1.
Lawrence Lessig
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Lester Lawrence Larry Lessig III is an American academic, attorney, and political activist. He is the Roy L. Furman Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, Lessig was a candidate for the Democratic Partys nomination for President of the United States in the 2016 U. S. presidential election, but withdrew before the primaries. Lessig is a proponent of reduced legal restrictions on copyright, trademark, in 2001, he founded Creative Commons, a non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon and to share legally. Prior to his most recent appointment at Harvard, he was a professor of law at Stanford Law School, where he founded the Center for Internet and Society, and at the University of Chicago. As a political activist, Lessig has called for state-based activism to promote reform of government with a Second Constitutional Convention. In May 2014, he launched a political action committee which he termed Mayday PAC with the purpose of electing candidates to Congress who would pass campaign finance reform. Lessig is also the co-founder of Rootstrikers, and is on the boards of MapLight and he serves on the advisory boards of the Democracy Café and the Sunlight Foundation. In August 2015, Lessig announced that he was exploring a candidacy for President of the United States. After accomplishing this, on September 6,2015, Lessig announced that he was entering the race to become a candidate for the 2016 Democratic Partys presidential nomination, Lessig has described his candidacy as a referendum on campaign finance reform and electoral reform legislation. He stated that, if elected, he would serve a term as president with his proposed reforms as his legislative priorities. In November 2015, he ended his campaign, Lessig started his academic career at the University of Chicago Law School, where he was Professor from 1991 to 1997. As co-director of the Center for the Study of Constitutionalism in Eastern Europe there, from 1997 to 2000, he was at Harvard Law School, holding for a year the chair of Berkman Professor of Law, affiliated with the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society. He subsequently joined Stanford Law School, where he established the schools Center for Internet, Lessig returned to Harvard in July 2009 as Professor and Director of the Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics. In 2013, Lessig was appointed as the Roy L. Furman Professor of Law and Leadership, his lecture was titled Aarons Laws, Law. Lessig was portrayed by Christopher Lloyd in The Wake Up Call, Lessig has been politically liberal since studying philosophy at Cambridge in the mid-1980s. Posner would later call him the most distinguished law professor of his generation, Lessig has emphasized in interviews that his philosophy experience at Cambridge radically changed his values and career path. What was intended to be a year abroad at Cambridge convinced him instead to another two years to complete an undergraduate degree in philosophy and develop his changed political values. During this time, he traveled in the Eastern Bloc
2.
Social movement
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Social movements are a type of group action. They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on political or social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist, or undo a social change, modern Western social movements became possible through education and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies. However, others point out many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya. Either way, social movements have been and continued to be connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often utilize technology and the internet to people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U. S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement, the systematic literature review of Buettner & Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements, there is no single consensus definition of a social movement. For Tilly, social movements are a vehicle for ordinary peoples participation in public politics. Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as collective challenges by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and he specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups. The first mass social movement catalyzed around the political figure. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, as a result of this episode, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes - people began chanting, Wilkes and Liberty in the streets. After a later period of exile, brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the Kings Bench Prison on 10 May 1768 and this was the first ever sustained social movement, -it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. The force and influence of social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movements demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional, the Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon
3.
Free content
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Free content, libre content, or free information, is any kind of functional work, work of art, or other creative content that meets the definition of a free cultural work. Free content encompasses all works in the domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor. Although there are a great many different definitions in regular use, free content is legally very similar, if not like an identical twin. An analogy is the use of the terms free software and open source. For instance, the Open Knowledge Foundations Open Definition describes open as synonymous to the definition of free in the Definition of Free Cultural Works, for such free/open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses, the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0. Copyright is a concept, which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication. In many jurisdictions, this is limited by a period after which the works then enter the public domain. Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works. During the time period of copyright the authors work may only be copied, modified, or publicly performed with the consent of the author, unless the use is a fair use. Traditional copyright control limits the use of the work of the author to those who pay royalties to the author for usage of the authors content. Secondly it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found, a public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public, or no longer can claim control over, the distribution and usage of the work. As such any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise utilize the work, a work in the public domain or released under a permissive licence may be referred to as copycenter. Copyleft is a play on the copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies. The aim of copyleft is to use the framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the terms. A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the symbol, facing the other way. Unlike the copyright symbol, the symbol does not have a codified meaning. Projects that provide free content exist in areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video
4.
Open content
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Open content is a neologism coined by David Wiley in 1998 which describes a creative work that others can copy or modify. The term evokes the concept of open source software. It has since come to describe a class of content without conventional copyright restrictions. Unlike open source and free content, there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as open content, in 2003 Wiley announced that the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses, where he joined as Director of Educational Licenses. The Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation, in 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as Approved for Free Cultural Works among other licenses. Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation, founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge, UK in 2004 as a global network to promote and share open content. In October 2014 with version 2, a distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain and that it focuses also on the accessibility and the readability. Among several conformant licenses, six are recommended, three own and the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0 creative commons licenses. The OpenContent website once defined OpenContent as freely available for modification, use, however, such a definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbade charging a fee for the itself, a right required by free and open source software licenses. The term since shifted in meaning, OpenContent is licensed in a manner that provides users with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities. However, it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources, Open access refers to toll-free or gratis access to content, consisting mainly of published peer-reviewed scholarly journal articles. Some open access works are also licensed for reuse and redistribution, over the past decade, open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education. Traditional universities are expensive, and their rates are increasing. Open content allows a way of obtaining higher education that is focused on collective knowledge. There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content, including OpenCourseWare Initiative, The Saylor Foundation, some universities, like MIT, Yale, and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet. The textbook industry is one of the industries in which open content can make the biggest impact. Traditional textbooks, aside from being expensive, can also be inconvenient and out of date, Open textbooks help to eliminate this problem, because they are online and thus easily updatable. Being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers, because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teachers unique curriculum, there are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks
5.
Opposition to copyright
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Adherents advocate for complete or partial change or remission of current legislation. Normally copyright is enforced within a framework of the Berne Convention, instituted by Victor Hugo, numerous international copyright treaties have since been passed, but copyright law is different in all countries. The classic argument for copyright is that granting creators temporary monopolies over works—giving them an income will encourage producing future works as well, in the context of the Internet and new technological advances, opponents argue that copyright law needs to be adapted to modern information technology. Pirate Cinema and groups like The League of Noble Peers advance more radical arguments, one well-publicised instance of electronic civil disobedience in the form of large scale intentional copyright infringement occurred on February 24,2004, in an event called Grey Tuesday. French group Association des audionautes is not anti-copyright per se, but proposes a system for copyright enforcement. Aziz Ridouan, co-founder of the group, proposes for France to legalise peer-to-peer file sharing, reportedly, major music companies have equated Ridouans proposal with legitimising piracy. Its the only solution, unless we want a more extensive control of what citizens do on the Internet. Universal Music Corp and Canadas Copyright Modernization Act, groups that argue for using existing copyright legal framework with special licences to achieve their goals, include the copyleft movement and Creative Commons. Creative Commons is not anti-copyright per se, but argues for use of more flexible, Creative Commons takes the position that there is an unmet demand for flexibility that allows the copyright owner to release work with only some rights reserved or even no rights reserved. According to Creative Commons many people do not regard default copyright as helping them in gaining the exposure, Creative Commons argue that their licences allow entrepreneurs and artists to employ innovative business models rather than all-out copyright to secure a return on their creative investment. Scholars and commentators in this field include Lawrence Liang, Jorge Cortell, Rasmus Fleischer, Stephan Kinsella, traditional anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy, expressed their refusal to accept copyright. There is an argument that copyright is invalid because, unlike physical property and that is, infringing on copyright, unlike theft, does not deprive the victim of the original item, and so enforcement of copyright law constitutes aggression on the part of the state. It is entirely unclear that copyright laws are useful, even for the majority of authors. One of the founders of Piratbyrån, Rasmus Fleischer, argues that copyright law simply seems unable to cope with the Internet and he argues that the Internet, and particularly Web 2.0 have brought about the uncertain status of the very idea of stealing itself. He argues that in an attempt to rein in Web 2, Fleischer points out that Google, while still largely uncontested, operates in a gray zone of copyright. In contrast, others have pointed out that Google Books blocks-out large sections of those books, which motivates purchases. Groups such as Hipatia advance anti-copyright arguments in the name of freedom of knowledge and they argue that current copyright law hinders the realisation of these rights in todays knowledge societies relying on new technological means of communication. Such groups see copyright law as preventing or slowing human progress and they argue that the current copyright system needs to be brought into line with reality and the needs of society
6.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
7.
