1.
Jonathan Trumbull Jr.
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Jonathan Trumbull Jr. was an American politician who served as the second Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. And his wife Faith Robinson, daughter of Rev. John Robinson, Trumbull graduated from Harvard College in 1759, and gave the valedictory address when he received his masters degree in 1762. His brother John Trumbull was a painter of the Revolution. Carrying on the tradition of public service, Trumbull began with town and colony offices, lister, grand juror, surveyor of highways, justice of the peace. In 1774 he was elected deputy, the first of seven terms representing Lebanon. He served in the legislature three times, from 1774 to 1775, from 1779 to 1780, and in 1788. Trumbull served in the Continental Army as paymaster general of the Northern Department from 28 July 1775 to 29 July 1778 and he was included in the general orders of June 8,1781, Jonathan Trumbull. Junior, is appointed Secretary to the Commander in Chief and to be respected accordingly and he served for the duration of the war as aide-de-camp to General George Washington until 28 December 1783. After the war, he became a member of the Connecticut Society of the Cincinnati. Elected to the First, Second, and Third Congresses, Trumbull served in the United States House of Representatives from March 4,1789 to March 3,1795. He was the Speaker of the House in the Second Congress and he did not seek re-election for a fourth term and instead ran for the United States Senate. When Trumbull was elected to the United States Senate, he served from March 4,1795 to June 10,1796, on June 10,1796, he resigned from the United States Senate to become Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut. When the Governor died in December 1797, he became governor and was re-elected to eleven consecutive terms until his death in Lebanon, as a wedding present, his father built the Jonathan Trumbull House for him and his bride. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, Trumbull died August 7,1809, aged 69 years and 134 days. He is interred at Trumbull Cemetery, Lebanon, Connecticut and he was one the original members of the board of trustees of Bacon Academy. Trumbull, Connecticut Trumbull County, Ohio Jonathan Trumbull Jr. at Find a Grave National Governors Association Notable Names Data Base
2.
Jonathan Dayton
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Jonathan Dayton was an American politician from the U. S. state of New Jersey. Dayton was arrested in 1807 for treason in connection with Aaron Burrs conspiracy, Dayton was never tried, Dayton was born in Elizabethtown in New Jersey. He was the son of Elias Dayton, a merchant who was prominent in politics and had served as a militia officer in the French. He graduated from the academy, run by Tapping Reeve and Francis Barber. He then attended the College of New Jersey and he left the College of New Jersey in 1775 to fight in the Revolution, though he would later receive an honorary degree in 1776. Dayton was 15 at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War in 1775, on January 1,1777, he was commissioned a lieutenant and served as paymaster. He saw service under Washington, fighting in the battles of Brandywine Creek and he remained with Washington at Valley Forge and helped push the British from their position in New Jersey into the safety of New York City. In October 1780, Dayton and an uncle were captured by loyalists, Dayton again served under his father in the New Jersey Brigade. On March 30,1780, at age 19, he was promoted to rank of captain and transferred to the 2nd New Jersey Regiment, where he took part in the Battle of Yorktown. The Revolutionary War pension records indicate that he served as Aid-de-Camp to General Sullivan on his expedition against the Indians from May 1 – November 30,1779. On July 19,1799, Dayton was offered a commission as Major General in the Provisional United States Army, after the war, Dayton studied law and created a practice, dividing his time between land speculation, law, and politics. After serving as a New Jersey delegate to the Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention and he was a member of the New Jersey General Assembly from 1786–1787, and again in 1790, and served in the New Jersey Legislative Council in 1789. Dayton was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1789 and he served as speaker for the Fourth and Fifth Congress. Like most Federalists, he supported the policies of Alexander Hamilton. He supported the Louisiana Purchase and opposed the repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801, Dayton was exonerated, but his association with Burr effectively ended his political career. Dayton married Susan Williamson and had two daughters, susans Revolutionary War Pension Application W.6994 states that the marriage occurred on March 28,1779. After resuming his career in New Jersey, Dayton died on October 9,1824. He was interred in a grave that is now under the St. Johns Episcopal Church in Elizabeth
3.
Dean of the United States House of Representatives
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The Dean of the United States House of Representatives is the longest continuously serving member of the House. The current Dean is John Conyers, a Democrat from Michigan who has served in the House since January 3,1965, the Dean is a symbolic post whose only customary duty is to swear in a Speaker of the House when he or she is elected. The Dean comes forward on the House Floor to administer the oath to the Speaker-elect before the new Speaker then administers the oath to the other members. The Dean does not preside over the election of the Speaker, unlike the Father of the House in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom and the Dean of the Canadian House of Commons. It is unclear when the position first achieved concrete recognition, though the seniority system, as late as 1924, Frederick H. Gillett was Dean, and also Speaker, before becoming a Senator. Modern Deans move into their positions so late in their careers that a move to the Senate is highly unlikely, when Ed Markey broke Gilletts record for time in the House before moving to the Senate in 2013 he was still decades junior to the sitting Dean. The Deanship can change hands unexpectedly, claude Pepper, who died early in his final term in 1989, held the record for oldest winner of a House election until Hall broke it in 2012. However, Sabath died before the new term began and Doughton was Dean for the old terms final months before Speaker Sam Rayburn became Dean in the new Congress. In 1994, Texas Democrat Jack Brooks was defeated by Steve Stockman in the year he was expected to succeed Jamie L. Whitten as Dean, years as Dean are followed by name, party, state, and start of service in Congress. All the members of the First Congress had equal seniority, Muhlenberg, Hartley and Thatcher were among the 13 members who attended the initial meeting of the House on March 4,1789. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries some state delegations to the House were often not elected until after the term had begun, to avoid confusion, this fact is ignored in the list below
4.
George Thatcher
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George Thatcher was an American lawyer, jurist, and statesman from the Maine district of Massachusetts. His name sometimes appears as George Thacher and he was a delegate for Massachusetts to the Continental Congress in 1787 and 1788. He was a justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court from 1801 to 1824. Thatcher was born April 12,1754, in Yarmouth, Province of Massachusetts Bay, after private tutoring, he attended Harvard, graduating in 1776. He read law and was admitted to the bar in 1778, by 1782 he had settled in Biddeford. Thatcher was named as one of the Massachusetts delegates to the Continental Congress in 1787 and he wrote under the name Scribble Scrabble. He was later elected a U. S, Congressman from the Maine district of Massachusetts, as a Pro-administration candidate in 1789 to 1792 and as a Federalist from 1794 to 1801. In 1788 North Carolina passed a law allowing the capture and sale of any slave who had been freed without court approval. Many freed African Americans fled the state to avoid being captured, rev Absalom Jones drafted a petition on behalf of four freed slaves, the first group of African Americans to petition the U. S. Congress. The petition related to the 1793 Fugitive Slave Act and asked Congress to adopt “some remedy for an evil of such magnitude. ”The petition was presented on 30 January 1797 by U. S and he did not seek re-election in 1800. At the time he left the Congress, he was the last original Congressman still in office, Thatcher accepted an appointment to a Massachusetts state court in 1792 and served until 1800 when he was appointed to the states Supreme Judicial Court. During the organization of Maines statehood in 1819, he was a member of the convention created the new states constitution. When statehood was achieved in 1820, he moved to Newburyport and he resigned from the court in January 1824, and retired to Biddeford. Thatcher, an ardent Unitarian, helped to sponsor the creation of Bowdoin College so that Maine would have its own institution of higher education, for the colleges first dozen years, he served as a regent. Thatcher was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814, Thatcher died at his home, and is buried in the Woodlawn Cemetery at Biddeford. George Thatcher at Find a Grave
5.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
6.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
7.
