1.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
2.
Kingdom of Hanover
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The Kingdom of Hanover was established in October 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian territories after the Napoleonic era. It succeeded the former Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and joined with 38 other sovereign states in the German Confederation in June 1815, along with the rest of Prussia, Hanover became part of the German Empire upon unification in January 1871. Briefly revived as the State of Hanover in 1946, the state was merged with some smaller states to form the current state of Lower Saxony in West Germany. After his accession in 1714, George Louis of the House of Hanover ascended the throne of Great Britain as George I, descendants of Hanoverians who fought alongside the British in the War of 1812 remain in Canada. In 1803, however, it fell to French and Prussian armies during the Napoleonic Wars, the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807 joined it to territories from Prussia and created the Kingdom of Westphalia, rule of which was allocated to Napoleons youngest brother Jérôme Bonaparte. French control lasted until October 1813 when the territory was overrun by Russian Cossack troops, the terms of the Congress of Vienna in 1814 not only restored Hanover, but elevated it to an independent kingdom with its Prince-Elector, George III of Great Britain, as King of Hanover. The new kingdom was also expanded, becoming the fourth-largest state in the German Confederation. During the British Regency and the reigns of kings George IV and William IV from 1816 to 1837, their younger brother Adolph Frederick officiated as Viceroy of Hanover, when Queen Victoria succeeded to the British throne in 1837, the 123-year personal union of Great Britain and Hanover ended. During the Austro-Prussian War, Hanover attempted to maintain a neutral position, hanovers vote in favor of the mobilisation of Confederation troops against Prussia on 14 June 1866 prompted Prussia to declare war. The outcome of the war led to the dissolution of Hanover as an independent kingdom and it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, along with the rest of Prussia, it became part of the German Empire in 1871. After George V fled Hanover in 1866, he raised forces loyal to him in the Netherlands and they were eventually disbanded in 1870. Nevertheless, George refused to accept the Prussian takeover of his realm and his only son, Prince Ernest Augustus, 3rd Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale, inherited this claim upon Georges death in 1878. Ernest Augustus was also first in line to the throne of the Duchy of Brunswick, in 1884, that branch became extinct with the death of William, a distant cousin of Ernest Augustus. The Duke then renounced his claim to Brunswick in favor of his son, the German-Hanoverian Party, which at times supported secession from the Reich, demanded a separate status for the province in the Reichstag. The party existed until banned by the Nazi government, the state saw itself in the tradition of the kingdom. The former territory of Hanover makes up 85 percent of Lower Saxonys territory, the Lutheran church was the state church of the Kingdom of Hanover with the King being summus episcopus. Regional consistories supervised church and clergy and these were in Aurich, a simultaneously Lutheran and Calvinist consistory dominated by Lutherans and the Lutheran consistories in Hanover, in Ilfeld, in Osnabrück, in Otterndorf as well as in Stade. A general superintendent chaired each consistory and this introduction of presbyteries was somewhat revolutionary in the rather hierarchically structured Lutheran church
3.
Herrenhausen
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Herrenhausen is an area of the German city Hanover which is most notable for the baroque Herrenhausen Gardens. Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg died in Herrenhausen Palace, during the Second World War the palace was completely destroyed in a British bombing on October 18,1943. The decision to rebuild the palace was not made until 2007, and reconstruction was completed in 2013
4.
Prince Louis Charles of Prussia
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Prince Louis Charles of Prussia was the second son and third child of Frederick William II of Prussia and Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt. They had three children, HRH Prince Frederick Wilhelm Ludwig of Prussia, married Princess Luise of Anhalt-Bernburg, father of Prince George, HRH Princess Frederica Wilhelmina Louise Amalia of Prussia, married Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau and had issue. Prince Louis Charles died aged 23 from diphtheria and his widow went on to marry twice more, becoming Queen of Hanover by her last marriage
5.
Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover
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Ernest Augustus was King of Hanover from 20 June 1837 until his death. He was the son and eighth child of George III, King of the United Kingdom. As a fifth son, Ernest seemed unlikely to become a monarch, the Salic Law, which barred succession to or through a woman, prevailed in Hanover, therefore, when his elder brother William IV died in 1837, Ernest succeeded him as King of Hanover. Ernest was born in England but was sent to Hanover in his adolescence for his education, while serving with Hanoverian forces in Wallonia against Revolutionary France, he received a disfiguring facial wound. In 1799, he was created Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale, although his marriage in 1815 to the twice-widowed Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz met with the disapproval of his mother, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, it proved a happy one. This gave him some prospect of succeeding to the British throne, however, both of his unmarried older brothers quickly married, and King Georges fourth son, Edward, Duke of Kent, fathered the eventual British monarch, Victoria. Ernest was an member of the House of Lords, where he maintained an extremely conservative voting record. There were persistent allegations that he had murdered his valet and had fathered a son by his sister, before Victoria succeeded to the British throne, it was rumoured that Ernest intended to murder her and take the throne himself. When King William IV died on 20 June 1837, Ernest acceded to the Hanoverian throne, Ernest Augustus, the fifth son of King George III and Queen Charlotte, was born at Buckingham House, now part of Buckingham Palace, on 5 June 1771. After leaving the nursery, he lived with his two brothers, Prince Adolphus and Prince Augustus, and a tutor in a house on Kew Green. At the age of fifteen, he and his two brothers were sent to the University of Göttingen, located in his fathers domain of Hanover. Though the King never left the United Kingdom in his life, Prince Ernest proved an apt student, and after being tutored privately for a year, while learning German, he attended lectures at the University. In 1790, Ernest asked his father for permission to train with Prussian forces, instead, in January 1791, he and Prince Adolphus were sent to Hanover to receive military training under the supervision of Field Marshal Wilhelm von Freytag. Ernest learned cavalry drill and tactics under Captain von Linsingen of the Queens Light Dragoons, after only two months of training, Freytag was so impressed by the Princes progress that he gave him a place in the cavalry as captain. Ernest was supposed to receive training, but the King, also impressed by his sons prowess. In March 1792, the King commissioned Prince Ernest Augustus as a colonel into the 9th Hanoverian Light Dragoons. The Prince served in the Low Countries in the War of the First Coalition, under his elder brother Frederick, Duke of York, then commander of the combined British, Hanoverian, and Austrian forces. Seeing action near the Walloon town of Tournai in August 1793, he sustained a wound to the head
6.
Princess Frederica Wilhelmina of Prussia
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Princess Frederica Wilhelmina Louise Amalia of Prussia was a daughter of Prince Louis Charles of Prussia and Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was a member of the House of Hohenzollern, by her marriage to Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau, she would become Duchess consort of Anhalt-Dessau. Frederica was the youngest child and only daughter of Prince Louis Charles of Prussia and her father was a younger son of Frederick William II of Prussia. Due to her mothers later marriages, Frederica would have many half-siblings, on 18 April 1818, Frederica married Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt in Berlin. They had been engaged since 17 May 1816, as the connection had already been arranged by the Prussian court and this dynastic connection was an expression of Leopolds pro-Prussian policies. They had six children, Frederica died on 1 January 1850 in Dessau, Leopold would die 21 years later, on 22 May 1871
7.
Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels
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Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels, was a German prince and military officer in both the Austrian army and in the cavalry of the Grand Duchy of Hesse. As Commissioner General of the Adelsverein, he spearheaded the establishment of colonies of German immigrants in Texas, Prince Solms named New Braunfels, Texas in honor of his homeland. Prince Friedrich Wilhelm Karl Ludwig Georg Alfred Alexander of Solms-Braunfels was born in Neustrelitz and his father was Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels, second husband of Princess Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who bore thirteen children during the course of her three marriages. In 1837 his mother became queen consort of Hanover, luise and Marie, Karl Louis, and Melanie, were ennobled in the Grand Duchy of Hesse under the name von Schönau on 25 March 1841. The family was ennobled in 1912 with the surname von Schönau de Solms. Prince Solms married Maria Josephine Sophie, widow of Prince Franz of Salm-Salm, the union produced five children, Prince Ludwig Princess Eulalia, married Edouard, son of Eugène, 8th Prince of Ligne Princess Marie Princess Sophie Prince Alexander. Friedrich was well-educated, well-connected, and handsome, an adventure seeker, he became Captain in the cavalry in the Imperial Army of Austria in 1841. It was during his service with the cavalry that Carl read books about Texas, appointed its Commissioner General in 1844, he was the motivating force for the first colony of German emigrants to Texas. He arrived on Texas soil in July 1844, making a tour as advisor to the Adelsverein. Subsequently Carl purchased an additional 1,300 acres on the Guadalupe River on behalf of the Adelsverein and his vision cleared the path for John O. Meusebach to follow in 1845 as the organizer, negotiator and political force needed for community-building structure in the New Germany. In anticipation of his marriage to Maria Josephine Sophie, Prince Solms formed plans to build Sophies Castle, Sophie refused to leave Germany, and Carl never returned to Texas after his 3 December 1845 marriage to her. After returning to Germany, he left the Austrian army and became a colonel in the cavalry of the Grand Duchy of Hesse in 1846 and he was able to rejoin the Austrian army in 1850, becoming a brigadier in 1859 with command of dragoons on Lake Constance. He took part in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and he retired as a Feldmarschallleutnants in 1868 to his residence at the estate of Rheingrafenstein near Kreuznach on the Nahe River. Prince Solms died on 13 November 1875 and is interred in the city cemetery of Bad Kreuznach, the Sophienburg New Braunfels Chamber of Commerce Official New Braunfels, Texas, web site
8.
George V of Hanover
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George V was the last king of Hanover, the only child and successor of King Ernest Augustus. George Vs reign was ended by the Unification of Germany and he was baptized on 8 July 1819, at a hotel in Berlin where his parents were staying, by the Rev. Henry Thomas Austen. George spent his childhood in Berlin and in Britain and he lost the sight of one eye following a childhood illness and accident in 1828, and in the other eye in 1833. His uncle, William IV, created him a Knight of the Garter on 15 August 1835. His father had hoped that the prince might marry his cousin Victoria. The Duke of Cumberland succeeded to the Hanoverian throne as Ernst August I, since he was totally blind, there were doubts as to whether the Crown Prince was qualified to succeed as king of Hanover, but his father decided that he should do so. George married, on 18 February 1843, at Hanover, Princess Marie of Saxe-Altenburg, during his 15-year reign, he engaged in frequent disputes with the Hanoverian parliament. George was generally supportive of Austria in the Diet of the German Confederation, as the Austro-Prussian War started, the Prussian government sent a dispatch on 15 June 1866 demanding that Hanoverian troops submit to their authority or face war. Despite previously having concluded that Hanover could not win an armed confrontation with Prussia, George remained protective of his throne, contrary to the wishes of the parliament, Hanover joined the Austrian camp in the war. As a result, the Prussian army occupied Hanover and the Hanoverian army surrendered on 29 June 1866, the Prussian government formally annexed Hanover on 20 September 1866. Incidentally, the King of Prussia when all this happened was William I, German Emperor, the deposed King never renounced his rights to the throne or acknowledged Prussias actions. From exile in Gmunden, Austria, he appealed in vain for the European great powers to intervene on behalf of Hanover, from 1866 to 1870, George V maintained the Guelphic Legion partially at his own expense. George V died at his residence in the Rue de Presbourg, Paris and he was buried in St Georges Chapel at Windsor Castle. The king supported industrial development – in 1856 the Georgs-Marien-Bergwerks- und Hüttenverein was founded which was named after him, the company erected an iron and steel works which gave the city Georgsmarienhütte its name
9.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
10.
House of Mecklenburg
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The House of Mecklenburg, also known as Nikloting, is a North German dynasty that ruled until 1918 in the Mecklenburg region, being among the longest-ruling families of Europe. The main branch of the house was elevated in 1347 to ducal rank, the Dukes of Mecklenburg pursued from the 14th century a claim to inheritance in Sweden. The Duke of Mecklenburg was a descendant and the heir of two women whom legends tied to Scandinavian royal houses, christina was the mother of John I of Mecklenburg, whose son was Henry I, Lord of Mecklenburg. Lord Henry II of Mecklenburgs maternal grandmother, a lady named Marianna, was the first wife of Duke Barnim I of Pomerania, Lord of Wolgast, as well as sister of King Eric XI of Sweden. Marianna had given birth to a surviving child, a daughter named Anastasia of Pomerania. The Sverker dynasty had long been extinct, having lost the throne ultimately to Eric XI, the male dynasty of Eric X was already extinct, and issue of his other daughters had been sidestepped by Birger Jarl, the husband of his daughter, Ingeborg Eriksdotter of Sweden. Birger took great care to secure the kingship for his own sons, the couples second son duke Albert III deposed his uncle from the Swedish throne, and ascended as king. Margaret I of Denmark chose Eric of Pomerania as her heir, Eric descended from the elder brother of Albert III. Monarchs of the Kalmar union were all descendants of the House of Mecklenburg. The Hereditary Kingdom of Norway, has been the only medieval Scandinavian realm whose kingship was hereditary, already when Olav IV of Norway was young and his mother Margaret was regent, the Dukes of Mecklenburg advanced their claims. The Dukes of Mecklenburgs claim to the Norwegian throne is based on their descent from Euphemia of Sweden, when Olav IV died in 1387, Norway was without a monarch, under the government of the regentess Margaret. She soon chose an heir, Eric of Pomerania, whose mother Maria of Mecklenburg had been Eufemias eldest granddaughter, the Dukes of Mecklenburg continued to regard themselves as the rightful heirs to the throne of Norway but they were unable to gain the kingdom from the Oldenburgs. The legality of that treaty concession has been, and still is under discussion, because not all of the then agnates of the House participated in the deed, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the duchy was divided several times between agnates of the ducal house. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Güstrow and Mecklenburg-Strelitz were typical partition principalities, with the extinction of Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz is now the only surviving branch of the Grand Ducal house in the male line. The current head of house is Borwin, Duke of Mecklenburg. His grandfather was Count Georg of Carlow, the son of Duke George Alexander of Mecklenburg. Count Georg of Carlow was adopted in 1928 by his uncle Duke Charles Michael of Mecklenburg the head of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and he succeeded his uncle as head of the house on 6 December 1934 and was granted the style of Highness on 18 December 1950. Rhema-Verlag, Münster 2007, ISBN 978-3-930454-78-5 Erstling, Frank, Frank Saß, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Beiträge zur Geschichte einer Region
11.
Charles II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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Charles II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg was ruler of the state of Mecklenburg-Strelitz from 1794 until his death. Originally ruling as duke, he was raised to the rank of duke in 1815. Prior to succeeding to the throne he served as Governor of Hanover from 1776 to 1786, on 11 December 1752 his uncle Adolphus Frederick III died and as a result the older brother of Charles succeeded him becoming Adolphus Frederick IV. With his brothers ascension Charles was taken with the rest of the family from Mirow to the capital Strelitz, from the age of four, Charles looked set for a career in Hanoverian service after being given a Captains commission. His sister Charlotte married the Elector of Hanover, King George III of the United Kingdom on 8 September 1761, in the autumn of 1776, Charles was appointed governor-general of Hanover by his brother-in-law. As Governor of Hanover, Charles effectively held all the powers of a sovereign ruler and his brother-in-law had no wish to reside in Germany, being thoroughly English. Shortly after being widowed for a time in December 1785, Charles requested permission to retire from his military employments in Hanover. His brother-in-law granted his request, promoted Charles to the rank of field marshal, Charles then spent some time traveling before settling down in Darmstadt, where he became President of the Imperial Credit Commission. Following the childless death of his older brother Adolf Friedrich IV on 2 June 1794, as ruler, Charles encouraged new agricultural trends, established a new police force, and implemented compulsory education. In 1806, his duchy joined the Confederation of the Rhine, following the Congress of Vienna, he was elevated to the rank of grand duke on 28 June 1815. In the summer of 1816 Charles went on a tour of Rebberg, Schwalbach, shortly after returning he was taken ill with inflammation of the lungs. He died in Neustrelitz after suffering a fit of apoplexy and he was succeeded by his eldest son Georg. Two of the daughters became German queens consort, Charlotte died on 12 December 1785 shortly after giving birth to their son Duke Charles of Mecklenburg
12.