Creative Commons
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Creative Commons is an American non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright-licenses known as Creative Commons licenses free of charge to the public and these licenses allow creators to communicate which rights they reserve, and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy-to-understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, Creative Commons licenses do not replace copyright, but are based upon it. The result is an agile, low-overhead and low-cost copyright-management regime, Wikipedia uses one of these licenses. The organization was founded in 2001 by Lawrence Lessig, Hal Abelson, the first article in a general interest publication about Creative Commons, written by Hal Plotkin, was published in February 2002. The first set of licenses was released in December 2002. In 2003 the Open Content Project, a 1998 precursor project by David A. Wiley, announced the Creative Commons as successor project, matthew Haughey and Aaron Swartz also played a role in the early stages of the project. As of January 2016 there were an estimated 1.1 billion works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses, as of March 2015, Flickr alone hosts over 306 million Creative Commons licensed photos. Creative Commons is governed by a board of directors and their licenses have been embraced by many as a way for creators to take control of how they choose to share their copyrighted works. Beyond that, Creative Commons has provided institutional, practical and legal support for individuals and groups wishing to experiment, Creative Commons attempts to counter what Lawrence Lessig, founder of Creative Commons, considers to be a dominant and increasingly restrictive permission culture. Lessig describes this as a culture in which creators get to create only with the permission of the powerful, as of 2017, they are Paul Keller, Jonathan Nightingale, Chris Thorne. As of 2015, there are more than 100 affiliates working in over 75 jurisdictions to support, Creative Commons Korea is the affiliated network of Creative Commons in South Korea. In March 2005, CC Korea was initiated by Jongsoo Yoon, the major Korean portal sites, including Daum and Naver, have been participating in the use of Creative Commons licences. In January 2009, the Creative Commons Korea Association was consequently founded as an incorporated association. Since then, CC Korea has been promoting the liberal. Since March 15,2012 he has been detained by the Syrian government in Damascus at Adra Prison, on October 17,2015 Creative Commons Board of Directors approved a resolution calling for Bassel Khartabil release. All current CC licenses require attribution, which can be inconvenient for works based on other works. Critics also worried that the lack of rewards for content producers will dissuade artists from publishing their work, Creative Commons founder Lawrence Lessig countered that copyright laws have not always offered the strong and seemingly indefinite protection that todays law provides
8.
Creative Commons license
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A Creative Commons license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work. A CC license is used when an author wants to give people the right to share, use, there are several types of CC licenses. The licenses differ by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution and they were initially released on December 16,2002 by Creative Commons, a U. S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, as of 2016, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. In October 2014 the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA, work licensed under a Creative Commons license is governed by applicable copyright law. This allows Creative Commons licenses to be applied to all work falling under copyright, including, books, plays, movies, music, articles, photographs, blogs, Creative Commons does not recommend the use of Creative Commons licenses for software. There are over 35,000 works that are available in hardcopy and have a registered ISBN number, Creative Commons splits these works into two categories, one of which encompasses self-published books. However, application of a Creative Commons license may not modify the rights allowed by fair use or fair dealing or exert restrictions which violate copyright exceptions, furthermore, Creative Commons licenses are non-exclusive and non-revocable. Any work or copies of the work obtained under a Creative Commons license may continue to be used under that license, in the case of works protected by multiple Creative Common licenses, the user may choose either. The CC licenses all grant the rights, such as the right to distribute the copyrighted work worldwide for non-commercial purposes. For software, Creative Commons includes three free licenses created by other institutions, the BSD License, the GNU LGPL, mixing and matching these conditions produces sixteen possible combinations, of which eleven are valid Creative Commons licenses and five are not. Of the five invalid combinations, four include both the nd and sa clauses, which are exclusive, and one includes none of the clauses. Of the eleven valid combinations, the five that lack the by clause have been retired because 98% of licensors requested attribution, to address this issue, Creative Commons asked its affiliates to translate the various licenses to reflect local laws in a process called porting. As of July 2011, Creative Commons licenses have been ported to over 50 jurisdictions worldwide, the latest version 4.0 of the Creative Commons licenses, released on November 25,2013, are generic licenses that are applicable to most jurisdictions and do not usually require ports. No new ports have implemented in version 4.0 of the license. Version 4.0 discourages using ported versions and instead acts as a single global license, since 2004, all current licenses require attribution of the original author, the BY component. The attribution must be given to the best of ability using the information available, generally this implies the following, Include any copyright notices. Cite the authors name, screen name, or user ID, if the work is being published on the Internet, it is nice to link that name to the persons profile page, if such a page exists
9.
Remix culture
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Remix culture, sometimes read-write culture, is a society that allows and encourages derivative works by combining or editing existing materials to produce a new creative work or product. A remix culture would be, by default, permissive of efforts to improve upon, change, integrate, the remix culture for cultural works is related and inspired by the earlier Free and open source software for software movement, which encourages the reuse and remixing of software works. In the usual Read Only media culture is the culture consumed more or less passively, the information or product is provided by a professional source, the content industry, that possesses an authority on that particular product/information. There is a one-way flow only of creative content and ideas due to a clear separation between content producer and content consumer. Digital technology does not have the natural constraints of the analog that preceded it, RO culture had to be recoded in order to compete with the free distribution made possible by the Internet. This is primarily done in the form of Digital Rights Management, regardless, DRM has proven largely ineffective in enforcing the constraints of analog media. As opposed to RO culture, Read/Write culture has a relationship between the producer and the consumer. Taking works, such as songs, and appropriating them in circles is exemplary of RW culture. The technologies and copyright laws that soon followed, however, changed the dynamics of popular culture, as it became professionalized, people were taught to defer production to the professionals. Digital technologies provide the tools for reviving RW culture and democratizing production, blogs explain the three layers of this democratization. Blogs have redefined our relationship to the content industry as they allowed access to non-professional, the comments feature that soon followed provided a space for readers to have a dialogue with the amateur contributors. Tagging of the blogs by users based on the content provided the necessary layer for users to filter the sea of content according to their interest. The third layer added bots that analyzed the relationship between various websites by counting the clicks between them and, thus, organizing a database of preferences, the three layers working together established an ecosystem of reputation that served to guide users through the blogosphere. For Remix culture to survive it must be shared and created or remixed by contributors and this is where Participatory culture comes into play, because consumers start participating by becoming contributors, especially the many teens growing up with these media cultures. This form of teaching enforces the correlation between participatory and remix culture while highlighting its importance in evolving literature, since media culture consumers start to look at art and content as something that can be repurposed or recreated therefore making them the producer. Remix culture has created an environment that is impossible for artists to have or own original work. Media and the internet has made art so public that it leaves the work up for interpretation and in return. A major example of this in the 21st century is the idea of memes, once one is put into cyberspace it is automatically assumed that someone else can come along and remix the picture
10.