Pennsylvania's at-large congressional district
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Pennsylvania elected its United States representatives at-large on a general ticket for the first and third United States Congresses. General ticket representation was prohibited by the 1842 Apportionment Bill and subsequent legislation, some representatives, including Galusha A. Grow, served at-large after 1842. This was allowed because Pennsylvania had received an increase in the number of its representatives yet its legislature didnt pass an apportionment bill during those years, representatives were elected statewide at-large on a general ticket. After 1795, most representatives were elected in districts, occasionally, at-large representatives were also elected. No at-large representatives were apportioned after the 78th Congress, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
8.
Pennsylvania's 2nd congressional district
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Before the 113th Congress, the district did not contain Lower Merion Township but instead contained Cheltenham Township. The district has an overwhelming Democratic majority, with the 113th Congress, it is the third most Democratic Congressional District out of the 435 in the nation, according to the Cook Partisan Voting Index, with a score of D +39. It is also the most Democratic district outside of New York, congressman Chaka Fattah represented the district from 1995 to 2016. On July 29,2015, Fattah and a group of associates were indicted on charges related to their alleged roles in a racketeering. On April 26,2016, Dwight Evans toppled Fattah in a competitive Democratic primary election, Evans then won a special election to fill Fattahs seat. He also won election for the term beginning January 3,2017. The district was organized from Pennsylvanias At-large congressional district in 1791, District created in 1795 from Pennsylvanias At-large congressional district Two additional seats were added in 1803. The third seat was eliminated in 1813, and the second seat eliminated in 1823, in 1833, the second seat was restored. In 1843, it returned to being a single-member district, list of United States congressional districts Pennsylvanias congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present District map, via nationalatlas. gov Census Bureau profile Congressional redistricting in Pennsylvania
9.
Trappe, Pennsylvania
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Trappe is a borough in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 3,509 at the 2010 census, Augustus Lutheran Church, built in 1743, is the oldest unchanged Lutheran church building in the United States in continuous use by the same congregation. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark, Trappe is located at 40°12′N 75°29′W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 2.1 square miles. Trappe falls within the boundaries of the Perkiomen Valley School District, south Elementary school lies in the borough, as does the old Collegeville-Trappe high school. European settlers arrived in the area of Trappe in the early 18th century and they had landed at the port of Philadelphia and moved west, where land was available. One of the oldest extant buildings in town is Augustus Lutheran Church, construction of the old church began in 1743 following the arrival of Lutheran minister Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, who emigrated from Germany in 1742. After a severe storm on February 16,1860 that damaged the colonial building and it is the oldest unchanged Lutheran church building in the US in continuous use by the same congregation and has been designated a National Historic Landmark. A c.1830 building across from Augustus Lutheran Church served as the US Post Office until 1929, the post office/general store is now a private residence. Trappe is also home to the Henry Melchior Muhlenberg House, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building has been restored and is operated as a museum by the Historical Society of Trappe, Collegeville, Perkiomen Valley, Inc. The Speakers House, home of Frederick Muhlenberg, is another site in Trappe that is open to the public. As of the 2010 census,89. 2% White,3. 2% Black or African American,0. 3% Native American,4. 5% Asian,2. 7% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,210 people,1,292 households, the population density was 1,547.1 people per square mile. There were 1,351 housing units at a density of 651.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 94. 02% White,2. 40% African American,0. 22% Native American,1. 37% Asian,0. 34% from other races, Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 18% of the population. 24. 2% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.00. In the borough the population was out, with 24. 7% under the age of 18,4. 5% from 18 to 24,41. 0% from 25 to 44,19. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 99.3 males
10.
Province of Pennsylvania
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The Province of Pennsylvania, also known as the Pennsylvania Colony, was founded in English North America by William Penn on March 4,1681 as dictated in a royal charter granted by King Charles II. The name Pennsylvania, which translates roughly as Penns Woods, was created by combining the Penn surname with the Latin word sylvania, the Province of Pennsylvania was one of the two major Restoration colonies, the other being the Province of Carolina. The colonial government, established in 1683 by Penns Frame of Government, consisted of an appointed Governor, the proprietor, a 72-member Provincial Council, and a larger General Assembly. The General Assembly, also known as the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, was the largest and most representative branch of government, succeeding Frames of Government, also known as the Charter of Privileges, were produced in 1683,1696 and 1701. The fourth Frame remained in effect until the American Revolution and he was an early advocate of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Indians. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed, the province was divided first into 5 counties, plus the three lower counties on Delaware Bay. Philadelphia County is present-day Philadelphia City, montgomery County was west of Bucks and northwest of Philadelphia, and extended along the Schuylkill River to the area presently known as Minersville, in Schuylkill County. Chester County extended along the border of Pennsylvania from Marcus Hook to the western border of the province. The remainder of the province, which is now North Central and their borders remain unchanged to this day. William Penn and his fellow Quakers heavily imprinted their religious values on the early Pennsylvanian government, the Charter of Privileges extended religious freedom to everyone monotheists and government was initially open to all Christians. Until the French and Indian War Pennsylvania had no military, few taxes, among the first groups were the Mennonites, who founded Germantown in 1683, and the Amish, who established the Northkill Amish Settlement in 1740. 1751 was an year for the colony. Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the British American colonies, and The Academy and College of Philadelphia, Benjamin Franklin founded both of these institutions along with Philadelphias Union Fire Company fifteen years earlier in 1736. Likewise in 1751, the Pennsylvania State House ordered a new bell which would become known as the Liberty Bell for the new tower being built in the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia. William Penn had mandated fair dealings with Native Americans and this led to significantly better relations with the local Native tribes than most other colonies had. The Quakers had previously treated Indians with respect, bought land from them voluntarily, according to Voltaire, the Shackamaxon Treaty was the only treaty between Indians and Christians that was never sworn to and that was never broken. The Quakers also refused to provide any assistance to New Englands Indian wars, in 1737, the Colony exchanged a great deal of its political goodwill with the native Lenape for more land. This purchase has become known as the Walking Purchase, although the document was most likely a forgery, the Lenape did not realize that
11.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania
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Lancaster, is a city located in South Central Pennsylvania which serves as the seat of Pennsylvanias Lancaster County and one of the oldest inland towns in the United States. With a population of 59,322, it ranks eighth in population among Pennsylvanias cities, the Lancaster metropolitan area population is 507,766, making it the 101st largest metropolitan area in the US and 2nd largest in the South Central Pennsylvania area. Lancaster hosts more electronic public CCTV outdoor cameras per capita than such as Boston or San Francisco. Lancaster was home to James Buchanan, the nations 15th president, originally called Hickory Town, the city was renamed after the English city of Lancaster by native John Wright. Its symbol, the red rose, is from the House of Lancaster, Lancaster was part of the 1681 Penns Woods Charter of William Penn, and was laid out by James Hamilton in 1734. It was incorporated as a borough in 1742 and incorporated as a city in 1818, the revolutionary government then moved still farther away to York, Pennsylvania. Lancaster was capital of Pennsylvania from 1799 to 1812, after which the capital was moved to Harrisburg, in 1851, the current Lancaster County Prison was built in the city, styled after Lancaster Castle in England. The prison remains in use, and was used for public hangings until 1912 and it replaced a 1737 structure on a different site. The first paved road in the United States was the former Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike, opened in 1795, the Turnpike connected the cities of Lancaster and Philadelphia, and was designed by a Scottish engineer named John Loudon McAdam. Lancaster residents are known to use the word macadam in lieu of pavement or asphalt and this name is a reference to the paving process named for McAdam. The city of Lancaster was home to important figures in American history. Wheatland, the estate of James Buchanan, the fifteenth President of the United States, is one of Lancasters most popular attractions, Thaddeus Stevens, considered among the most powerful members of the United States House of Representatives, lived in Lancaster as an attorney. Stevens gained notoriety as a Radical Republican and for his abolitionism, the Fulton Opera House in the city was named for Lancaster native Robert Fulton, a renaissance man who created the first fully functional steamboat. All of these individuals have had schools named after them. After the American Revolution, the city of Lancaster became an iron-foundry center, two of the most common products needed by pioneers to settle the Frontier were manufactured in Lancaster, the Conestoga wagon and the Pennsylvania long rifle. The Conestoga wagon was named after the Conestoga River, which runs through the city, the innovative gunsmith William Henry lived in Lancaster and was a U. S. congressman and leader during and after the American Revolution. In 1803, Meriwether Lewis visited Lancaster to be educated in survey methods by the well-known surveyor Andrew Ellicott, during his visit, Lewis learned to plot latitude and longitude as part of his overall training needed to lead the Lewis and Clark Expedition. In 1879, Franklin Winfield Woolworth opened his first successful five and dime store in the city of Lancaster, Lancaster was one of the winning communities for the All-America City award in 2000
12.
