cells. The photovoltaic effect was demonstrated first by French physicist Edmond Becquerel. In 1839, at age 19, he built the worlds first photovoltaic cell in his fathers laboratory, willoughby Smith first described the Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current in a 20 February 1873 issue of Nature. In 1883 Charles Fritts built the first solid state photovoltaic cell by coating the semiconductor selenium with a layer of gold to form the junctions. In 1888 Russian physicist Aleksandr Stoletov built the first cell based on the photoelectric effect discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887
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IKEA
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IKEA, is a multinational group, headquartered in the Netherlands, that designs and sells ready-to-assemble furniture, kitchen appliances and home accessories. It has been the worlds largest furniture retailer since at least 2008, the company is known for its modern architectural designs for various types of appliances and furniture, and its interior design work is often associated with an eco-friendly simplicity. The IKEA group has a corporate structure, which the European Union has alleged was designed to avoid over 1 billion Euros in tax payments over the 2009-2014 period. It is controlled by several foundations based in the Netherlands, Luxembourg, as of December 2016, IKEA owns and operates 392 stores in 48 countries. In fiscal year 2016, €36.4 billion worth of goods were sold, the IKEA website contains about 12,000 products and is the closest representation of the entire IKEA range. There were over 2.1 billion visitors to IKEAs websites in the year from September 2015 to August 2016, the company is responsible for approximately 1% of world commercial-product wood consumption, making it one of the largest users of wood in the retail sector. Ingvar Kamprad founded IKEA in 1943 as a mostly mail-order sales business and it began to sell furniture five years later. The first Möbel-IKÉA store was opened in Älmhult, Småland, in 1958, the first stores outside Sweden were opened in Norway and Denmark. The stores spread to parts of Europe in the 1970s, with the first store outside Scandinavia opening in Switzerland. Amid a high level of success, the companys West German executives accidentally opened a store in Konstanz in 1973 instead of Koblenz, later that decade, stores opened in other parts of the world, such as Japan, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, and Singapore. IKEA further expanded in the 1980s, opening stores in such as France and Spain, Belgium, the United States. The company then expanded into more countries in the 1990s and 2000s, Germany, with 50 stores, is IKEAs biggest market, followed by the United States, with 44 stores. At the end of the 2009 financial year, the IKEA group operated 267 stores in 25 countries, the first IKEA store in Latin America opened on 17 February 2010 in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. As of July 2013, the presence in developing countries remains minimal. The next store opening in Goyang in 2017 will be larger at 164,000 square meters in gross floor area. IKEA plans to have 6 stores in the country by 2020, four in the Seoul Capital Area, one in Daejeon, the largest store in the Southern Hemisphere is located in Tempe, Sydney, Australia with a total area of 39,000 m2. The biggest store in North America is located in Montreal, in the province of Quebec, the store was opened in 1986 in the Ville-St-Laurent area, and was completely renovated and expanded in 2012-2013. Built in 1986, the initial area was 22,062 m2
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Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
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Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
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The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft is a German research funding organization and the largest such organization in Europe. The DFG supports research in science, engineering, and the humanities through a variety of grant programmes, prizes, the self-governed organization is based in Bonn and financed by the German states and the federal government. As of 2017, the organization consists of approx,100 research universities and other research institutions. The DFG endows various research prizes, including the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize, in 1937, the Notgemeinschaft der Wissenschaft was renamed the Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderung der Forschung, for short known as the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. By the end of World War II in Germany, in 1945, in 1949, after formation of the Federal Republic, it was re-founded as the NG and again from 1951 as the DFG. On 9 June 2012, DFG launced a centre in Hyderabad, the German-based research foundation and Indias Department of Science and Technology are together working on 40 bilateral research projects in science and engineering. The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft is a member of Science Europe, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2008, ISBN 978-3-527-32064-6. Die DFG und die menschliche Vererbungswissenschaft, 1920–1970, franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-515-09099-5. Notker Hammerstein, Die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in der Weimarer Republik und im Dritten Reich, wissenschaftspolitik in Republik und Diktatur 1920 –1945. Thomas Nipperdey, Ludwig Schmugge,50 jahre forschungsförderung in deutschland, bad Godesberg, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft 1970 Official website DFG Science TV YouTube channel