Free software movement
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Although drawing on traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s hacker culture and academia, Richard Stallman formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project. Stallman later established the Free Software Foundation in 1985 to support the movement, the philosophy of the movement is that the use of computers should not lead to people being prevented from cooperating with each other. Stallman notes that this action will promote rather than hinder the progression of technology and this effort can go instead into advancing the state of the art. Members of the free software movement believe that all users of software should have the freedoms listed in The Free Software Definition, while social change may occur as an unintended by-product of technological change, advocates of new technologies often have promoted them as instruments of positive social change. This quote by San Jose State professor Joel West explains much of the philosophy, if it is assumed that social change is not only affected, but in some points of view, directed by the advancement of technology, is it ethical to hold these technologies from certain people. If not to make a change, this movement is in place to raise awareness about the effects that take place because of the physical things around us. A computer, for instance, allows us so many more freedoms than we have without a computer, the debate over the morality of both sides to the free software movement is a difficult topic to compromise respective opposition. Within the free movement, the FLOSS Manuals foundation specialises on the goal of providing such documentation. Members of the free software movement advocate that works which serve a practical purpose should also be free, the core work of the free software movement focused on software development. The free software movement also rejects proprietary software, refusing to install software that does not give them the freedoms of free software, some supporters of the free software movement take up public speaking, or host a stall at software-related conferences to raise awareness of software freedom. The ideas sparked by the GNU associates are an attempt to promote an environment that understands the benefits of having a local community. A lot of lobbying work has been done against software patents, other lobbying focusses directly on use of free software by government agencies and government-funded projects. The Venezuelan government implemented a free software law in January 2006, decree No.3,390 mandated all government agencies to migrate to free software over a two-year period. Congressmen Edgar David Villanueva and Jacques Rodrich Ackerman have been instrumental in introducing free software in Peru, the incident invited the attention of got Microsoft Inc, Peru, whose general manager wrote a letter to Villanueva. His response received worldwide attention and is seen as a piece of argumentation favouring use of free software in governments. In the United States, there have been efforts to pass legislation at the state level encouraging use of software by state government agencies. Like many social movements, the free movement has ongoing internal conflict between the many FOSS organizations and their personalities. For instance there is disagreement about the amount of compromises and pragmatism needed versus the need for strict adherence to values, after this Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens founded the Open Source Initiative, to promote the term open source software as an alternative term for free software
11.
Open access
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Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access and free of many restrictions on use. These additional usage rights are granted through the use of various specific Creative Commons licenses. There are multiple ways authors can provide access to their work. One way is to publish it and then self-archive it in a repository where it can be accessed for free, such as their institutional repository and this is known as green open access. Some publishers require delays, or an embargo, on when an output in a repository may be made open access. Several initiatives provide an alternative to the American and English language dominance of existing publication indexing systems, including Index Copernicus, SciELO and Redalyc. A second way authors can make their work open access is by publishing it in such a way that makes their research output immediately available from the publisher. This is known as open access, and within the sciences this often takes the form of publishing an article in either an open access journal. Pure open access journals do not charge fees, and may have one of a variety of business models. Many, however, do charge an article processing fee, widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the late 1990s and early 2000s fueled the open access movement, and prompted both the green open access way and the creation of open access journals. Conventional non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, some non-open access journals provide open access after an embargo period of 6–12 months or longer. The Budapest statement defined open access as follows, There are many degrees, despite these statements emerging in the 2000s, the idea and practise of providing free online access to journal articles began at least a decade before the term open access was formally coined. Computer scientists had been self-archiving in anonymous ftp archives since the 1970s, the Subversive Proposal to generalize the practice was posted in 1994. Gratis OA refers to online access, and libre OA refers to free online access plus some additional re-use rights. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions had corresponded only to libre OA, the re-use rights of libre OA are often specified by various specific Creative Commons licenses, these almost all require attribution of authorship to the original authors. Open access itself began to be sought and provided worldwide by researchers when the possibility itself was opened by the advent of Internet, the momentum was further increased by a growing movement for academic journal publishing reform, and with it gold and libre OA. Electronic publishing created new benefits as compared to paper publishing but beyond that, rather than applying traditional notions of copyright to academic publications, they could be libre or free to build upon. The intended audience of research articles is usually other researchers, Open access helps researchers as readers by opening up access to articles that their libraries do not subscribe to
12.
Hacker culture
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The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities in a spirit of playfulness, however, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves, but the manner in which it is done and whether it is something exciting and meaningful. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology s Tech Model Railroad Club, Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program, What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could and they also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in an exciting way than anyone believed possible. I bet you didnt believe this could be done, as documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general publics usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them crackers instead. The word hacker derives from the word of a lusty laborer who harvested fields by dogged. Although the idea of hacking has existed long before the term hacker—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, in fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word hacker, some common nicknames among this culture include crackers who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include phreak—which refers to a type of skilled crackers and warez d00dz—which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software, within all hackers are tiers of hackers such as the samurai who are hackers that hire themselves out for legal electronic locksmith work. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. Over time, the hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology. Many of the values and tenets of the free and open software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race and you can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better, Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Hack value is the used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that often feel intuitively about a problem or solution
13.
Copyleft
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Copyleft software licenses are considered protective or reciprocal, as contrasted with permissive free software licenses. Copyleft is a form of licensing, and can be used to maintain copyright conditions for works ranging from software, to documents. In general, copyright law is used by an author to prohibit recipients from reproducing, adapting, Copyleft licenses for software require that information necessary for reproducing and modifying the work must be made available to recipients of the binaries. The source code files will usually contain a copy of the license terms, Copyleft type licenses are a novel use of existing copyright law to ensure a work remains freely available. The GNU General Public License, originally written by Richard Stallman, was the first software license to see extensive use. Creative Commons, an organization founded by Lawrence Lessig, provides a similar license provision condition called share-alike. Copyleft is a licensing scheme in which an author surrenders some. Under copyleft, derived works may be produced provided they are released under the compatible copyleft scheme, the underlying principle is that one benefits freely from the work of others, but any modifications one makes public must be released under similar terms. For this reason some copyleft licenses are also known as reciprocal licenses, under fair use, however, the copyleft license may be superseded, just like regular copyrights. Therefore, any person utilizing a copyleft-licensed source for their own work is free to any other license provided they meet the fair use standard. According to Free Software Foundation compliance engineer David Turner, the term viral license creates a misunderstanding and a fear of using copylefted free software. If the firm actually copied code from a GPLd program, such a suit would be a perfectly ordinary assertion of copyright, which most private firms would defend if the shoe were on the other foot. Richard Stallman has described this view with an analogy, saying, The GPLs domain does not spread by proximity or contact and it spreads like a spider plant, not like a virus. In particular, permissive free licenses such as BSD allow re-distributors to remove some or all these rights. Reuses of open source software which subvert the freedom of the software by adding extra restrictions are called open source hijacking, other forms of open source licensing are susceptible to hijacking, so creators who desire that their work remain free may choose to use copyleft. The Open Directory Project, which is created and maintained entirely by volunteer editors, since all of the top search engines use DMOZ, it is an extremely important public commodity which is entirely built by volunteer contributions. Despite this, the DMOZ has remained a product for its entire existence. The economic incentives to work on copyleft content can vary, traditional copyright law is designed to promote progress by providing economic benefits to creators
14.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
15.