Democratic-Republican Party
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The new party controlled the presidency and Congress, as well as most states, from 1801 to 1825, during the First Party System. It began in 1791 as one faction in Congress, and included many politicians who had opposed to the new constitution. They called themselves Republicans after their ideology Republicanism and they distrusted the Federalist commitment to republicanism. The party splintered in 1824 into the Jacksonian movement and the short-lived National Republican Party, the term Democratic-Republican is used especially by modern political scientists for the first Republican Party. It is also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans, historians typically use the title Republican Party. An Anti-Administration faction met secretly in the capital to oppose Hamiltons financial programs. Jefferson denounced the programs as leading to monarchy and subversive of republicanism, Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to challenge the Federalists, which Hamilton was building up with allies in major cities. Foreign affairs took a role in 1794–95 as the Republicans vigorously opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain. Republicans saw France as more democratic after its revolution, while Britain represented the hated monarchy, the party denounced many of Hamiltons measures as unconstitutional, especially the national bank. The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast and it demanded states rights as expressed by the Principles of 1798 articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that would allow states to nullify a federal law. Above all, the party stood for the primacy of the yeoman farmers, Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Hamiltonian Federalists. The party came to power in 1801 with the election of Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election, the Federalists—too elitist to appeal to most people—faded away, and totally collapsed after 1815. The Republicans dominated the First Party System, despite internal divisions, the party selected its presidential candidates in a caucus of members of Congress. They included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe, by 1824, the caucus system had practically collapsed. After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England, by 1824, the party was split four ways and lacked a center, as the First Party System collapsed. The emergence of the Second Party System in the 1830s realigned the old factions, one remnant followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren into the new Democratic Party by 1828. Another remnant led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay formed the National Republicans in 1828, the precise date of founding is disputed, but 1791 is a reasonable estimate, some time by 1792 is certain. The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis, in most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest
13.
Anti-Administration Party (United States)
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This was not an organized political party, but an unorganized faction. Most had been Anti-Federalists in 1788, meaning they opposed ratification of the Constitution of the United States, however, the situation was fluid, with members moving in and out. Madison joined with former Anti-Federalists to oppose Hamiltons financial plans in 1790, after Jefferson took leadership of the opposition to Hamilton in 1792, the faction became a formal party, Jeffersons Republican Party. At the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and during the process in 1788. He wrote The Federalist Papers, together with Hamilton and John Jay, in 1789–1790, Madison was a leader in support of the new federal government. At this time, the concept of an opposition party was novel. But in January 1790, Madison joined with Henry Tazewell and others to oppose Hamiltons First Report on the Public Credit, the creation of this coalition marked the emergence of the anti-Administration party, which was almost exclusively southern at this time. Madison argued that repaying the debt rewarded speculators and his proposal to repay only the original bondholders was defeated by a vote of 36 to 13. Hamiltons report also provided for the assumption of debt by the federal government. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and South Carolina owed nearly half of this debt, the United States House of Representatives passed the bill without assumption, but the Senate included this provision. Jefferson only had one State Department patronage job, which he gave to Freneau, in the second Congress, the anti-Administration elements were more numerous and included about 32 House members. In 1791, Madison and Hamilton again clashed when the proposed the creation of a national bank. Southern planters were opposed, but urban merchants supported the idea, Madison said the Bank was unconstitutional, but Hamilton successfully argued that the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution allowed for it. The French Revolutionary Wars, which began in April 1792, hardened the differences between the factions, the Pro-Administration Party generally supported the British side, or wished to remain neutral, while the Anti-Administration Party supported the French side. Jefferson joined the party in 1792, and it contested the election that year under the name Republican, politics now became more stable, with well-defined parties, thereby creating the First Party System which lasted two decades. The Jeffersonian Persuasion, Evolution of a Party Ideology Bordewich, Fergus M, the First Congress, How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government on 1789–91. Bowling, Kenneth R. and Donald R. Kennon, eds, perspectives on the History of Congress, 1789–1801. The Age of Federalism online version, the highly detailed political history of 1790s Hoadley
14.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
15.
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg
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The Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, also referred to as MLU, is a public, research-oriented university in the cities of Halle and Wittenberg within Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. MLU offers German and international courses leading to academic degrees such as B. A. B. Sc, the university was created in 1817 through the merger of the University of Wittenberg and the University of Halle. The university is named after the Protestant reformer Martin Luther, who was a professor in Wittenberg, today, the university itself is located in Halle, while the Leucorea Foundation in Wittenberg serves as MLU’s convention centre for seminars as well as for academic and political conferences. Both Halle and Wittenberg are about one hour from Berlin via the Berlin–Halle railway, the University of Wittenberg was founded in 1502 by Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony. Notable attendees include George Müller, Georg Joachim Rheticus and – in fiction – William Shakespeares Prince Hamlet and Horatio, the University of Halle was founded in 1694 by Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, who became Frederick I, King in Prussia, in 1701. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Halle became a centre for Pietism within Prussia, in the 17th and 18th centuries the universities were centers of the German Enlightenment. Christian Wolff was an important proponent of rationalism and he influenced many German scholars, such as Immanuel Kant. Christian Thomasius was at the time the first philosopher in Germany to hold his lectures not in Latin. He contributed to a programme in philosophy but also tried to establish a more common-sense point of view. The University of Wittenberg was closed in 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars, the town of Wittenberg was granted to Prussia in the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and the university was then merged with the Prussian University of Halle in 1817. It took its present name on 10 November 1933, more than a dozen professors were expelled. MLUs historical observatory, built in 1788 by Carl Gotthard Langhans, members are mostly gifted students of all faculties, but also academic staff and alumni. The university choir regularly performs at the international Handel Festival in George Frideric Handel’s birthplace, C. D. Wyneken, Z, Paul Zarifopol, Caspar Ziegler, Karl Ziegler, Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf, Max Zorn, Leopold Zunz. List of early modern universities in Europe The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Official website Official website Download MLU Yearbook 2007 /
16.