Landgravine Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt
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Princess Friederike Caroline Luise of Hesse-Darmstadt was a member of the House of Hesse and by marriage a Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She married Duke Charles of Mecklenburg-Strelitz on 18 September 1768 in Darmstadt, two daughters became queens consort as Louise would marry Frederick William III of Prussia and Frederica would marry Ernest Augustus I of Hanover. Friederike died of resulting from child birth in Hanover, where her husband was field marshal of the household brigade. After her death her husband married her younger sister Charlotte in 1784, in 1794 her husband succeeded to the throne of Mecklenburg-Strelitz as Charles II and in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, he was raised to the title grand duke. She died at the age of 29, three days after giving birth to her child, Augusta, who lived just one day. Friederike is buried in the crypt of the church of St John the Baptist in Mirow. Friederike had ten children, five of whom survived to adulthood, two of her daughters married royalty, Louise becoming Queen of Prussia and Frederica becoming Queen of Hanover
13.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
14.
Duke of Cumberland
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Duke of Cumberland is a peerage title that was conferred upon junior members of the British Royal Family, named after the county of Cumberland. The earldom of Cumberland had been created in 1525, but became extinct in 1643, the first creation of the dukedom, in the Peerage of England, was in 1644 for Prince Rupert of the Rhine, nephew of King Charles I. When he died without heirs, the title was created again in the Peerage of England in 1689 for Prince George of Denmark, husband of Princess Anne. He also died without heirs, in 1708, neither of these men, however, was usually known by their peerage title. The third creation, in the Peerage of Great Britain, was for Prince William, other titles granted to Prince William were Marquess of Berkhampstead, Earl of Kennington, Viscount Trematon and Baron Alderney. Since the Prince died unmarried and without children, his titles became extinct at his death, the titles Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn and Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale were later created in the Peerage of Great Britain. The sole title-holder was Prince Henry, the son of Frederick. He died without issue, and the dukedom again became extinct. This double dukedom, in the Peerage of Great Britain, was bestowed on Ernest Augustus, in 1919 it was suspended under the Titles Deprivation Act 1917 and, as of 2016, had not been restored to its titular heir
15.
Hanover
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At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Electorate was enlarged to become a Kingdom with Hanover as its capital. From 1868 to 1946 Hanover was the capital of the Prussian Province of Hanover and it is now the capital of the Land of Lower Saxony. Since 2001 it has been part of the Hanover district, which is a body made up from the former district. With a population of 518,000, Hanover is a centre of Northern Germany. Hanover also hosts annual commercial trade fairs such as the Hanover Fair, every year Hanover hosts the Schützenfest Hannover, the worlds largest marksmens festival, and the Oktoberfest Hannover, the second largest such festival in Germany. In 2000, Hanover hosted the world fair Expo 2000, the Hanover fairground, due to numerous extensions, especially for the Expo 2000, is the largest in the world. Hanover is of importance because of its universities and medical school, its international airport. The city is also a crossing point of railway lines and highways. Hanover is the traditional English spelling, the German spelling is becoming more popular in English, recent editions of encyclopaedias prefer the German spelling, and the local government uses the German spelling on English websites. The traditional English spelling is used in historical contexts, especially when referring to the British House of Hanover. Hanover was founded in times on the east bank of the River Leine. Its original name Honovere may mean high bank, though this is debated, Hanover was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen that became a comparatively large town in the 13th century due to its position at a natural crossroads. As overland travel was difficult, its position on the upper navigable reaches of the river helped it to grow by increasing trade. In the 14th century the churches of Hanover were built. The beginning of industrialization in Germany led to trade in iron and silver from the northern Harz Mountains, in 1636 George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ruler of the Brunswick-Lüneburg principality of Calenberg, moved his residence to Hanover. The Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg were elevated by the Holy Roman Emperor to the rank of Prince-Elector in 1692, thus the principality was upgraded to the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, colloquially known as the Electorate of Hanover after Calenbergs capital. Its electors would later become monarchs of Great Britain, the first of these was George I Louis, who acceded to the British throne in 1714. The last British monarch who ruled in Hanover was William IV, semi-Salic law, which required succession by the male line if possible, forbade the accession of Queen Victoria in Hanover
16.
George III of the United Kingdom
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He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
17.
Prince George William of Hesse-Darmstadt
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George William of Hesse-Darmstadt was a Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt. He was the son of Landgrave Louis VIII and Charlotte Christine Magdalene Johanna of Hanau-Lichtenberg. From 1738 till his death he commanded an army-regiment of his land, in the 1740s, he also commanded a Prussian regiment. He reached the rank of general of the cavalry, in 1748, he married Countess Maria Louise Albertine of Leiningen-Falkenburg-Dagsburg. Through this marriage, he acquired the estates of Broich, Oberstein, Aspermont, Burgel and he and Maria had nine children. In 1764, George William received Old Palace in Darmstadt and the pleasure garden as a gift from his father. George William had the palace with the White Tower expanded and he represented the reigning family in Darmstadt, as his brother stayed mostly in Pirmasens. S.515 Philipp Alexander Ferdinand Walther, Darmstadt wie es war und wie es geworden S.187
18.
Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was the wife of King George III. She was also the Electress of Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire until the promotion of her husband to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814, Queen Charlotte was a patroness of the arts and an amateur botanist, who helped expand Kew Gardens. George III and Charlotte had 15 children,13 of whom survived to adulthood and she was distressed by her husbands bouts of physical illness and insanity, which became permanent in later life and resulted in their eldest son being appointed Prince Regent in 1811. Sophia Charlotte was born on 19 May 1744 and she was the youngest daughter of Duke Charles Louis Frederick of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Prince of Mirow and his wife Princess Elizabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a small north German duchy in the Holy Roman Empire, the children of Duke Charles were all born at the Untere Schloss in Mirow. According to diplomatic reports at the time of her engagement to George III, when King George III succeeded to the throne of Great Britain upon the death of his grandfather, George II, he was unmarried. His mother and advisors were anxious to have him settled in marriage and he instructed her on her arrival in London not to meddle, a precept she was glad to follow. Charlotte spoke no English but was quick to learn the language and it was noted by many observers that she was ugly, had a dark complexion and flared nostrils. She is timid at first but talks a lot, when she is among people she knows, said one observer. Three days of public celebrations followed, and on 17 Aug 1761, the Princess set out for Britain, accompanied by her brother, Duke Adolphus Frederick, on 22 Aug, they reached Cuxhaven, where a small fleet awaited to convey them to England. The voyage was difficult, the party encountered three storms at sea, and landed at Harwich only on 7 September. They set out at once for London, spent that night in Witham, at the residence of Lord Abercorn and they were received by the King and his family, which marked the first meeting of the bride and groom. At 9,00 pm that evening, within six hours of her arrival, Charlotte married George III at the Chapel Royal, St. Jamess Palace, with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Secker, officiating. The Queen favored this residence, and spent much of her time there, as many as 14 of her 15 children were born in Buckingham House. Less than a year after the marriage, on 12 August 1762, the Queen gave birth to her first child, the Prince of Wales, in the course of their marriage, they had 15 children, all but two of whom survived into adulthood. Around 1762 the King and Queen moved to Buckingham House, at the end of St. Jamess Park. The house which forms the core of the present palace was built for the first Duke of Buckingham. Buckinghams descendant, Sir Charles Sheffield, sold Buckingham House to George III in 1761 for £21,000, the house was originally intended as a private retreat, in particular for Charlotte, and was known as The Queens House
19.