Stewart Brand
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Stewart Brand is an American writer, best known as editor of the Whole Earth Catalog. He founded a number of organizations, including The WELL, the Global Business Network, and he is the author of several books, most recently Whole Earth Discipline, An Ecopragmatist Manifesto. He studied biology at Stanford University, graduating in 1960 and he was married to Lois Jennings, an Ottawa Native American and mathematician. As a soldier in the U. S. Army, he was a parachutist and taught infantry skills, Brand has lived in California since the 1960s. He and his wife live on Mirene, a 64-foot -long working tugboat. Built in 1912, the boat is moored in a shipyard in Sausalito. He works in Mary Heartline, a fishing boat about 100 yards away. A favorite item of his is a table on which Otis Redding is said to have written “ The Dock of the Bay”, through engaging in scholarship and by visiting numerous Indian reservations, Brand familiarized himself with the Native Americans of the West. Native Americans have continued to be an important cultural interest, one which has continually re-emerged in Brands work in various ways, by the mid-1960s, Brand became associated with author Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters. With his partner Zach Stewart, he produced the Trips Festival in San Francisco and this was one of the first venues at which the Grateful Dead performed in San Francisco. About 10,000 hippies attended, and Haight-Ashbury soon emerged as a community, tom Wolfe describes Brand in the beginning of his 1968 book, The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. In 1966, Brand campaigned to have NASA release the satellite image of the entire Earth as seen from space. He sold and distributed buttons for 25 cents each asking, Why havent we seen a photograph of the whole Earth yet, during this campaign, Brand met Richard Buckminster Fuller, who offered to help Brand with his projects. In 1967, a satellite, ATS-3, took the photo, Brand thought the image of our planet would be a powerful symbol. It adorned the first edition of the Whole Earth Catalog, later in 1968, a NASA astronaut took an Earth photo, Earthrise, from Moon orbit, which became the front image of the spring 1969 edition of the Catalog. 1970 saw the first celebration of Earth Day, during a 2003 interview, Brand explained that the image gave the sense that Earth’s an island, surrounded by a lot of inhospitable space. And it’s so graphic, this blue, white, green. During the late 1960s and early 1970s about 10 million Americans were involved in living communally, Brand and his wife Lois travelled to communes in a 1963 Dodge truck known as the Whole Earth Truck Store, which moved to a storefront in Menlo Park, California
16.
Whole Earth Catalog
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The Whole Earth Catalog was an American counterculture magazine and product catalog published by Stewart Brand several times a year between 1968 and 1972, and occasionally thereafter, until 1998. The magazine featured essays and articles, but was focused on product reviews. The editorial focus was on self-sufficiency, ecology, alternative education, do it yourself, and holism, while WEC listed and reviewed a wide range of products, it did not sell any of the products directly. Instead, the contact information was listed alongside the item. This is why, while not a regularly published periodical, numerous editions and updates were required to keep price, the title Whole Earth Catalog came from a previous project by Stewart Brand. In 1966, he initiated a campaign to have NASA release the then-rumored satellite photo of the sphere of Earth as seen from space. He thought the image might be a symbol, evoking a sense of shared destiny. Andrew Kirk in Counterculture Green notes that the Whole Earth Catalog was preceded by the Whole Earth Truck Store. The WETS was a 1963 Dodge truck, In 1968, Brand, who was then 29, the truck was not only a store, but also an alternative lending library and a mobile microeducation service. Kevin Kelly, who would edit later editions of the catalog, summarizes the early history this way, The Truck Store finally settled into its permanent location in Menlo Park. Instead of bringing the store to the people, Brand decided to create larger versions of his tool catalog”. Using the most basic typesetting and page-layout tools, Brand and his colleagues created the first issue of The Whole Earth Catalog in 1968, in subsequent issues, its production values gradually improved. Its outsize pages measured 11×14 inches, later editions were more than an inch thick. The early editions were published by the Portola Institute, headed by Richard Raymond, the so-called Last Whole Earth Catalogue won the first U. S. National Book Award in category Contemporary Affairs. It was the first time a catalog had ever won such an award, Brands intent with the catalog was to provide education and access to tools so a reader could find his own inspiration, shape his own environment, and share his adventure with whoever is interested. J. Baldwin was a designer and instructor of design at colleges around the San Francisco Bay. As he recalled in the film Ecological Design, Stewart Brand came to me because he heard that I read catalogs. He said, I want to make this thing called a whole Earth catalog so that anyone on Earth can pick up a telephone and find out the complete information on anything. That’s my goal
17.
Freedom of information
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This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right includes not only the content, but also the means of expression. Freedom of information refers to the right to privacy in the content of the Internet. As with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a human right. Lastly, freedom of information can include opposition to patents, opposition to copyrights or opposition to intellectual property in general, the international and United States Pirate Party have established political platforms based largely on freedom of information issues. In June 2006 nearly 70 countries had freedom of information legislations applying to information held by government bodies, in 19 of these countries the freedom of information legislation also applied to private bodies. This has led a number of countries to enact freedom of information legislation in the past 10 years. In recent years, private bodies have started to perform functions which were carried out by public bodies. As of 2006,70 countries had freedom of information legislation for public bodies. Such legislation was pending in a further 50 countries, in the Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic, Finland, Trinidad and Tobago, Slovakia, Poland and Iceland private bodies that receive public funding are subject to freedom of information legislation. Freedom of information legislation in Estonia, France and UK covers private bodies in certain sectors, in South Africa the access provisions of the Promotion of Access to Information Act have been used by individuals to establish why their loan application has been denied. Access to information became regarded as a basic right, and preventive disclosure, i. e. the disclosure of information on threats to human lives, health and safety. Secretive decision making by directors and corporate scandal led to freedom of information legislation to be published for the benefits of investors. Such legislation was first adopted in Britain in the early 20th century, disclosure regimes for the benefit of investors regained attention at the beginning of the 21st century as a number of corporate scandals were linked to accounting fraud and company director secrecy. Freedom of information refers to the protection of the right to freedom of expression with regard to the Internet. Freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i. e. the ability to access Web content, communication is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society, everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits the Information Society offers. The digital rights group Hacktivismo, founded in 1999, argues that access to information is a human right. The Declaration recalls the duty of states to the ICCPR to protect the right to freedom of expression with regard to the internet
18.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
19.
Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act
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The Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 extended copyright terms in the United States. It is one of several acts extending the terms of copyrights, following the Copyright Act of 1976, copyright would last for the life of the author plus 50 years, or 75 years for a work of corporate authorship. The 1998 Act extended these terms to life of the author plus 70 years and for works of authorship to 120 years after creation or 95 years after publication. Copyright protection for works published before January 1,1978, was increased by 20 years to a total of 95 years from their publication date, unlike copyright extension legislation in the European Union, the Sonny Bono Act did not revive copyrights that had already expired. The Act did extend the terms of set for works that were already copyrighted. However, works created before January 1,1978, but not published or registered for copyright until recently, are addressed in a special section, additionally, they are permitted to provide for a longer term of protection. The United States did not become a Berne signatory until 1988, since the 1993 Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection, member states of the European Union implemented protection for a term of the authors life plus seventy years. The act was named in memory of the late Congressman Sonny Bono, House members sympathetic to restaurant and bar owners, who were upset over ASCAP and BMI licensing practices, almost derailed the Act. As a result, the bill was amended to include the Fairness in Music Licensing Act, both houses of the United States Congress passed the act as Public Law 105-298 with a voice vote. President Bill Clinton signed the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 on October 27,1998, the Senate Report gave the official reasons for passing copyright extension laws and was originally written in the context of the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1995. The bill accomplishes these goals by extending the current U. S. copyright term for an additional 21 years, since 1990, The Walt Disney Company had lobbied for copyright extension. The legalisation delayed the entry into the domain of the earliest Mickey Mouse movies. In addition to Disney, California congresswoman Mary Bono, and the estate of composer George Gershwin supported the act, Mary Bono, speaking on the floor of the United States House of Representatives, said, Actually, Sonny wanted the term of copyright protection to last forever. I am informed by staff that such a change would violate the Constitution, as you know, there is also Jack Valentis proposal for term to last forever less one day. Perhaps the Committee may look at that next Congress and this was one of the arguments that prevailed in the Eldred v. Ashcroft case, when the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the CTEA. It is also pointed out by proponents that the extension did not prevent all works from going in the public domain and they also claim that Congress has actually increased the scope of the public domain since, for the first time, unpublished works will enter the public domain. Proponents believe that copyright encourages progress in the arts, proponents contend that it is more important to encourage all creators to make new works instead of just copyright holders. Proponents say that copyright better preserves intellectual property like movies, music, one example given is the case of the classic film Its a Wonderful Life
20.
The Walt Disney Company
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The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney, is an American diversified multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate, headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California. It is the second largest media conglomerate in terms of revenue. Disney was founded on October 16,1923 – by brothers Walt Disney, the company also operated under the names The Walt Disney Studio and then Walt Disney Productions. Taking on its current name in 1986, it expanded its operations and also started divisions focused upon theater, radio, music, publishing. In addition, Disney has since created corporate divisions in order to more mature content than is typically associated with its flagship family-oriented brands. The company is best known for the products of its studio, Walt Disney Studios. Disneys other three divisions are Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, Disney Media Networks, and Disney Consumer Products. The company has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since May 6,1991, Mickey Mouse, an early and well-known cartoon creation of the company, is a primary symbol and mascot for Disney. In early 1923, Kansas City, Missouri, animator Walt Disney created a film entitled Alices Wonderland. After the bankruptcy in 1923 of his previous firm, Laugh-O-Gram Studios, Disney moved to Hollywood to join his brother, Walt and Roy Disney formed Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio that same year. More animated films followed after Alice, in January 1926, with the completion of the Disney studio on Hyperion Street, the Disney Brothers Studios name was changed to the Walt Disney Studio. The distributor owned Oswald, so Disney only made a few hundred dollars, Disney completed 26 Oswald shorts before losing the contract in February 1928, due to a legal loophole, when Winklers husband Charles Mintz took over their distribution company. After failing to take over the Disney Studio, Mintz hired away four of Disneys primary animators to start his own animation studio, Snappy Comedies. In 1928, to recover from the loss of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, Disney came up with the idea of a character named Mortimer while on a train headed to California. The mouse was later renamed Mickey Mouse and starred in several Disney produced films, ub Iwerks refined Disneys initial design of Mickey Mouse. Disneys first sound film Steamboat Willie, a cartoon starring Mickey, was released on November 18,1928 through Pat Powers distribution company and it was the first Mickey Mouse sound cartoon released, but the third to be created, behind Plane Crazy and The Gallopin Gaucho. Disney used Pat Powers Cinephone system, created by Powers using Lee De Forests Phonofilm system, Steamboat Willie premiered at B. S. Mosss Colony Theater in New York City, now The Broadway Theatre. Disneys Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho were then retrofitted with synchronized sound tracks, Disney continued to produce cartoons with Mickey Mouse and other characters, and began the Silly Symphonies series with Columbia Pictures signing on as Symphonies distributor in August 1929
21.
Students for Free Culture
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Students for Free Culture, formerly known as FreeCulture. org, is an international student organization working to promote free culture ideals, such as cultural participation and access to information. Students for Free Culture has over 30 chapters on campuses around the world. Students for Free Culture is sometimes referred to as FreeCulture, the Free Culture Movement, and other variations on the free culture theme, the SCDC had been concerned about electronic voting machines using proprietary software rather than open source software, and kept an eye on the situation. Diebold was claiming that the e-mails were their copyrighted material, the SCDC posted the e-mail archive on its website and prepared for the inevitable legal threats. Diebold sent takedown notices under the DMCA to the SCDCs ISP, Swarthmore took down the SCDC website, and the SCDC co-founders sought legal representation. With pro bono legal representation from EFF and the Stanford Cyberlaw Clinic, after a year of legal battles, the judge ruled that posting the e-mails online was a fair use, and that Diebold had violated the DMCA by misrepresenting their copyright claims over the e-mails. They purchased the domain name Freeculture. org and began building a website, FreeCulture. org began by launching a number of internet campaigns, in an attempt to raise its profile and bring itself to the attention of college students. These have covered issues ranging from defending artistic freedom to fighting the Induce Act, from celebrating Creative Commons licenses, however, their recent Down With DRM video contest was a successful viral video campaign against DRM, and internet campaigns remain an important tool in free culture activism. Active chapters are located at such as New York University, Harvard, MIT, Fordham Law, Dartmouth, University of Florida, Swarthmore, USC, Emory, Reed. The NYU chapter made headlines when it began protesting outside of record stores against DRM on CDs during the Sony rootkit scandal, resulting in protests around New York. In 2008, the MIT chapter developed and released YouTomb, a website to track videos removed by DMCA takedown from YouTube, Students for Free Culture began as a loose confederation of student groups on different campuses, but it has been moving towards becoming an official tax-exempt non-profit. With the passage of official bylaws, Students for Free Culture now has a governance structure which makes it accountable to its chapters. The supreme decision-making body is the Board of Directors, which is elected once a year by the chapters and it is meant to make long-term, high-level decisions, and should not meddle excessively in lower-level decisions. Practical everyday decisions will be made by the Core team, composed of any students who are members of chapters, really low-level decisions and minutiae will be handled by a coordinator, who ideally will be a paid employee of the organization, and other volunteers and assistants. A new board of directors was elected in February 2008, official homepage Blog posts about Students for Free Culture/FreeCulture. org in the media
22.
Swarthmore College
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Swarthmore College is a private liberal arts college located in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,11 miles southwest of Philadelphia. Founded in 1864, Swarthmore was one of the earliest coeducational colleges in the United States, the school was organized by a committee of Quakers from three Hicksite yearly meetings, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York. Swarthmore was established to be a college. under the care of Friends, by 1906, Swarthmore dropped its religious affiliation, becoming officially non-sectarian. Swarthmore is a member of the Tri-College Consortium, a cooperative arrangement among Swarthmore, Bryn Mawr, in addition, the College is affiliated with the University of Pennsylvania through the Quaker Consortium, allowing for students to cross-register for classes at all four institutions. The name Swarthmore has its roots in early Quaker history, in England, Swarthmoor Hall near the town of Ulverston, Cumbria, was the home of Thomas and Margaret Fell in 1652 when George Fox, fresh from his epiphany atop Pendle Hill in 1651, came to visit. The visitation turned into an association, as Fox persuaded Thomas. Swarthmoor was used for the first meetings of what became known as the Religious Society of Friends, the College was founded in 1864 by a committee of Quakers who were members of the Philadelphia, New York and Baltimore Yearly Meetings of the Religious Society of Friends. Edward Parrish, was its first president, lucretia Mott, and Martha Ellicott Tyson, were among those Friends, who insisted that the new college of Swarthmore be coeducational. Edward Hicks Magill, the president, served for 17 years. In the early 1900s, the College had a major collegiate American football program during the period of the soon-to-be nationwide sport. During World War II, Swarthmore was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, wolfgang Köhler, Hans Wallach and Solomon Asch were noted psychologists who became professors at Swarthmore, a center for Gestalt psychology. Both Wallach, who was Jewish, and Köhler, who was not, had left Nazi Germany because of its policies against Jews. Köhler came to Swarthmore in 1935 and served until his retirement in 1958, Wallach came in 1936, first as a researcher, and also teaching from 1942 until 1975. Asch, who was Polish-American and had immigrated as a child to the US in 1920, joined the faculty in 1947 and served until 1966, Swarthmores Oxbridge tutorial-inspired Honors Program allows students to take double-credit seminars from their junior year and often write honors theses. Seminars are usually composed of four to eight students, students in seminars will usually write at least three ten-page papers per seminar, and often one of these papers is expanded into a 20–30 page paper by the end of the seminar. At the end of their year, Honors students take oral. Usually one student in each discipline is awarded Highest Honors, others are either awarded High Honors or Honors, rarely, each department usually has a grade threshold for admission to the Honors program. Uncommon for an arts college, Swarthmore has an engineering program in which at the completion of four years work
23.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
24.