Minister (Christianity)
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The term is taken from Latin minister, which itself was derived from minus. In Catholic churches, the concept of a priesthood is emphasised, many ministers are styled as The Reverend, however some use Pastor as a title, and others do not use any specific form of address. The Church of England defines the ministry of priests as follows, Priests are called to be servants, with their Bishop and fellow ministers, they are to proclaim the word of the Lord and to watch for the signs of Gods new creation. Formed by the word, they are to call their hearers to repentance and to declare in Christs name the absolution, with all Gods people, they are to tell the story of Gods love. They are to baptize new disciples in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit and they are to unfold the Scriptures, to preach the word in season and out of season, and to declare the mighty acts of God. They are to preside at the Lords table and lead his people in worship, offering them a spiritual sacrifice of praise. They are to bless the people in Gods name and they are to resist evil, support the weak, defend the poor, and intercede for all in need. They are to minister to the sick and prepare the dying for their death, guided by the Spirit, they are to discern and foster the gifts of all Gods people, that the whole Church may be built up in unity and faith. All denominations require that the minister has a sense of calling. One of the clearest references is found in 1 Timothy 3, 1-16, moreover he must have a good report of them which are without, lest he fall into reproach and the snare of the devil. Likewise must the deacons be grave, not doubletongued, not given to wine, not greedy of filthy lucre. And let these also first be proved, then let them use the office of a deacon, even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things. Let the deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children, the churches have three orders of ordained clergy, Bishops are the primary clergy, administering all sacraments and governing the church. Priests administer the sacraments and lead local congregations, they cannot ordain other clergy, however, in some denominations, deacons play a non-sacramental and assisting role in the liturgy. Until the Reformation, the clergy were the first estate but were relegated to the estate in Protestant Northern Europe. After compulsory celibacy was abolished during the Reformation, the formation of an hereditary priestly class became possible, whereby wealth. Higher positioned clergy formed this clerical educated upper class, High Church Anglicanism and High Church Lutheranism tend to emphasise the role of the clergy in dispensing the Christian Sacrament. Bishops, priests and deacons have traditionally officiated over of acts worship, reverence, rituals, among these central traditions have been baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, marriage, the Mass or the Divine Service, and coronations
17.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
18.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
19.
Henry Muhlenberg
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Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, was a German Lutheran pastor sent to North America as a missionary, requested by Pennsylvania colonists. Integral to the founding of the first Lutheran church body or denomination in North America, Muhlenberg and his wife Anna Maria had a large family, several of whom had a significant impact on colonial life in North America as pastors, military officers, and politicians. His and Anna Marias descendants continued to be active in Pennsylvania, Muhlenberg was born in 1711 at Einbeck, to Nicolaus Melchior Mühlenberg and Anna Maria Kleinschmid in the German Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He studied theology at the Georg-August University of Göttingen, as a student, Muhlenberg came under the influence of the Pietist movement through fellow students from Einbeck who had worked at the Francke Foundations in Halle, an important Pietist institution. With two other men, Muhlenberg started a charity school in Göttingen that eventually became an orphanage, after completing his studies in spring 1738, Muhlenberg secured a teaching position at the Francke Foundations Historic Orphanage. Its director, the theologian Gotthilf August Francke was the son and successor of the Foundations founder, August Hermann Francke, Muhlenberg was ordained in Leipzig in 1739, and served as assistant minister and director of the orphanage at Grosshennersdorf from 1739 to 1741. In 1741 Gotthilf August Francke encouraged Muhlenberg to accept a call from German-speaking Lutherans in Pennsylvania, accordingly, in 1742 Muhlenberg emigrated across the Atlantic Ocean, where he essentially founded the Lutheran Church as an institution in North America. The Lutheran churches in Pennsylvania had largely been founded by lay ministers, as Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf was successful in winning a number of converts to the Moravian Church, the Lutherans asked German churches for formally trained clergy. In 1742, Muhlenberg immigrated to Philadelphia, responding to the 1732 request by Pennsylvania Lutherans and he took charge of the congregation at Providence, in what is now Trappe, Pennsylvania. In 1748 he called together The Ministerium of Pennsylvania, the first permanent Lutheran synod in America and he helped to prepare a uniform liturgy that same year, and also wrote basic tenets for an ecclesiastical constitution, which most of the churches adopted in 1761. He did much work on a hymnal, published by the Ministerium in 1786, the dedication stone of the Augustus Lutheran Church, above its door, is dedicated to Muhlenberg and its other founders. This is the only church building bearing an inscription that designates the confessional document of the congregation instead of the name Lutheran by which it is popularly known. Muhlenberg frequently traveled beyond the three assigned to him. During his 45-year ministry, he reached from New York to Georgia and he ministered not only to the German-language populations he was assigned to, but to colonists from the Netherlands and Britain as well, in their native languages. His colleagues requested his help in arbitrating disputes among Lutherans, or in cases with other religious groups. Muhlenberg also worked to recruit new ministers from Europe and to develop more ministers from the colonists, in Washington Township, Morris County, New Jersey, the Old Stone Union Church of German Valley housed a congregation said to have been organized by Muhlenberg. His eldest son, the Reverend Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg, also served as pastor there, poor health forced him into limited activity and retirement. He eventually died at his home in Trappe, Pennsylvania and he was interred in the rear of Augustus Lutheran Church with his wife Anna Maria, followed by their son Peter
20.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
21.
Conrad Weiser
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Conrad Weiser, born Johann Conrad Weiser, Jr. was a Pennsylvania Dutch pioneer, interpreter and diplomat between the Pennsylvania Colony and Native Americans. He was a farmer, soldier, monk, tanner and judge and he contributed as an emissary in councils between Native Americans and the colonies, especially Pennsylvania, during the 18th centurys tensions of the French and Indian War. Conrad Weiser was born in 1696 in the village of Affstätt in Herrenberg, in the Duchy of Württemberg. Soon after Conrads birth, his father received a discharge from the Blue Dragoons and moved back to the family ancestral home of Großaspach. In 1709 fever claimed the life of his mother, Anna Magdalena, after the land and people were ravaged by French invasions related to wars, pestilence. Conrad Weiser wrote for his children, Buried beside Her Ancestors, she was a god-fearing woman and her motto was Jesus I live for thee, I die for thee, thine am I in life and death. Conrad Weiser and his family were among thousands of refugees who left German lands that year and they traveled down the Rhine River and then to England, which had offered some support for the Protestant refugees. The following year in 1710, the Crown arranged for transport in ten ships of the nearly 3,000 Germans to the New York colony, the Crown supported migration of the immigrants to help settle the New York colony. The plan was that they would work off their passage in a form of indenture in camps devoted to producing ships stores, such as tar, later they would be allowed to trade their work for land. Most of the Germans were first located in what were called the East and West Camps on the Hudson River and it was not until 1723 that some 100 heads of families received land grants in the central Mohawk Valley, under Governor Burnetsfield. Weiser senior managed to get his family to the Schoharie Valley earlier than that, when Conrad was 16, his father agreed to a chiefs proposal for the youth to live with the Mohawks in the upper Schoharie Valley. During his stay in the winter and spring of 1712-1713, Weiser learned much about the Mohawk language and the customs of the Iroquois, while enduring hardships of cold, hunger, Conrad Weiser returned to his own people towards the end of July 1713. On November 22,1720, at the age of 24, Weiser married Anna Eve Feck, in 1725 the couple followed the Susquehanna River south out of New York and settled their young family on a farm in Womelsdorf, Pennsylvania near present-day Reading. The couple had fourteen children, of only seven reached adulthood. Weisers colonial service began in 1731, the Iroquois sent Shikellamy, an Oneida chief, as an emissary to other tribes and the British. Shikellamy lived on the Susquehanna River at Shamokin village, near present-day Sunbury, an oral tradition holds that Weiser met Shikellamy while hunting. In any case, the two became friends, when Shikellamy traveled to Philadelphia for a council with the province of Pennsylvania, he brought Weiser with him. The Iroquois trusted him and considered him a son of the Mohawks
22.