Landgravine Charlotte of Hesse-Darmstadt
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Charlotte Wilhelmine Christiane Marie of Hesse-Darmstadt, was by marriage Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The princess was first engaged with the hereditary prince Peter Frederick William of Oldenburg, charlotte married Charles of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on 28 September 1784 in Darmstadt. He was previously married to Charlottes older sister Friederike, who had died in childbirth and she thus became stepmother for her sisters five surviving children - her nieces and nephews. The couple lived in Hanover, where Charles served as Governor-General for his brother-in-law, charlotte died after the birth of her only child, a year after their marriage. Charles resigned from his post in Hanover and moved to Charlottes mother in Darmstadt, P.172 Political Journal, p.1274 Luise Schorn-Schütte, Queen Louise, p.12
20.
Duchess Charlotte Georgine of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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Charlotte Georgine was born in Hanover, Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg. She was the eldest child and daughter of Charles II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg, Charlotte and her sisters, Queen Louise of Prussia, Queen Frederica of Hannover and Princess Therese of Thurn und Taxis, were considered the most beautiful women of their time. Jean Paul Friedrich Richter dedicated his novel Titan to the four beautiful, Charlotte grew up in Hanover, where her father served as governor, on behalf of his brother-in-law, King George III of the United Kingdom, who lived in London. When Charlotte was twelve years old, her mother died and she was brought up by her mothers sister, Charlotte, who married her father in 1784 and her sisters were brought by her grandmother, Maria Louise Albertine of Leiningen-Falkenburg-Dagsburg in Darmstadt. Charlotte had then moved to Hildburghausen. On 3 September 1785, at the age of fifteen, Charlotte married Duke Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, the marriage was not a happy one, Charlotte was mentally superior to Frederick, who began to ignore her. They also had problems, Saxe-Hildburghausen had been financially ruined by the disastrous policies of Fredericks predecessors. The receivers allowed the Duke and Duchess only a reduced Civil List, Charlottes father and two brothers often stayed with Charlotte in Hildburghausen. In 1787, her moved to Hildburghausen permanently, and became president of the credit committee. In 1792, Charlottes grandmother and her sisters fled before the advancing French army from Darmstadt to Hildburghausen and her grandmother noticed of Charlottes husband. Of all his duties, he fulfills his marital duties with zeal. Charlotte, who never loved this man, is always pregnant, the family spent several carefree weeks at Hildburghausen. In 1793, Charlottes grandmother returned from exile and travelled with Charlottes sisters to Frankfurt am Main, Charlotte had a very intimate and loving relationship with her sister Friederike and relatives in Strelitz. In 1803 and 1805, the Prussian royal couple visited Hildburghausen, for this occasion, the receivers allowed the ducal couple to renew some of their furniture. Louise had helped draft the declaration of war, christian Truchseß von Wetzhausen zu Bettenburg was a friend of the ducal couple and godfather of Charlottes son Edward. Many spectators had come to see the Bavarian Crown Princess, when receiving his guests, Truchseß tried to lead the lower-ranking Charlotte first into his castle, but she refused, referring to her daughter. Truchseß replied, Your Highness will forgive me, but as long as this castle has stood here, Therese then grabbed the barons other arm, and the three of them walked through the gate together. The Duchess gave about half of her income to the poor, pensioners
21.
Duchess Therese of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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Duchess Therese Mathilde Amalie of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a member of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and a Duchess of Mecklenburg. Through her marriage to Karl Alexander, 5th Prince of Thurn and Taxis, Therese was also a member of the House of Thurn, Therese Mathilde Amalie of Mecklenburg was born in Hanover the daughter of Duke Charles of Mecklenburg and his first wife Princess Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt. Thereses paternal aunt Queen Charlotte and her husband George III of the United Kingdom helped broker the marriage, Therese and Karl Alexander had their first residence in the Palais Thurn und Taxis in Frankfurt am Main. Early on in their marriage, Therese took over her young husbands representational tasks, Therese took an active role in the administration of the Princely House and lands as well as the postal administration and was also devoted to art and literature. She hosted in her salon poets and writers including Jean Paul, Friedrich Rückert, Johann Kaspar Lavater, since then, Therese reinforced the sovereignty of the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis and its traditional postal rights. Likewise, they negotiated with Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria in Munich and proposed to him the nationalization of the Thurn. In 1808, Therese and her husband took the interests of the Princely House of Thurn, there, a secret meeting occurred between Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord and Alexander I of Russia in her salon. From this trip survives a correspondence with her husband Karl Alexander in which he laments the impoverishment of the House of Thurn and Taxis, through their negotiations with Napoleon, the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis was offered to relocate to Paris. The negotiations failed, however, perhaps because the correspondence with her sister Queen Louise of Prussia fell into the hands of the French authorities, private postal services were established and were intended to have a reasonable compensation obligation to the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis. Duchess Therese died in Taxis, Regensburg, at the age of 65, 739–748 Media related to Therese of Mecklenburg-Strelitz at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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Duchess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was Queen consort of Prussia as the wife of King Frederick William III. The couples happy, though short-lived, marriage produced nine children, including the future monarchs Frederick William IV of Prussia and she was already well loved by her subjects, but her meeting with Napoleon led Louise to become revered as the soul of national virtue. Her early death at the age of thirty-four preserved her youth in the memory of posterity, the Order of Louise was founded by her grieving husband four years later as a female counterpart to the Iron Cross. In the 1920s conservative German women founded the Queen Louise League, Duchess Luise Auguste Wilhelmine Amalie of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was born on 10 March 1776 in a one storey villa, just outside the capital in Hanover. She was the daughter and sixth child of Duke Charles of Mecklenburg and his wife Landgravine Friederike of Hesse-Darmstadt. At the time of her birth, Louises father was not yet the ruler of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and consequently she was not born in a court, the family subsequently moved to Leineschloss, the residence of Hanoverian kings, though during the summer they usually lived at Herrenhausen. Louise was particularly close to her sister Frederica, who was two years younger, as well as with their only brother George, Louise and her siblings were under the care of their governess Fraulein von Wolzogen, a friend of their mothers. After Duchess Charles death, the family left Leineschloss for Herrenhausen, Duke Charles remarried two years later to his first wifes younger sister Charlotte, producing a son, Charles. Louise and her new stepmother became close until Charlottes early death the year after their marriage, the twice widowed and grieving duke went to Darmstadt, where he gave the children into the care of his mother-in-law and Louises godmother, the widowed Landgravine Marie Louise. Their grandmother preferred to raise them simply, and they made their own clothes and she received religious instruction from a clergyman of the Lutheran Church. Complementary to her lessons was an emphasis on charitable acts, and Louise would often accompany her governess when visiting the houses of the poor and needy. Louise was encouraged to give out as much as was in her means, from the age of ten until her marriage at 17, Louise spent most of her time in the presence of her grandmother and governess, both well-educated and refined. Louise loved history and poetry, and not only enjoyed reading Schiller, in 1793, Marie Louise took the two youngest duchesses with her to Frankfurt, where she paid her respects to her nephew King Frederick William II. Louise had grown up into a young woman, possessing an exquisite complexion and large blue eyes. Louises uncle, the Duke of Mecklenburg, hoped to strengthen ties between his house and Prussia, consequently, on one evening carefully planned by the Duke, seventeen-year-old Louise met the kings son and heir, Crown Prince Frederick William. The crown prince was twenty-three, serious-minded, and religious and she made such a charming impression on Frederick William that he immediately made his choice, desiring to marry her. Frederica caught the eye of his younger brother Prince Louis Charles, Frederick and Louise were subsequently married on 24 December that same year, with Louis and Frederica marrying two days later. In the events leading up to her marriage, Louises arrival in Berlin, the Prussian capital, caused quite a sensation, all hearts go out to meet her, and her grace and goodness leaves no one unblessed
23.
George, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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George, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg ruled the state of Mecklenburg-Strelitz from 1816 until his death. Duke George Frederick Charles Joseph of Mecklenburg was born in Hanover, the child of Charles II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Following the death of his mother in 1782 his father married her sister Charlotte two years later in 1784 and the family moved from Hanover to Darmstadt. George remained in Darmstadt until 1794, when his father succeeded as the ruling Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, soon after arriving in Neustrelitz, George enrolled at the University of Rostock, where he studied until 1799. After leaving university, George went to Berlin, where he lived at the Prussian court, georges sister Louise was married to the Prussian king, Frederick William III. In 1802 he went to Italy, where he lived until 1804, He then returned to Germany, following the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, George travelled to Paris, where he negotiated the entry of Mecklenburg-Strelitz into the Confederation of the Rhine. He also attended the Congress of Vienna in 1814, where Mecklenburg-Strelitz was raised to the status of a grand duchy, when George succeeded his father on 6 November 1816, he found the grand duchy in a bad state. He set about raising the standard of education of his subjects by building schools, by the end of his reign, the majority of his subjects could read and write. He also improved agriculture in the duchy and abolished serfdom. George died on 6 September 1860 at Neustrelitz and was succeeded by his eldest son Friedrich Wilhelm, on 12 August 1817 in Kassel, George married Princess Marie of Hesse-Cassel, the daughter of Prince Frederick of Hesse
24.
Duke Charles of Mecklenburg
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Duke Charles of Mecklenburg was a member of the House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and a Prussian soldier who served in the Napoleonic Wars. From 1827 until his death he was President of the Prussian State Council, Duke Charles Frederick Augustus of Mecklenburg was born in Hanover where his father Duke Charles of Mecklenburg was the governor. His mother was Princess Charlotte of Hesse-Darmstadt, his fathers second wife who died shortly after his birth on 12 December, on 2 June 1794 his father succeeded Adolf Friedrich IV as the reigning Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Duke Charles entered into the Prussian service at a young age, by the age of 19 he held a commission as a Captain and by 1806 he had been promoted to the rank Major. For his services in the Saale campaign Duke Charles was awarded the Order of the Black Eagle, by 1813 he had been promoted to the rank Major General and was in command of brigade attached to the force of General Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg. Duke Charles led his brigade at the Battle of Katzbach, during this campaign while commanding a small column he managed to hold off an attack by French forces who had superior numbers for a whole day before being ordered to withdraw during the night. Shortly after setting out with his brigade he was attacked by three French columns, although vastly outnumbered he managed to hold his ground until he seized an opportunity and placing himself at the head of one of his battalions he managed to drive the French back. For this achievement he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class, the next action he saw was when the Prussian army crossed the Elbe at Wartenburg on 13 October. On 16 October he fought with distinction at the Battle of Möckern, later that year Duke Charles was appointed to command the 1st of the Line the oldest regiment of foot in the service. In 1815 Duke Charles was appointed a Lieutenant General and Commandant of the Royal Guards and he was later appointed President of the Prussian State Council in 1827. Duke Charles never married and died in Berlin at the age of 51, 1785–1815, His Serene Highness Duke Charles of Mecklenburg, Prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 1815–1837, His Highness Duke Charles of Mecklenburg, Prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
25.
Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt
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Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt was Queen consort of Prussia as the second wife of King Frederick William II. Frederika Louisa was the daughter of Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt and she was the sister of Grand Duchess Louise of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, as well as Grand Duke Louis I of Hesse. She and Frederick William were married on 14 July 1769 at the Charlottenburg Palace, Frederick William called her his Hessische Lieschen, or Hessian Lizzie. She became queen of Prussia upon her husbands accession to the throne in 1786, the marriage was not happy, and Fredrick had numerous lovers, most notably Wilhelmine von Lichtenau, with whom he had a relationship from the same year he married Frederika Louise until his death. In 1787, her spouse committed bigamy by marrying her lady-in-waiting Julie von Voß, Frederika Louisa was noted for her great generosity, especially to those in need. From 1788, she spent her summers in Bad Freienwalde, where she was visited by her children and grandchildren. This greatly contributed to the economic and cultural development of the city, especially as a Queen Dowager, several buildings were constructed in the city to house her and her court during their stays. In 1799, a palace was built for her there by David Gilly. She became a widow in 1797, Frederika Louisa has been described as eccentric, especially during her widowhood. It was claimed that she saw ghosts and apparitions, and for this reason she kept reversed hours, sleeping by day and it is sweet and well tendered but terribly small. She had it built herself, as well as the park and she is a small, very fat, middle aged lady, who walks so crocked that she looks like and old woman. You could mistake her for one of these fairies from an ancient tale and she is very polite and talkative and shines of a goodness which gives the witness of a kind heart and a noble character. She died in Berlin in 1805 having suffered a stroke, HM Frederick William III of Prussia, married Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and had issue. HRH Princess Christine of Prussia HRH Prince Louis Charles of Prussia, HRH Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia, married William I of the Netherlands and had issue. Stillborn son HRH Princess Augusta of Prussia, married William II, HRH Prince Henry of Prussia HRH Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, married Landgravine Marie Anna of Hesse-Homburg and had issue
26.
Frederick William II of Prussia
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Frederick William II was King of Prussia, from 1786 until his death. He was in personal union the Prince-elector of Brandenburg and sovereign prince of the Canton of Neuchâtel, pleasure-loving and indolent, he is seen as the antithesis to his predecessor, Frederick II. Under his reign, Prussia was weakened internally and externally, and his religious policies were directed against the Enlightenment and aimed at restoring a traditional Protestantism. However, he was a patron of the arts and responsible for the construction of notable buildings. Frederick William was born in Berlin, the son of Prince Augustus William of Prussia and his mothers elder sister, Elisabeth, was the wife of Augustus Williams brother King Frederick II. Frederick William became heir-presumptive to the throne of Prussia on his fathers death in 1758, the boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition, averse to sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by nature. His marriage with Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg, daughter of Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and he then married Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of Ludwig IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt on 14 July 1769 also in Charlottenburg. He also was a talented cellist, for his part, Frederick William, who had never been properly introduced to diplomacy and the business of rulership, resented his uncle for not taking him seriously. The misgivings of Frederick II appear justified in retrospect, Frederick William also terminated his predecessors state monopolies for coffee and tobacco and the sugar monopoly. However, under his reign the codification known as Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht, initiated by Frederick II, on 26 August 1786 Wöllner was appointed privy councillor for finance, and on 2 October 1786 was ennobled. Though not in name, he in fact prime minister, in all internal affairs it was he who decided. Bischoffswerder, too, still a major, was called into the king′s counsels. From this position Wöllner pursued long lasting reforms concerning religion in the Prussian state, the king proved eager to aid Wöllners crusade. On 18 December 1788 a new law was issued, to secure the orthodoxy of all published books. This forced major Berlin journals like Christoph Friedrich Nicolais Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek, moreover, people like Immanuel Kant were forbidden to speak in public on the topic of religion. Finally, in 1791, a Protestant commission was established at Berlin to watch over all ecclesiastical, although Wöllners religious edict had many critics, it was an important measure which, in fact, proved an important stabilizing factor for the Prussian state. The edict was also a step forward regarding the rights of Jews, Mennonites, and Herrnhut brethren. But far more fateful for Prussia was the attitude towards the army
27.