Stephen Breyer
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Stephen Gerald Breyer is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Appointed by President Bill Clinton in 1994, Breyer is generally associated with the liberal side of the Court. Following a clerkship with Supreme Court Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg in 1964, Breyer became well known as a law professor and lecturer at Harvard Law School, there he specialized in administrative law, writing a number of influential textbooks that remain in use today. Breyer was born in San Francisco, California, the son of Anne A. and Irving Gerald Breyer, Irving Breyer was legal counsel for the San Francisco Board of Education. Both Breyer and his brother, Charles, who is a federal district judge, are Eagle Scouts of San Franciscos Troop 14. Breyers paternal great-grandfather emigrated from Romania to the United States, settling in Cleveland, in 1955, Breyer graduated from Lowell High School. He is also fluent in French, in 1967, he married the Hon. Joanna Freda Hare, a psychologist and member of the British aristocracy, as the youngest daughter of John Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham. The Breyers have three children, Chloe, an Episcopal priest and author of The Close, Nell. Breyer served as a law clerk to Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg during the 1964 term and he was a special assistant to the United States Assistant Attorney General for Antitrust from 1965 to 1967 and an assistant special prosecutor on the Watergate Special Prosecution Force in 1973. Breyer was a counsel to the U. S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary from 1974 to 1975. He worked closely with the chairman of the committee, Senator Edward M. Kennedy, Breyer was a lecturer, assistant professor, and law professor at Harvard Law School starting in 1967. He taught there until 1994, also serving as a professor at Harvards Kennedy School of Government from 1977 to 1980, at Harvard, Breyer was known as a leading expert on administrative law. While there, he wrote two influential books on deregulation, Breaking the Vicious Circle, Toward Effective Risk Regulation and Regulation. In 1970, Breyer wrote The Uneasy Case for Copyright, one of the most widely cited skeptical examinations of copyright, Breyer was a visiting professor at the College of Law in Sydney, Australia, the University of Rome, and the Tulane University Law School. From 1980 to 1994, Breyer was a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, he was the courts Chief Judge from 1990 to 1994. In the last days of President Jimmy Carters administration, on November 13,1980, Carter nominated Breyer to the First Circuit, and the U. S. Senate confirmed him on December 9,1980, by an 80–10 vote. He served as a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States between 1990 and 1994 and the United States Sentencing Commission between 1985 and 1989, in 1993, President Bill Clinton considered him for the seat vacated by Byron White that ultimately went to Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Breyers appointment came shortly thereafter, however, following the retirement of Harry Blackmun in 1994, Breyer was confirmed by the U. S. Senate in an 87 to 9 vote and took his seat August 3,1994
25.
John Paul Stevens
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John Paul Stevens is a retired associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, who served from December 19,1975, until his retirement on June 29,2010. At the time of his retirement, he was the oldest justice then serving, the second-oldest serving justice in the history of the Court, and he was nominated by President Gerald Ford to replace the Courts longest-serving justice, William O. Douglas. Stevens is widely considered to have been on the side of the Court at the time of his retirement. Stevens served with three Chief Justices, Stevens was born on April 20,1920, in Hyde Park, Chicago, Illinois, to a wealthy family. His paternal grandfather had formed a company and held real estate in Chicago. His father, Ernest James Stevens, was a lawyer who became a hotelier. He lost ownership of the hotels during the Great Depression and was convicted of embezzlement and his mother, Elizabeth Maude Stevens, was a high-school English teacher. Two of his three brothers also became lawyers. As a boy, Stevens attended the 1932 World Series baseball game in Chicagos Wrigley Field in which Babe Ruth called his shot, Stevens later recalled, Ruth did point to the center-field scoreboard. And he did hit the ball out of the park after he pointed with his bat, so it really happened. He also had the opportunity to meet several people of the era, including the famed aviators Amelia Earhart and Charles Lindbergh. The family lived in Hyde Park, and John Paul Stevens attended the University of Chicago Laboratory School. He subsequently obtained a bachelor of arts in English from the University of Chicago in 1941, while in college and he began work on his masters degree in English at the university in 1941, but soon decided to join the United States Navy. He enlisted on December 6,1941, one day before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Stevens was awarded a Bronze Star for his service in the codebreaking team whose work led to the downing of Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamotos plane in 1943. Stevens married Elizabeth Jane Shereen in June 1942, divorcing her in 1979, he married Maryan Mulholland Simon that December. He has four children, John Joseph, Kathryn, Elizabeth, with the end of World War II, Stevens returned to Illinois, intending to return to his studies in English, but was persuaded by his brother Richard, who was a lawyer, to attend law school. Stevens enrolled in the Northwestern University School of Law in 1945 and he was a brilliant student, earning the highest GPA in the history of the law school. He received his J. D. in 1947, graduating cum laude
26.
World Summit on Information Society
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One of its chief aims was to bridge the global digital divide separating rich countries from poor countries by spreading access to the Internet in the developing world. The conferences established 17 May as World Information Society Day, the WSIS+10 Process marked the ten-year milestone since the 2005 Summit. In 2015, the process culminated with a High-Level meeting of the UN General Assembly on 15–16 December in New York. In the last decades of the 20th century the new Information and Communication Technology was implemented, using ICT changed the modern society in many ways which is known as digital revolution, and therefore new opportunities and threats had been raised. The worlds leaders were hopeful to solve problems using ICT. In 2001, the ITU Council decided to hold the Summit in two phases, the first from 10 to 12 December 2003, in Geneva, and the second from 16 to 18 November 2005 in Tunis. According to this resolution, the General Assembly related the Summit to the United Nations Millennium Declaration to implement ICT to facilitate achieving Millennium Development Goals and it also emphasized on the multi-stakeholder approach to use all stakeholders including civil society and private sector beside the governments. In 2003 at Geneva, delegates from 175 countries took part in the first phase of WSIS where they adopted a Declaration of Principles and this is a road map for achieving an information society accessible to all and based on shared knowledge. A Plan of Action sets out a goal of bringing 50 percent of the worlds population online by 2015 and it does not spell out any specifics of how this might be achieved. The Geneva summit also left unresolved more controversial issues, including the question of Internet governance, when the 2003 summit failed to agree on the future of Internet governance, the Working Group on Internet Governance was formed to come up with ideas on how to progress. According to the Geneva Plan of Action the WSIS Action Lines are as follows, the role of public governance authorities and all stakeholders in the promotion of ICTs for development C2. Access to information and knowledge C4, building confidence and security in the use of ICTs C6. ICT Applications, E-government E-business E-learning E-health E-employment E-environment E-agriculture E-science C8, cultural diversity and identity, linguistc diversity and local content C9. Ethical dimensions of the Information Society C11, International and regional cooperation The second phase took place from November 16 through 18,2005, in Tunis, Tunisia. It resulted in agreement on the Tunis Commitment and the Tunis Agenda for the Information Society, just on the eve of the November 2005 Tunis event, the Association for Progressive Communications came out with its stand. APC said it had participated extensively in the governance process at the World Summit on Information Society. Ensuring internet access is universal and affordable, APC argued, The internet is a global public space that should be open and accessible to all on a non-discriminatory basis. The internet, therefore, must be seen as a public infrastructure
27.