Peter Muhlenberg
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John Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg was an American clergyman, Continental Army soldier during the American Revolutionary War, and political figure in the newly independent United States. A Lutheran minister, he served in the United States House of Representatives, Muhlenberg was born to Pennsylvania German parents Anna Maria and Henry Muhlenberg in Trappe, Pennsylvania. He was sent, together with his brothers, Frederick Augustus and they were educated in Latin at the Francke Foundations. He left school in 1767 to start as a assistant in Lübeck. He was ordained in 1768 and headed a Lutheran congregation in Bedminster, New Jersey, before moving to Woodstock, in 1770 he married Anna Barbara Hannah Meyer, the daughter of a successful potter. Muhlenberg visited England in 1772 and was ordained into the priesthood of the Anglican Church, since the Anglican Church was the state church of Virginia, he was required to be ordained in an Anglican church in order to serve a congregation in Virginia. Besides his new congregation, he led the Committee of Safety and Correspondence for Dunmore County and he was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1774, and was a delegate to the First Virginia Convention. Toward the end of 1775, Muhlenberg was authorized to raise, after George Washington personally asked him to accept this task, he agreed. However, his brother Fredrick Augustus Muhlenberg, who was also a minister, then he joined the military himself. According to a written by his great nephew in the mid-19th century. On January 21,1776 in the Lutheran church in Woodstock, Virginia, Reverend Muhlenberg took his text from the third chapter Ecclesiastes. After reading the verse, a time of war. Outside the church door the drums began to roll as men turned to kiss their wives and then walked down the aisle to enlist, the next day he led out 300 men from the county to form the nucleus of the 8th Virginia Regiment. Though it is accepted that Muhlenberg helped form and lead the 8th, historians doubt the account of the sermon, Muhlenbergs unit was first posted to the South, to defend the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. In early 1777, the Eighth Regiment was sent north to join Washingtons main army, Muhlenberg was made a brigadier general of the Virginia Line and commanded that Brigade in Nathanael Greenes division at Valley Forge. Muhlenberg saw service in the Battles of Brandywine, Germantown, after Monmouth, most of the Virginia Line was sent to the far south, while General Muhlenberg was assigned to head up the defense of Virginia using mainly militia units. At the Battle of Yorktown, he commanded the first brigade in Lafayettes Light Division and his brigade was part of the Corps of Light Infantry, consisting of the light infantry companies of the line regiments of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island and New Jersey. They held the right flank and manned the two built to move American cannons closer to Cornwallis defenses
23.
Continental Army
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The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Congress on June 14,1775, the Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and troops that remained under control of the individual states or were otherwise independent. General George Washington was the commander-in-chief of the army throughout the war, most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the Treaty of Paris ended the war. The 1st and 2nd Regiments went on to form the nucleus of the Legion of the United States in 1792 under General Anthony Wayne and this became the foundation of the United States Army in 1796. The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all 13 colonies, and after 1776, when the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. As tensions with Great Britain increased in the leading to the war. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774, colonists such as Richard Henry Lee proposed forming a national militia force, but the First Continental Congress rejected the idea. On April 23,1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of an army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar, on July 18,1775, the Congress requested all colonies form militia companies from all able bodied effective men, between sixteen and fifty years of age. It was not uncommon for men younger than sixteen to enlist as most colonies had no requirement of consent for those under twenty-one. Four major-generals and eight brigadier-generals were appointed by the Second Continental Congress in the course of a few days, after Pomeroy did not accept, John Thomas was appointed in his place. As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, as a result, the army went through several distinct phases, characterized by official dissolution and reorganization of units. Soldiers in the Continental Army were citizens who had volunteered to serve in the army, early in the war the enlistment periods were short, as the Continental Congress feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 17,000 men, turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–77, and longer enlistments were approved. Major General Philip Schuylers ten regiments in New York were sent to invade Canada, the Continental Army of 1776, reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Despite attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and of its geographical focus. This army consisted of 36 regiments, most standardized to a battalion of 768 men strong and formed into eight companies. Enlistment terms extended to three years or to the length of the war to avoid the crises that depleted forces
24.
Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Muhlenberg
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Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst Muhlenberg was a German American clergyman and botanist. The son of Heinrich Melchior Muhlenberg, he was born in Trappe and he was educated at Franckesche Stiftungen in Halle starting in 1763 and in 1769 at the University of Halle. He returned to Pennsylvania in September 1770 and was ordained as a Lutheran minister and he served first in Pennsylvania and then as a pastor in New Jersey. He received a Doctor of Divinity degree from Princeton University and he served as the pastor of Holy Trinity Church in Lancaster, Pennsylvania from 1780 through 1815. In 1787, he was made the first president of Franklin College. 1779 he retired and devoted himself to the study of botany and he is best known as a botanist. Muhlenbergia, a genus of grasses, was named in his honor. His chief works are Catalogus Plantarum Americae Septentrionalis and Descriptio Uberior Graminum et Plantarum Calamariarum Americae Septentrionalis Indiginarum et Cicurum, Muhlenberg discovered and identified the bog turtle while conducting a survey of plants in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. In 1801 the turtle was named Clemmys muhlenbergii in his honor, however, the species common name was changed to bog turtle in 1956, as the practice of naming an organisms common name after individuals became less popular. Muhlenberg is buried in Woodward Hill Cemetery in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, chisholm, Hugh, ed. Muhlenberg, John Peter Gabriel. This work in turn cites, John M. Maisch, G. H. E. Muhlenberg als Botaniker Solomon Erb Ochsenford, Muhlenberg College, A quarter-centennial memorial p. 172-173. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, the Henry Ernest Muhlenberg papers, which contains scientific letters written to Muhlenberg, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania
25.