Frankfurt
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The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.8 million and is Germanys second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 2013, the centre of the EU is about 40 km to the east of Frankfurts CBD. Frankfurt is culturally and ethnically diverse, with half of the population. A quarter of the population are foreign nationals, including many expatriates, Frankfurt is an alpha world city and a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and traffic. Its the site of many global and European headquarters, Frankfurt Airport is among the worlds busiest. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media, Frankfurts DE-CIX is the worlds largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the worlds largest trade fairs, major fairs include the Frankfurt Motor Show, the worlds largest motor show, the Music Fair, and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the worlds largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europes largest English Theatre and many museums, Frankfurts skyline is shaped by some of Europes tallest skyscrapers. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon. Its the seat of German sport unions for Olympics, football, Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. Frankfurt is considered a city as listed by the GaWC groups 2012 inventory. Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011, among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th by the Global Financial Centres Index 2013. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, Frankfurt Airport is one of the worlds busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germanys flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, in 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual Quality of Living survey of cities around the world. According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germanys most expensive city, Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union to have such a skyline and because of it Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, the other well known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt
28.
Frederick William III of Prussia
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Frederick William III was king of Prussia from 1797 to 1840. He ruled Prussia during the times of the Napoleonic Wars. Steering a careful course between France and her enemies, after a military defeat in 1806, he eventually and reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in the Befreiungskriege. Following Napoleons defeat he was King of Prussia during the Congress of Vienna which assembled to settle the questions arising from the new. He was determined to unify the Protestant churches, to homogenize their liturgy, their organization, the long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of churches. Frederick William was born in Potsdam in 1770 as the son of Frederick William II of Prussia and he was considered to be a shy and reserved boy, which became noticeable in his particularly reticent conversations distinguished by the lack of personal pronouns. This manner of speech came to be considered entirely appropriate for military officers. As a child, Frederick Williams father had him handed over to tutors and he spent part of the time living at Paretz, the estate of the old soldier Count Hans von Blumenthal who was the governor of his brother Prince Heinrich. They thus grew up partly with the Counts son, who accompanied them on their Grand Tour in the 1780s, Frederick William was happy at Paretz, and for this reason in 1795 he bought it from his boyhood friend and turned it into an important royal country retreat. He was a boy, but he grew up pious. His tutors included the dramatist Johann Engel, as a soldier he received the usual training of a Prussian prince, obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became a colonel in 1790, and took part in the campaigns against France of 1792–1794. On 24 December 1793, Frederick William married Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, in the Kronprinzenpalais in Berlin, Frederick William lived a civil life with a problem-free marriage, which did not change even when he became King of Prussia in 1797. His wife Louise was particularly loved by the Prussian people, which boosted the popularity of the whole House of Hohenzollern, Frederick William succeeded to the throne on 16 November 1797. He also became, in union, the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. He had the Hohenzollern determination to retain personal power but not the Hohenzollern genius for using it, too distrustful to delegate responsibility to his ministers, he lacked the will to strike out and follow a consistent course for himself. Disgusted with the moral debauchery of his fathers court, Frederick Williams first endeavor was to restore morality to his dynasty. He was quoted as saying the following, which demonstrated his sense of duty and peculiar manner of speech, Every civil servant has an obligation, to the sovereign. It can occur that the two are not compatible, then, the duty to the country is higher, at first Frederick William and his advisors attempted to pursue a policy of neutrality in the Napoleonic Wars
29.
Johann Gottfried Schadow
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Johann Gottfried Schadow was a German sculptor. Schadow was born in Berlin, where his father was a poor tailor, three years study in Rome formed his style, and in 1788 he returned to Berlin to succeed Tassaert as sculptor to the court and secretary to the Prussian Academy of Arts. Over half a century he produced upwards of two hundred works, varied in style as in subjects, among his ambitious efforts are Frederick the Great in Stettin, Blücher in Rostock and Luther in Wittenberg. His portrait statues include Frederick the Great playing the flute, and his busts, of which there are more than one hundred, include seventeen colossal heads in the Walhalla, Ratisbon, Goethe, Wieland, and Fichte were modelled from life. Of church monuments and memorial works thirty are enumerated, yet Schadow hardly ranks among Christian sculptors, Schadow, as director of the Berlin Academy, had great influence. He wrote on the proportions of the figure, on national physiognomy, etc. and many volumes by himself and others describe and illustrate his method. His interest in physiognomy is documented by the drawing he made of Harry Maitey, today, some of his sculptures and busts are displayed in the Friedrichswerdersche Kirche and the Alte Nationalgalerie in Berlin. Schadow developed a friendship with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe when at first Goethes son visited Schadow in Weimar, Schadow created 12 bronze medals of Goethe. One such medal is in the property of the British Museum, in 2009, one such medal was bestowed by the Goethe Institute upon Dr. Daisaku Ikeda in recognition of his contributions to peace and Goethes philosophy. He died in Berlin in 1850 and his sons Rudolph and Friedrich Wilhelm were notable for sculpture and painting, respectively. He was the grandfather of admiral Felix von Bendemann of the German Imperial Navy and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Schadow
30.
Darmstadt
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Darmstadt is a city in the state of Hesse in Germany, located in the southern part of the Rhine-Main-Area. Darmstadt has a population around 150,000, the Darmstadt Larger Urban Zone has 430,993 inhabitants. Darmstadt holds the official title City of Science as it is a centre of scientific institutions, universities. The existence of the elements were also confirmed at GSI Centre for Heavy Ion Research, nihonium, flerovium, moscovium, livermorium. Darmstadt is also the seat of the worlds oldest pharmaceutical company, Merck, Darmstadt was formerly the capital of a sovereign country, the Grand Duchy of Hesse and its successor, the Peoples State of Hesse, a federal state of Germany. As the capital of an increasingly prosperous duchy, the city gained some international prominence, in the 20th century, industry, as well as large science and electronics sectors became increasingly important, and are still a major part of the citys economy. It is also home to the football club SV Darmstadt 98, Darmstadt, Indiana was named after Darmstadt and for the former Royal Family. The name Darmstadt first appears towards the end of the 11th century, the origins of the name are unknown. Dar-mund in Middle Low German is translated as Boggy Headlands, even locals often believe, incorrectly, that the name derives from the Darmbach. In fact, the received its current name much later, after the city. Darmstadt was chartered as a city by the Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig the Bavarian in 1330, the city, then called Darmstait, became a secondary residence for the counts, with a small castle established at the site of the current, much larger edifice. When the house of Katzenelnbogen became extinct in 1479, the city was passed to the Landgraviate of Hesse, the city grew in population during the 19th century from little over 10,000 to 72,000 inhabitants. A polytechnical school, which became a Technical University now known as TU Darmstadt, was established in 1877. In the beginning of the 20th century, Darmstadt was an important centre for the art movement of Jugendstil, annual architectural competitions led to the building of many architectural treasures of this period. Also during this period, in 1912 the chemist Anton Kollisch, working for the pharmaceutical company Merck, Darmstadts municipal area was extended in 1937 to include the neighbouring localities of Arheilgen and Eberstadt, and in 1938 the city was separated administratively from the surrounding district. Darmstadt was the first city in Germany to force Jewish shops to close in early 1933, the shops were only closed for one day, for endangering communal order and tranquility. In 1942, over 3,000 Jews from Darmstadt were first forced into a camp located in the Liebigschule. Darmstadt was first bombed on 30 July 1940, and 34 other air raids would follow before the wars end, the old city centre was largely destroyed in a British bombing raid on 11 September 1944
31.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
32.