Free Art License
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The Free Art License is a copyleft license that grants the right to freely copy, distribute, and transform creative works without the authors explicit permission. It followed meetings held by Copyleft Attitude Antoine Moreau with the artists gathered around the magazine Allotopie, Francis Deck, Antonio Gallego, Roberto Martinez and they took place at Accès Local in January 2000 and Public in March 2000, two places of contemporary art in Paris. In 2005, he wrote a memoir edited by Liliane Terrier entitled Le copyleft appliqué à la création artistique, Le collectif Copyleft Attitude et la Licence Art Libre. In 2007, version 1.3 of the Free Art License was amended to provide greater legal certainty and optimum compatibility with other copyleft licenses. Share-alike The Free Art License, The Free Art License at the Wayback Machine Licence Art Libre, Licence Art Libre at the Wayback Machine Freemages, a library of photos under Free Art License
28.
Free Culture (book)
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This book documents how copyright power has expanded substantially since 1974 in five critical dimensions, duration, scope, reach, control, and concentration and integration of the media industry. The result is a legal and economic environment that stifles the Progress of Science and useful Arts and it may not be possible today to produce another Mickey Mouse, because many of its early cartoon themes might be considered derivative works of some existing copyrighted material. This book is an outgrowth of the U. S. Supreme Court decision in Eldred v. Ashcroft, article I, Section 8, Clause 8 of the U. S. Constitution says, The Congress shall have Power, to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries. Several times in the past century, congress has extended the law in several ways. One way was to extend the term on the installment plan, another was to broaden the scope to include not only copying but creating derivative works. This latter broadening is so ambiguous that it provides a foundation for massive abuse of power by holding large copyright portfolios. For example, the Recording Industry Association of America sued a freshman at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute for $10,000,000 for improving a search engine used only inside RPI. Lessig cites another example where Fox demanded $10,000 for the rights to use a 4.5 second video clip with The Simpsons playing on a television in a corner of a scene in a documentary. In the preface of Free Culture, Lessig compares this book with a book of his, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace. The book also chronicles his prosecution of Eldred and his attempt to develop the Eldred Act, Lessig concludes his book by suggesting that as society evolves into an information society there is a choice to be made to decide if that society is to be free or feudal in nature. Lessig defines Free Culture not as free as in Free Beer, a free culture supports and protects its creators and innovators directly and indirectly. It directly supports creators and innovators by granting intellectual property rights and it indirectly supports them by ensuring that follow-on creators and innovators remain as free as possible from the creators of the past by limiting how extensive intellectual property rights are. Lessig presents two examples that some insight into the nature of these dueling cultures. He describes this as an example of how the inventor of a new invention can be forced to request permission from a previous inventor, the disparate features of a free culture and a permissions culture effect how culture is made. In a free culture, innovators are able to create —, in a permissions culture, innovators must first request permission from past creators in order to build upon or modify past creations. Oftentimes, the innovator must pay the past creator in order to obtain the permission needed to proceed, If the past creator refuses to grant permission to the innovator, the past creator may appeal to the government to enforce their intellectual property rights. Typically, intellectual property rights protect culture that is produced and sold and this type of culture is commercial culture, and the focus of the law is typically on commercial creativity rather than non-commercial activity
29.
David A. Wiley
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David A. Wiley was also previously a member of the Advisory Committee of University of the People. David A. Wiley is originally from Barboursville, West Virginia and he later earned his doctoral degree in Instructional Psychology and Technology at BYU in 2000. In 1998 by Wiley initiated the Open Content Project for evangelizing Open content with the Open Publication License, in 2003 Wiley announced, the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons, where he joined as Director of Educational Licenses. He has received the National Science Foundations CAREER award and served as a Nonresident Fellow of the Center for Internet, fast Company rated Wiley #78 in a list of the top 100 creative people for 2009. Wiley was also named a Peery Social Entrepreneurship Fellow in the BYU Marriott School of Business in 2012, the Center for Open and Sustainable Learning operates on the principle that free and open access to educational opportunity is a basic human right. Wileys early work focused on the design and development of learning objects, on one website, reusability. org, he explains that learning objects are developed to be reused as a solution to the problem of teacher bandwidth. The teacher bandwidth problem is defined as the number of students we are capable of serving with our distance education offerings, from 2001 to 2004, Wiley wrote a column in the Association for Educational Communications and Technology academic journal TechTrends entitled Back Burner. David Wileys official website David Wileys blog David Wileys Twitter David Wileys profile on mormon. org The Open High School of Utah
30.