Halle (Saale)
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Halle is a city in the southern part of the German state Saxony-Anhalt. Halle is an economic and educational center in central-eastern Germany, the University of Halle-Wittenberg is the largest university in Saxony-Anhalt and one of the oldest universities in Germany, and a nurturing ground for the local startup ecosystem. Together with Leipzig, Halle is at the heart of the Central German Metropolitan Region, Leipzig, one of eastern Germanys other major cities, is only 35 kilometres away. Halles early history is connected with harvesting of salt, the name Halle reflects early Celtic settlement given that halen is the Brythonic word for salt. The name of the river Saale also contains the Germanic root for salt, the Latin name Hala Saxonum was also used. The town was first mentioned in AD806, according to historic documents, the city of Halle has been a member of the Hanseatic League at least since 1281. By the 1740s, Halle had established many orphanages as well as schools for the wealthy in the sober style Pietism encouraged and this Halle education was the first time the modern education system was established. The Halle Pietists were also combated poverty, the Battle of Halle was fought between French and Prussian forces on 17 October 1806. The fighting moved from the bridges on the citys west side, through the streets and market place. In 1815, Halle became part of the Prussian Province of Saxony, in Ammendorf, a large factory owned by Orgacid produced mustard gas. Near the end of World War II, there were two bombing raids carried out against the town, the first on 31 March 1945, the second a few days later. The first attack took place between the station and the citys centre, and the second bombing was in the southern district. It killed over 1,000 inhabitants and destroyed 3,600 buildings, among them, the Market Church, St. George Church, the Old Town Hall, the City Theatre, historic buildings on Bruederstrasse and on Grosse Steinstrasse, and the city cemetery. On 17 April 1945, American soldiers occupied Halle, and the red tower was set on fire by artillery, the Market Church and the Church of St. George received more hits. However, the city was spared further damage because an aerial bombardment was canceled, in July, the Americans withdrew and the city was occupied by the Red Army. After World War II, Halle served as the capital of the administrative region of Saxony-Anhalt until 1952. As a part of East Germany, it functioned as the capital of the district of Halle. When Saxony-Anhalt was re-established as a Bundesland in 1990, Magdeburg, not Halle, Halloren Chocolate Factory and visitors centre, Germanys oldest chocolate factory still in use
26.
Christian theology
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Christian theology is the study of Christian belief and practice. Such study concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament, Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument. Systematic theology as a discipline of Christian theology formulates an orderly, rational and coherent account of the Christian faith, inherent to a system of theological thought is that a method is developed, one which can be applied both broadly and particularly. Christian theology has permeated much of Western culture, especially in pre-modern Europe, Revelation is the revealing or disclosing, or making something obvious through active or passive communication with God, and can originate directly from God, or through an agent, such as an angel. One who has experienced such contact is called a prophet. Christianity considers the Bible as divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired, such revelation does not always require the presence of God or an angel. For instance, in the concept called of interior locution by Roman Catholics, thomas Aquinas first described in two types of revelation in Christianity as general revelation and special revelation. General revelation occurs through observation of the created order, such observations can logically lead to important conclusions, such as the existence of God and some of Gods attributes. General revelation is also an element of Christian apologetics, certain specifics, such as the Trinity and the Incarnation, are revealed in the teachings in the Scriptures and can not otherwise be deduced except by special revelation. Christianity regards varied collections of books known as the Bible as authoritative, Biblical inspiration is the doctrine in Christian theology concerned with the divine origin of the Bible and what the Bible teaches about itself. Different groups understand the meaning and details of inspiration in different ways, in many passages of the Bible it claims divine inspiration of itself. In the New Testament, Jesus treats the Old Testament as authoritative and says it cannot be broken in John 10,2 Peter 2 Pet 1, 20–21 says that no prophecy of Scripture. Christians who receive the Bible as authoritative generally think that the Bible is breathed out by God, in English,2 Timothy 3. 16–17 reads, All scripture is given by inspiration of God and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correction and training in righteousness. Some argue that Biblical inspiration can be corroborated by examining the weight of the Bibles moral teaching and its prophecies about the future, corroboration of this sort is a form of Christian apologetics. Others maintain that the authority of the Church and its counsels should carry more or less weight in formulating the doctrine of inspiration, Christianity regards the collections of books known as the Bible as authoritative and written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Some Christians believe that the Bible is inerrant or infallible, in addition, for some Christians, it may be inferred that the Bible cannot both refer to itself as being divinely inspired and also be errant or fallible. For if the Bible were divinely inspired, then the source of inspiration being divine, for them, the doctrines of the divine inspiration, infallibility, and inerrancy, are inseparably tied together. Historians note, or claim, that the doctrine of the Bibles infallibility was adopted hundreds of years after those books were written, the Protestant Old Testament is synonymous with the Hebrew Scriptures included in the Jewish canon, but not the Catholic Old Testament, which contains additional texts
27.
Pennsylvania Ministerium
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The Pennsylvania Ministerium was the first Lutheran church body in North America. With the encouragement of Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, the Ministerium was founded at a Church Conference of Lutheran clergy on August 26,1748. The group was known as the German Evangelical Lutheran Ministerium of North America until 1792, the Pennsylvania Ministerium was also the source of the first Lutheran liturgy in America. Because of its place in the history of North American Lutheranism. The Gloria Dei Church was completed in 1700, German settlers began arriving in North America in the mid-seventeenth century. They were particularly attracted by William Penns promise of freedom in the colony of Pennsylvania. By 1683, the German population was enough to form communities such as Germantown. Many of these immigrants brought with them their Lutheran faith and formed congregations in their new homeland, by the mid-eighteenth century, there was a growing need for well-trained Lutheran clergy in the colonies. With the goal of creating closer union between the preachers, elders, and deacons of the congregations, a conference was proposed. The Pietist foundation at the University of Halle in Germany sent 24 clergymen to minister in the colonies in 1742, among those sent was Henry Melchior Muhlenberg. Tension between pious and orthodox religious interpretations was present in Europe and North American Lutherans at this time, the conference intentionally excluded congregations critical of pious interpretation. A conference was assembled, but disrupted by the orthodox Swedish preacher Rev. Nyburg, tension around this conference extended beyond Pennsylvania. Hartwick of New York were published in a booklet, carl M. Wrangel was criticised by his Swedish colleagues in Delaware for having piestic leanings. Five years later, a conference was again assembled, at Muhlenbergs request, Lutheran pastors met together in Philadelphia on August 26,1748, for the first Church Conference. Six pastors and lay representatives from ten congregations attended the meeting and they successfully adopted a common liturgy to be used in North America. This meeting has become known as the most important event in the history of North American Lutheranism, attendees came from Philadelphia, New Hanover, Providence, Germantown, Tulpehocken, Lancaster, Upper Milford, and Saccum congregations. The fifteenth Church Conference, of 1762, led by Muhlenberg, was held at St Michaels Church, four Swedish and ten German preachers represented area congregations. Muhlenbergs influence went beyond those congregations he served, he organized other Lutheran congregations in Pennsylvania so that they work in cooperation
28.
Stouchsburg, Pennsylvania
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Stouchsburg is an unincorporated community, and a census-designated place, located in extreme western Berks County, Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 600 and it is just off U. S. Route 422 along Main St. in Marion Township, and is served by the Conrad Weiser Area School District. It is three miles northwest of Womelsdorf and four miles east of Myerstown, the Peter Spicker House and Stouchsburg Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places
29.