Schwedt
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Schwedt is a town in northeastern Brandenburg, Germany. With the official status of a Große kreisangehörige Stadt, it is the largest town of the Uckermark district, most industries were located in the remote area during socialist rule in the 1960s and 1970s. Large residential areas were built for the moving to Schwedt. About 9% of the flats are in prefab concrete buildings dating from the era. As many jobs were lost after German reunification and the return to market economy, in recent decades, Schwedt became a model town for the demolition of Plattenbau housing to combat urban decay. Schwedt is situated in the east of the historic Uckermark region stretching from the Oder to the Havel River. It is situated on an sandur at the edge of the Oder floodplain running along the German-Polish border. Across the river and the border, about 10 km to the southeast, is the Polish town of Chojna, the nearest German towns are Angermünde and Gartz. With 200.12 km2 Schwedt is among the 100 largest German municipalities by area, Gartz, Penkun, Szczecin, Gryfino, Cedynia, Chojna, Mieszkowice, Moryń, Trzcińsko-Zdrój, Myślibórz, Pyrzyce After the Migration Period, the area had been settled by Polabian Slavs. The settlement of Schwedt was first mentioned in a 1265 deed, in the course of the Brandenburg–Pomeranian conflict, the Brandenburg margrave Louis II the Roman ceded it to Duke Barnim III of Pomerania in 1354. It was again besieged by the first Hohenzollern margrave Frederick I in 1434, in 1481 the Thuringian counts of Hohnstein acquired the estates, they granted town privileges to Schwedt as well as to neighbouring Vierraden and introduced the Protestant Reformation. During the Great Northern War, the Treaty of Schwedt was signed in the town, near the end of World War II, over two months of heavy fighting destroyed an estimated 85 percent of the town, including its castle, the Schwedter Schloss. The Soviet Army occupied Schwedt on April 26,1945, two weeks before the defeat of Nazi Germany. During the 1960s, the government of the DDR expanded housing and encouraged people to move to Schwedt, detailed data sources are to be found in the Wikimedia Commons. Julia Brendler, actress Schwedt is twinned with, Koszalin, Poland Chisholm, Hugh, citys official website Official website official website of National Park Unteres Odertal official website of PCK Raffinerie GmbH
33.
Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge
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The Prince Adolphus, 1st Duke of Cambridge, KG, GCB, GCMG, GCH, PC was the 10th child and 7th son of George III and Queen Charlotte. He held the title of Duke of Cambridge from 1801 until his death and he also served as Viceroy of Hanover on behalf of his brothers George IV and William IV. He was the great-great-grandfather of the current monarch, Elizabeth II, Prince Adolphus was born in February 1774 at Buckingham House, then known as the Queens House, in the City and Liberty of Westminster, now within Greater London. He was the youngest son of George and Charlotte to survive childhood, on 24 March 1774, the young prince was christened in the Great Council Chamber at St Jamess Palace by Frederick Cornwallis, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were Prince John Adolphus of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Landgrave Charles of Hesse-Kassel and he was tutored at home until summer 1786, when he was sent to the University of Göttingen in Germany, along with his brothers Prince Ernest and Prince Augustus. He remained on Freytags staff during the Flanders Campaign in 1793 and his first taste of action was at Famars on 23 May. He was wounded and captured at the Battle of Hondschoote 6 September, remaining in Germany, he commanded a brigade of the Corps of Observation,22 October 1796 –12 January 1798. He was made a British army colonel in 1794, and lieutenant general 24 August 1798, in 1800 – stationed in the Electorate of Hanover – he attended the founding of a village, which was named for him, Adolphsdorf. During the War of the Second Coalition against France, he traveled to Berlin in 1801, regular Hanoverian troops, therefore, had been commandeered to join the multilateral so-called Demarcation Army. In 1803, he was army commander, and replaced Wallmoden as commander on the Weser on 1 June. With the advance of French forces on one side and 24,000 Prussian soldiers on the other, Cambridge refused to become involved in discussions of capitulation, handed over his command to Hammerstein, and withdrew to England. A plan to recruit soldiers in Hanover to be commanded by the Prince had also failed. In 1803, he was appointed as commander-in-chief of the newly founded Kings German Legion, George III appointed Prince Adolphus a Knight of the Garter on 6 June 1786, and created him Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Tipperary, and Baron Culloden on 17 November 1801. The Duke served as colonel-in-chief of the Coldstream Regiment of Foot Guards from September 1805, after the collapse of Napoleons empire, he was Military Governor of Hanover from 4 November 1813 –24 October 1816, then Governor General of Hanover from 24 October 1816 –20 June 1837. He was made Field Marshal 26 November 1813, while he was Viceroy, the Duke became patron of the Cambridge-Dragoner Regiment of the Hanoverian army. This regiment was stationed in Celle, and their barracks, the Cambridge-Dragoner Kaserne, were used by the Bundeswehr until 1995, the March of the Hannoversches Cambridge-Dragoner-Regiment is part of the Bundeswehrs traditional music repertoire. After several false starts, the Duke of Clarence settled on Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, the way was cleared for the Duke of Cambridge to find a bride for himself. The Duke of Cambridge was married first at Kassel, Hesse on 7 May and then at Buckingham Palace on 1 June 1818 to his second cousin Augusta, the third daughter of Prince Frederick of Hesse
34.
Ansbach
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Ansbach is a city in the German state of Bavaria. It is the capital of the region of Middle Franconia. Ansbach is 25 miles southwest of Nuremberg and 90 miles north of Munich, on the Fränkische Rezat, in 2004, its population was 40,723. Developed in the 8th century as a Benedictine monastery, it became the seat of the Hohenzollern family in 1331, in 1460, the Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach lived here. The city has a known as Margrafen–Schloss, built between 1704–1738. It was not badly damaged during the World Wars and hence retains its original historical baroque sheen, Ansbach is now home to a US military base and to the Ansbach University of Applied Sciences. The city has connections via autobahn A6 and highways B13 and B14, Ansbach station is on the Nürnberg–Crailsheim and Treuchtlingen–Würzburg railways and is the terminus of line S4 of the Nuremberg S-Bahn. Ansbach was originally called Onoltesbach, a composed of three parts. The individual word elements are Onold, the Suffix -es and the Old High German expression pah or bach, the name of the city has slightly changed throughout the centuries into Onoltespah, Onoldesbach, Onoldsbach, Onelspach, Onsbach and finally Ansbach. It was also known as Anspach. According to folklore, towards the end of the 7th century a group of Franconian peasants and their leader Onold led them to an area called the Rezattal. This is where they founded the Urhöfe, gradually more settlers, such as the Winden-Tribe came, and the farms grew into a small village. Many villages around Ansbach were founded by the Winden during that period, a Benedictine monastery was established there around 748 by the Frankish noble St Gumbertus. The adjoining village of Onoltesbach is first noticed as a town in 1221. The counts of Öttingen ruled over Ansbach until the Hohenzollern burgrave of Nürnberg took over in 1331, the Hohenzollerns made Ansbach the seat of their dynasty until their acquisition of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1415. After the 1440 death of Frederick I, a branch of the family established itself as the margraves of Ansbach. George the Pious introduced the Protestant Reformation to Ansbach in 1528, the Markgrafenschloß was built between 1704–1738. Its gardens continued to be an attraction into the 19th century
35.
Neustrelitz
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Neustrelitz is a town in the Mecklenburgische Seenplatte district in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is situated on the shore of the Zierker See in the Mecklenburg Lake District, from 1738 until 1918 it was the capital of the duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. From 1994 until 2011 it was the capital of the district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the name Strelitz is derived from the Polabian word Strelci, meaning shooter. The village of Strelitz was first mentioned in 1278 and it grew to a small town in the following centuries. In the 17th century Strelitz was a part of the duchy of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, afterwards the new duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was established. This small duchy contained the district and an exclave around Ratzeburg. In 1712 the castle and the town of Strelitz burnt down, after this disaster the duke and his family lived on their hunting lodge at the lake called Zierker See to the northwest of Strelitz. Around this place the new town of Neustrelitz was constructed and it became the official capital of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in 1736. Neustrelitz remained the seat until 1918 and was the capital of the Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz from 1918 to 1933. In 1934 it was merged with Mecklenburg-Schwerin to the Gau of Mecklenburg, the ancient town of Strelitz continued to exist after the fire of 1712, it was a small village, which was suburbanised by Neustrelitz in 1931. When the Red Army troops of the 2nd Belorussian Front entered the town on 30 April 1945,681 people committed suicide, the city centre is characterised by Baroque architecture. Its heart is the Marktplatz, with the Stadtkirche, built in 1768–1778 and the opposite Rathaus, built in 1841 by Friedrich W. Buttel, the Baroque Schloß was destroyed in 1945, but the palace gardens still exist. There is a lake, Glambeck See, where one can swim in summer in a protected area and have lunch at a restaurant overlooking the lake. The city has hosted the popular Immergut Festival since the year 2000, attended by almost 5000 visitors each year
36.