Lebanon, Pennsylvania
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Lebanon, is a city in and the county seat of Lebanon County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 25,477 at the 2010 census, a 4. 2% increase from the 2000 count of 24,461, Lebanon is located in the central part of the Lebanon Valley,26 miles east of Harrisburg and 29 miles west of Reading. Lebanon was founded by George Steitz in 1740 and was originally named Steitztown, Native tribes in the area of what is now Lebanon included the Shawnee, Susquehannock, Gawanese, Lenape, and Nanticoke peoples. Lebanon was settled by European colonists in 1720, many with the names of Steitz and Light. The Light patriarchs built a fort to protect against Indians and named it Lights Fort, the town was laid out in 1753, incorporated as a borough on February 20,1821, and became a city on November 25,1885. It adopted the form of government, consisting of four councilmen. Lebanon bologna was first made here, Lebanon was formerly home to a major steel mill operated by Bethlehem Steel. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 4.2 square miles. The Quittapahilla Creek drains the city westward into the Susquehanna River via the Swatara Creek. As of the 2010 census, the city was 74. 1% White,5. 9% Black or African American,0. 5% Native American,1. 1% Asian,32. 1% of the population were of Hispanic of Latino ancestry. As of the census of 2000, there were 24,461 people,10,266 households, the population density was 5,844.8 people per square mile. There were 11,220 housing units at a density of 2,681.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 85. 50% White,3. 23% African American,0. 28% Native American,1. 02% Asian,0. 10% Pacific Islander,8. 11% from other races, and 1. 76% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16. 43% of the population,35. 4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the family size was 3.00. In the city, the population was out, with 25. 0% under the age of 18,8. 4% from 18 to 24,29. 5% from 25 to 44,20. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males, the median income for a household in the city was $27,259, and the median income for a family was $34,045
30.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
31.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
32.
Oley Township, Berks County, Pennsylvania
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Oley Township is a township in Berks County, Pennsylvania, United States. As of the 2010 census, the township had a population of 3,620, Oley Township was originally formed in 1740 as a part of Philadelphia County, before Berks County was formed in 1752. The entire township was listed as a district by the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. Daniel Boone was born in Oley Township November 2,1734, according to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 24.2 square miles. 24.2 square miles of it is land, and none of the area is covered with water and it is drained by the Schuylkill River via its tributaries of the Manatawny Creek and Monocacy Creek. Its villages include Limekiln, Oley, Oley Furnace, Pleasantville, Spangsville, the population density was 148.1 people per square mile. There were 1,425 housing units at a density of 58. 9/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 98. 66% White,0. 14% African American,0. 03% Native American,0. 28% Asian,0. 20% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 98% of the population. 19. 8% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.00. In the township the population was out, with 23. 7% under the age of 18,6. 9% from 18 to 24,30. 8% from 25 to 44,24. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 99.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.8 males, the median income for a household in the township was $52,151, and the median income for a family was $58,045. Males had an income of $40,882 versus $27,795 for females. The per capita income for the township was $21,565, about 0. 9% of families and 2. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 4. 8% of those age 65 or over. Oley Valley Oley Valley High School Township website Map of Oley Township Historic District Historic American Building Survey, Oley vicinity Historic American Building Survey, Pleasantville vicinity
33.
Bally, Pennsylvania
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Bally is a borough in Berks County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 1,090 at the 2010 census, the Borough of Bally was originally called Goshenhoppen, possibly deriving from an Indian word meaning meeting place. Others claim the name derives from German settlers from Goshen, PA calling the area their haven or Hafen in German, mennonites and Catholics settled it in the early 18th century. Clergyman Ulrich Beidler erected the first house of worship, the Mennonite Church in 1731, Father Theodore Schneider, a Jesuit priest, came to the area in 1741 and established what would be just the third Catholic mission church in the 13 original colonies. On land received from the Mennonite community, Father Schneider built St. Pauls Chapel in 1743, later in 1743 Father Schneider started a Catholic school at the mission church. The school, originally called St. Aloysius Academy, also marked the beginning of Catholic education in the 13 original colonies, after several name changes, it is currently known as St. Francis Academy, and is the oldest currently operating co-educational Catholic school in the nation. To reflect the many churches in the town, Goshenhoppen was renamed Churchville, when the post office was established in 1883, the townsfolk changed the name to Bally in memory of Fr. Augustine Bally, S. J. A Catholic pastor beloved by all, who had died the previous year, Bally was incorporated as a borough in 1912, with Henry Eddinger, son of Frederick K. and Sophia Eddinger, appointed as the first Burgess. Bally has traditionally been a home of many Pennsylvania Dutch settlers, in 1912, Bally resident Annie Clemmer Funk, a Mennonite missionary to India, died during the sinking of the RMS Titanic. She was en route to Bally to visit her ailing mother, there are numerous business and industry in town, some of which are known internationally. Among the largest industries are Bally Ribbon Mills, Bally Block Co. two other major manufacturers, Great American Knitting Mills and Bally Case and Cooler were founded in Bally, and were located there for decades. The area is well known for its agriculture. Bally lies in the heart of an area named Butter Valley, extending from Hereford, through Bally, the name is due to the large number of dairy farms in the valley. Renowned Italian artist, furniture designer and metal sculpture musician Harry Bertoia settled in the area, Bally is located at 40°24′4″N 75°35′18″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 0.5 square miles. As of the 2010 Census Bally had a population of 1090, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,062 people,413 households, and 304 families residing in the borough. The population density was 2,030.4 people per square mile, there were 426 housing units at an average density of 814.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 98. 78% White,0. 47% African American,0. 19% Native American,0. 47% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 28% of the population
34.
Pennsylvania House of Representatives
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The Pennsylvania House of Representatives is the lower house of the bicameral Pennsylvania General Assembly, the legislature of the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. There are 203 members, elected for two-year terms from single member districts, following the 2016 elections, the house consisted of 121 Republicans and 82 Democrats. Republican Mike Turzai was first elected Speaker of the House on January 6,2015, in 2012, a State Representative district had an average population of 60,498 residents. The house is the largest full-time state legislature in the United States, the Hall of the House contains important symbols to Pennsylvania history and the work of legislators. Speakers Chair, a chair of rank that sits directly behind the Speakers rostrum. Architect Joseph Huston designed the chair in 1906, the year the Capitol was dedicated, mace, the House symbol of authority, peace, order and respect for law rests in a pedestal to the right of the Speaker. Its base is solid mahogany, intricately carved and capped by a globe engraved with the Pennsylvania coat of arms. An American Eagle perches on top, the tradition of the mace may date to the Roman Republic when attendants of Roman consuls carried bundles of sticks wrapped around an axe to enforce order. The tradition is common may also directly from Pennsylvanias English heritage. Murals, a panorama of Pennsylvania history appear in murals by Edwin Austin Abbey. The most commanding of the series hangs behind the Speakers rostrum and it is called The Apotheosis of Pennsylvania Ceiling, a work of art in itself with its ornate geometry of gold leaf buttoned at the center by a charming painted illustration. In The Hours, Abbey represents the passage of time in the form of 24 maidens revolving in an endless circle amidst the moon, the sun, the speakership is the oldest elected statewide office in the Commonwealth. Since its first session in 1682—presided over by William Penn—over 130 house members have elevated to the speakers chair. The house cannot hold a session in the absence of the speaker or his designated speaker pro tempore. Speaker Leroy Irvis was the first African American elected speaker of any legislature in the United States since Reconstruction. Speaker Dennis OBrien was the only minority-party Speaker known in Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania has never had a female speaker. The Pennsylvania House of Representatives has only 40 women out of 203 total representatives in 2017 and this is only 19. 7%, which is below the national average of 23. 1% women in all statewide legislative positions. As of December 1,2016 Speaker of the House of Representatives, Mike Turzai Pennsylvania State Senate Project Vote Smart Specific General Trostle, Sharon, harrisburg, Pennsylvania Department of General Services
35.
United States Constitution
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The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
36.