Battle of Leipzig
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The Battle of Leipzig or Battle of the Nations was fought from 16 to 19 October 1813, at Leipzig, Saxony. Napoleons army also contained Polish and Italian troops, as well as Germans from the Confederation of the Rhine, the battle was the culmination of the 1813 German campaign and involved nearly 600,000 soldiers, making it the largest battle in Europe prior to World War I. Being decisively defeated for the first time in battle, Napoleon was compelled to return to France while the Coalition hurried to keep their momentum, Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Elba in May 1814. However, the Russian Tsar refused to even as the French occupied the city. With this string of defeats, the armies of France were in retreat on all fronts across Europe, anti-French forces joined Russia as its troops pursued the remnants of the virtually destroyed Grande Armée across central Europe. He sought to regain the offensive by re-establishing his hold in Germany, the victories led to a brief armistice. He then won a victory at the Battle of Dresden on 27 August. This policy led to victories at Großbeeren, Kulm, Katzbach, after these defeats, the French emperor could not easily follow up on his victory at Dresden. With the intention of knocking Prussia out of the war as soon as possible, Oudinot was defeated at the Battle of Großbeeren, just south of the city. With the intact Prussian force threatening from the north, Napoleon was compelled to withdraw westward and he deployed his army around the city, but concentrated his force from Taucha through Stötteritz, where he placed his command. The Prussians advanced from Wartenburg, the Austrians and Russians from Dresden, the coalition had some 380,000 troops along with 1,500 guns, consisting of 145,000 Russians,115,000 Austrians,90,000 Prussians, and 30,000 Swedes. This made Leipzig the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, surpassing Borodino, Wagram, Jena and Auerstadt, Ulm, Napoleon conscripted these men to be readied for an even larger campaign against the newly formed Sixth Coalition and its forces stationed in Germany. While he won several battles, his army was being steadily depleted as Coalition commanders, closely following the Trachenberg Plan. The Swedes also had under their command a company of the British Rocket Brigade armed with Congreve rockets, despite being outnumbered, Napoleon planned to take the offensive between the Pleisse and the Parthe rivers. The position at Leipzig held several advantages for his army and his battle strategy, the rivers that converged there split the surrounding terrain into many separate sectors. The northern front was defended by Marshals Michel Ney and Auguste de Marmont, the artillery reserve and parks, ambulances, and baggage stood near Leipzig, which Napoleon made his supply base for the battle. The bridges on the Pleisse and White Elster rivers were defended by infantry, the main battery stood in reserve, and during battle was to be deployed on the Gallows Height. This battery was to be commanded by the artillery expert Antoine Drouot, the western flank of the French positions at Wachau and Liebertwolkwitz was defended by Prince Joseph Poniatowski and Marshal Pierre Augereau and his young French conscripts
37.
Carlton House
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Carlton House was a mansion in London, best known as the town residence of the Prince Regent for several decades from 1783. It faced the side of Pall Mall, and its gardens abutted St. Jamess Park in the St Jamess district of London. An existing house was rebuilt at the beginning of the century for Henry Boyle, created Baron Carleton in 1714, who bequeathed it to his nephew. Burlingtons mother sold it in 1732 to Frederick, Prince of Wales, the Prince had the house substantially rebuilt by the architect Henry Holland between 1783 and 1796. By the time the Prince Regent and Henry Holland parted company in 1802, Carlton House was a spacious and opulent residence, from the 1780s it was the centre of a glittering alternate court to that of the Princes parents at St James and Buckingham House. After 1811 when he became Prince Regent the house was altered and redecorated to suit an even amount of usage as a palace in all. In 1820, on the death of his father, George III and he deemed that Carlton House, the official royal residence of St. Jamess Palace and his parents Buckingham House were all inadequate for his needs. Some consideration was given to rebuilding Carlton House on a far larger scale, Carlton House was demolished in 1825 and replaced with two grand white stuccoed terraces of expensive houses known as Carlton House Terrace. The proceeds of the leases were put towards the cost of Buckingham Palace, when the Prince of Wales took possession in August 1783, Sir William Chambers was appointed as architect, but after a first survey, he was quickly replaced by Henry Holland. Both Chambers and Holland were proponents of the French neoclassical style of architecture, Holland began working first on the State Apartments along the garden front, the principal reception rooms of the house. There is an August simplicity that astonished me and you cannot call it magnificent, it is the taste and propriety that strike. Parliament appointed a commission to investigate the huge cost overruns at Carlton House, in May 1787, the Prince of Wales contritely approached his father, King George III, and persuaded him to provide the money to finish the house. When work resumed in the summer of 1787, with a budget of £60,000 to finish the house, it was with the assistance of many of the furniture makers. When completed, Carlton House was approximately 202 feet long, and 130 feet deep, visitors entered the house through a hexastyle portico of Corinthian columns that led to a foyer that was flanked on either side by anterooms. Carlton House was unusual in that the visitor entered the house on the main floor, from the foyer, the visitor entered the two story top lit entrance hall that was decorated with Ionic columns of yellow marble scagliola. Beyond the hall was a room that was also top lit. The octagonal room was flanked on the right by the staircase and flanked on the left by a courtyard. This suite of rooms was equipped with folding doors which provided an impressive enfilade when opened, besides the magnificent French decor and furniture, Carlton House was hung with a superb collection of works of art
38.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
39.
William IV of the United Kingdom
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William IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death. The third son of George III and younger brother and successor to George IV, he was the last king, William served in the Royal Navy in his youth and was, both during his reign and afterwards, nicknamed the Sailor King. He served in North America and the Caribbean, in 1789, he was created Duke of Clarence and St Andrews. Since his two brothers died without leaving legitimate issue, he inherited the throne when he was 64 years old. Although William did not engage in politics as much as his brother or his father, through his brother, the Viceroy of Hanover, he granted his German kingdom a short-lived liberal constitution. William was succeeded in the United Kingdom by his niece, Victoria, William was born in the early hours of the morning on 21 August 1765 at Buckingham House, the third child and son of King George III and Queen Charlotte. He had two brothers, George and Frederick, and was not expected to inherit the Crown. He was baptised in the Great Council Chamber of St Jamess Palace on 20 September 1765 and his godparents were his paternal uncles, the Duke of Gloucester and Prince Henry, and his paternal aunt, Princess Augusta, then hereditary duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He spent most of his life in Richmond and at Kew Palace. At the age of thirteen, he joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman and his experiences in the navy seem to have been little different from those of other midshipmen, though in contrast to other sailors he was accompanied on board ships by a tutor. He did his share of the cooking and got arrested with his shipmates after a brawl in Gibraltar. He served in New York during the American War of Independence, I am fully persuaded, that it is unnecessary to caution you against offering insult or indignity to the persons of the Prince or Admiral. The plot did not come to fruition, the British heard of it and assigned guards to William and he became a lieutenant in 1785 and captain of HMS Pegasus the following year. The two were friends, and dined together almost nightly. At Nelsons wedding, William insisted on giving the bride away and he was given command of the frigate HMS Andromeda in 1788, and was promoted to rear-admiral in command of HMS Valiant the following year. William sought to be made a duke like his brothers, and to receive a similar parliamentary grant. To put pressure on him, William threatened to stand for the House of Commons for the constituency of Totnes in Devon, Williams political record was inconsistent and, like many politicians of the time, cannot be certainly ascribed to a single party. William ceased his active service in the Royal Navy in 1790, the following year he spoke in favour of the war, expecting a command after his change of heart, none came
40.
Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