United States Bill of Rights
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The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787–88 battle over ratification of the U. S, on June 8,1789, Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the constitution in the House of Representatives. Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One, Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Contrary to Madisons original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the body of the Constitution. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15,1791, Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5,1992, as the Twenty-seventh Amendment. Article One is technically still pending before the states, the door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state, the process is known as incorporation. There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence, One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. However, the government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states. The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded, the convention took place from May 14 to September 17,1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention, the 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention. However, the motion was defeated by a vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the bills of rights parchment barriers that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process, thirty-nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it, Mason, Gerry, elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, Hon. Mr. Gerrys Objections, which went through 46 printings, the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution, many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights, Half a loaf is better than no bread, if we cannot secure all our rights, let us secure what we can
37.
Jay Treaty
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The terms of the treaty were designed primarily by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton and strongly supported by chief negotiator John Jay and also by President George Washington. The treaty gained many of the primary American goals, the Americans were granted limited rights to trade with British colonies in the Caribbean in exchange for some limits on the American export of cotton. The treaty was hotly contested by the Jeffersonians in each state and they feared that closer economic ties with Great Britain would strengthen Hamiltons Federalist Party, promote aristocracy, and undercut republicanism. Washingtons announced support proved decisive, and the treaty was ratified by a majority of the U. S. Senate in November 1794 without a single vote to spare. The treaty became an issue of contention, leading to the formation of the First Party System, with the Federalists favoring the British. The treaty was for ten years duration, efforts failed to agree on a replacement treaty in 1806 when Jefferson rejected the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty, as tensions escalated toward the War of 1812. The outbreak of war between France and Great Britain in 1793 ended the peace that had enabled the new nation to flourish in terms of trade. The United States now emerged as an important neutral country with a large shipping trade, from the British perspective, improving relations with the United States was a high priority lest it move into the French orbit. British negotiators ignored elements that wanted harsher terms in order to get a suitable treaty, the British government used the Royal Navy to capture nearly 250 neutral American merchant ships carrying goods from French colonies in the West Indies. Americans were outraged and Republicans in Jeffersons coalition demanded a declaration of war, British officials told Indian tribes near the Canada-U. S. border that the border no longer existed and sold weapons to them. Congress voted for an embargo against Britain in March 1794. Hamilton devised a framework for negotiations, and President George Washington sent Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay to London to negotiate a comprehensive treaty, Britain said it was in response to American refusals to pay debts that had been agreed upon. The British were continuing to impress American sailors into the Royal Navy to fight against France, American merchants wanted compensation for 250 merchant ships which the British had confiscated in 1793 and 1794. Southern interests wanted monetary compensation for slaves owned by Loyalists who were away to the West Indies along with their masters in 1781-83. American merchants wanted the British West Indies to be reopened to American trade, the boundary with Canada was vague in many places, and needed to be more sharply delineated. The British were providing munitions for Indian attacks on settlers in the Northwest, several issues were sent to arbitration, which were resolved amicably mostly in favor of the U. S. Britain paid $11,650,000 for damages to American shipping, while international arbitration was not entirely unknown, the Jay Treaty gave it a strong impetus and is generally taken as the start of modern International arbitration. The British agreed to vacate the western forts by June 1796, the treaty was surprisingly generous and allowing Americans to trade with the British Isles on a most-favored-nation basis
38.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
39.
Urban legend
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These legends can be used for entertainment purposes, as well as for semi-serious explanations for random events such as disappearances and strange objects. Despite its name, an urban legend does not necessarily originate in an urban area, rather, the term is used to differentiate modern legend from traditional folklore of pre-industrial times. For this reason, sociologists and folklorists prefer the contemporary legend. Because people frequently allege that such tales happened to a friend of a friend, Urban legends are spread by any media, including newspapers, e-mail and social media. In America in 1938 a radio dramatization of The War of the Worlds supposedly caused mass panic, in 2005, a widespread legend claimed that a large percentage of people have a biological father who is not their assumed father. Some urban legends have passed through the years only minor changes to suit regional variations. More recent legends tend to reflect modern circumstances, like the story of people ambushed and anesthetized, who awaken minus one kidney, the term urban legend, as used by folklorists, has appeared in print since at least 1968. Jan Harold Brunvand, professor of English at the University of Utah, many urban legends are framed as complete stories with plot and characters. The compelling appeal of an urban legend is its elements of mystery, horror. Often they serve as cautionary tales, some urban legends are morality tales that depict someone, usually a child, acting in a disagreeable manner, only to wind up in trouble, hurt, or dead. As Jan Brunvand points out antecedent legends including some of the motifs, themes, the teller of an urban legend may claim it happened to a friend, which serves to personalize, authenticate and enhance the power of the narrative while distancing the teller. Many urban legends depict horrific crimes, contaminated foods, or other situations which would affect many people. Anyone believing such stories might feel compelled to warn loved ones, not seldom, news organizations, school officials and even police departments have issued warnings concerning the latest threat. A fax received at the Nassau County, Florida fire department was forwarded to police, even the Minister of Defence for Canada was taken in by the same legend, he forwarded an urgent security warning to all Ontario Members of Parliament. Many urban legends are essentially extended jokes, told as if they were true events, persistent urban legends often maintain a degree of plausibility, for instance a serial killer deliberately hiding in the back seat of a car. One such example since the 1970s has been the rumor that the Procter & Gamble Company was associated with Satan-worshippers because of details within its nineteenth-century trademark. The legend interrupted the companys business to the point that it stopped using the trademark, the coinage leads in turn to the terms FOAFlore and FOAFtale. Here the authors make a connection between urban legends and popular folklore, such as Grimms Fairy Tales where similar themes and motifs arise
40.
Muhlenberg legend
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The Muhlenberg legend is an urban legend in the United States and Germany. According to the legend, the vote of Frederick Muhlenberg. The kernel of truth behind this legend is a vote in the United States House of Representatives in 1794 and this petition was rejected by a 42 to 41 vote and Muhlenberg was later quoted as having said the faster the Germans become Americans, the better it will be. The United States has no official language, English has been used on a de facto basis. At times various states have passed their own official language laws, the legend has a long history, and led to a number of analyses and articles published from the late 1920s into the early 1950s explaining why the story was not true. The story was dubbed the Muhlenberg legend by at least the late 1940s, for example, in 1987, a letter from a former election official in Missouri emphasized the importance of voting in an Ann Landers column. He included a list of events allegedly decided by one vote from his local election manual, including that “in 1776 and this led to another round of news stories again pointing out that this was a myth. Oblivious to corrections of this sort, Ann Landers ran the same list again in November 1996, a chorus of dismayed responses caused Landers to clear up the matter in a subsequent column. According to one writer, who begged Landers to stomp out that piece of fiction wherever you encounter it. Another version of the myth puts the vote in 1774 by the Continental Congress, Ripleys included the myth in a 1982 book as well. Ripleys version credits the story to a letter by Heinrich Melchior Muhlenberg published in Halle in 1887. Most accounts credit Franz von Löher as the source of the legend, Löher was a German visitor to America who published the book Geschichte und Zustände der Deutschen in Amerika in 1847. Löher seemingly placed the crucial vote only in Pennsylvania, to make German the official language of that state, according to Löher, the vote was tied, and Muhlenberg cast the tie-breaking vote for English. German language in the United States Languages of the United States Von Löher, Geschichte und Zustände der Deutschen in Amerika via archive. org
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Muhlenberg, John Peter Gabriel". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