Benjamin Mako Hill
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Benjamin Mako Hill is a free software activist, hacker, and author. Hill is an assistant professor in Communication at the University of Washington, Hill has a masters degree from the MIT Media Lab and received a PhD in an interdepartmental program involving the MIT Sloan School of Management and the MIT Media Lab. Since fall 2013, he is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Washington and he is also a Fellow at the MIT Center for Civic Media where he coordinates the development of software for civic organizing. He has worked as an advisor and contractor for the One Laptop per Child project and he is a speaker for the GNU Project, and serves on the board of Software Freedom International. Since 2006 he is married to Mika Matsuzaki, having used mathematically constrained wedding vows at the marriage ceremony, since 1999, Hill has been an active member of Debian. In addition he served on the board of Software in the Public Interest from March 2003 until July 2006, Hill is also a core developer and founding member of Ubuntu, and continues to be an active contributor to the project. In addition to technical responsibilities, he coordinated the construction of a community around the Ubuntu Project as project community manager during Ubuntus first year, during this period, he worked full-time for Canonical Ltd. Within the Project, he served on the Community Council governance board that oversees all aspects of the project. His work included contributing to a code of conduct and diversity statement for the project, in addition to software development, Hill writes extensively. He has been published in books and magazines, newsletters, and online journals. He has also studied the sociology of community involvement in web communities and he has talked about these topics publicly, as well as giving a keynote address at 2008 OSCON. He spends a significant amount of his traveling and giving talks on FOSS and intellectual property primarily in Europe. Previous to his current positions, Hill pursued research full-time as a researcher at the MIT Media Laboratory. At the lab, he has worked in both the Electronic Publishing and Computing Culture groups on collaborative writing and decision-making software, One project, Selectricity is an award-winning voting tool which received prizes and grants from MTV and Cisco. He was a fellow at the Harvard Berkman Center for Internet & Society and he serves on the advisory board of the Wikimedia Foundation, the advisory council of the Open Knowledge Foundation and the board of the Free Software Foundation. He was a member of the Ubuntu Community Council in 2009. Debian GNU/Linux 3. com MIT LabCAST, Selectricity Laboratories of Oligarchy, video recording of a presentation at the Berkman Center for Internet and Society
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Definition of Free Cultural Works
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The Definition of Free Cultural Works is a definition of free content from 2006. The project evaluates and recommends compatible free content licenses, the Open Content Project by David A. Wiley in 1998 was a predecessor project which defined open content. In 2003 Wiley joined the Creative Commons as Director of Educational Licenses and announced the Creative Commons, the first draft of the Definition of Free Cultural Works was published 3 April 2006. The 1.0 and 1.1 versions were published in English, the Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation. In 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as Approved for Free Cultural Works, following in June 2009, Wikipedia migrated to use two licenses, the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike as main license, additionally to the previously used GNU Free Documentation License. An improved license compatibility with the free content ecosystem was given as reason for the license change. In October 2014 the Open Knowledge Foundations Open Definition 2.0 for Open Works and Open Licenses described open as synonymous to the definition of free in the Definition of Free Cultural Works
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Richard Stallman
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Richard Matthew Stallman, often known by his initials, rms, is an American software freedom activist and programmer. He campaigns for software to be distributed in a such that its users receive the freedoms to use, study, distribute. Software that ensures these freedoms is termed free software, Stallman launched the GNU Project, founded the Free Software Foundation, developed the GNU Compiler Collection and GNU Emacs, and wrote the GNU General Public License. Stallman launched the GNU Project in September 1983 to create a Unix-like computer operating system composed entirely of free software, with this, he also launched the free software movement. In October 1985 he founded the Free Software Foundation, in 1989 he co-founded the League for Programming Freedom. This has included software license agreements, non-disclosure agreements, activation keys, dongles, copy restriction, proprietary formats, as of 2016, he has received fifteen honorary doctorates and professorships. Stallman was born to Alice Lippman, a teacher, and Daniel Stallman. He was interested in computers at an age, when Stallman was a pre-teen at a summer camp. From 1967 to 1969, Stallman attended a Columbia University Saturday program for school students. Stallman was also a laboratory assistant in the biology department at Rockefeller University. Although he was interested in mathematics and physics, his professor at Rockefeller thought he showed promise as a biologist. His first experience with computers was at the IBM New York Scientific Center when he was in high school. He was hired for the summer in 1970, following his year of high school. He completed the task after a couple of weeks and spent the rest of the writing a text editor in APL. As a first-year student at Harvard University in fall 1970, Stallman was known for his performance in Math 55. He was happy, For the first time in my life, Stallman graduated from Harvard magna cum laude earning a bachelors degree in Physics in 1974. Stallman considered staying on at Harvard, but instead he decided to enroll as a student at MIT. He pursued a doctorate in physics for one year, but left that program to focus on his programming at the MIT AI Laboratory
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Open Knowledge International
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Open Knowledge International is a global non-profit network that promotes and shares information at no charge, including both content and data. It was founded by Rufus Pollock on 24 May 2004 in Cambridge, the aims of Open Knowledge International are, Promoting the idea of open knowledge, both what it is, and why is it a good idea. Running open knowledge events, such as OKCon, working on open knowledge projects, such as Open Economics or Open Shakespeare. Providing infrastructure, and potentially a home, for open knowledge projects, for example, the KnowledgeForge service and CKAN. Acting at UK, European and international levels on open knowledge issues, in April 2015 Pavel Richter took on the role of CEO of Open Knowledge International. Pavel was formerly Executive Director of Wikimedia Deutschland, Pollock remains in a leadership role. The Open Knowledge International Advisory Council includes people from the areas of access, open data, open content, open science, data visualization. In 2015, it consisted of, As of 2015, Open Knowledge International has 9 official chapters and 49 groups in different countries and it also supports 19 working groups. Many of Open Knowledge Internationals projects are technical in nature and its most prominent project, CKAN, is used by many of the worlds governments to host open catalogues of data that their countries possess. The organisation tends to support its aims by hosting infrastructure for semi-independent projects to develop and this approach to organising was hinted as one of its earliest projects was a project management service called KnowledgeForge, which runs on the KForge platform. KnowledgeForge allows sectoral working groups to have space to manage projects related to open knowledge, more widely, the project infrastructure includes both technical and face-to-face aspects. The organisation hosts several dozen mailing lists for discussion, utilises IRC for real-time communications. Open Knowledge International is a partner with organisations working in similar areas. It also supported the development of the Open Database License, outside of technology, Open Knowledge International plays a role in advocating for openness broadly. This includes supporting the drafting of reports, facilitating consultation and producing guides, Rufus Pollock, one of Open Knowledge Internationals founders, and current board secretary sits on the UK governments Public Sector Transparency Board. The foundation places a strong interest in the use of open source technologies and its software projects are hosted on GitHub, which utilises the Git version control software. Some of the projects are listed below, CKAN, a tool that provides store for metadata and this enables governments to quickly and cheaply provide a catalogue of their data. Datahub, a catalogue of useful sets of data on the Internet
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Open knowledge
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Open knowledge is knowledge that one is free to use, reuse, and redistribute without legal, social or technological restriction. Open knowledge is a set of principles and methodologies related to the production and distribution of how knowledge works in an open manner, Knowledge is interpreted broadly to include data, content and general information. The concept is related to source and the Open Knowledge Definition is directly derived from the Open Source Definition. Open knowledge can be seen as being a superset of open data, open content, similarly to other open concepts such as open data and open content, though the term is rather new, the concept is old. In the early twentieth century a debate about intellectual property rights developed within the German Social Democratic Party and this view was based on an analysis according to which Karl Marxs Law of value only affected material production, not intellectual production. With the development of the public Internet from the early 1990s, it far easier to copy. Wikipedia was founded in 2001 with the ethos of providing information which could be edited and modified to improve its quality, Open Access Directory Open Data for Development
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Toy block
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Toy blocks are wooden, plastic, or foam pieces of various shapes and colors that are used as construction toys. Sometimes toy blocks depict letters of the alphabet,1798, Witold Rybczynski has found that the earliest mention of building bricks for children appears in Maria and R. L. Edgeworths Practical Education. Called rational toys, blocks were intended to teach children about gravity and physics,1820, The first large-scale production of blocks was in the Williamsburg area of Brooklyn by S. L.1837, Friedrich Fröbel invented a preschool educational institution Kindergarten. For that, he designed ten Froebel Gifts based on building blocks principles,1850, During the mid-nineteenth century, Henry Cole wrote a series of children’s books. Coles A book of stories from The Home Treasury included a box of terracotta toy blocks and,2003, National Toy Hall of Fame at the Strong Museum, inducted ABC blocks into their collection, granting it the title of one of Americas toys of national significance. Physical benefits, toy blocks build strength in a childs fingers and hands and they also help educate children in different shapes. Social benefits, block play encourages children to friends and cooperate. Blocks are a benefit for the children because they encourage interaction and imagination, creativity can be a combined action that is important for social play. Intellectual benefits, children can develop their vocabularies as they learn to describe sizes, shapes. Math skills are developed through the process of grouping, adding, experiences with gravity, balance, and geometry learned from toy blocks also provide intellectual stimulation. Creative benefits, children receive creative stimulation by making their own designs with blocks, anchor Stone Blocks Unit block is a popular standardized wooden toy block. Kapla and KEVA Planks are wooden block construction toys, LEGO is a line of unique plastic building bricks that interlock for virtually endless combinations. Lincoln Logs is a toy consisting of notched miniature logs, stickle bricks is a plastic construction toy primarily intended for toddlers. Froebel Gifts are a range of educational materials first used in the original Kindergarten, montessori sensorial materials are a range of educational materials including wooden blocks. Tinkertoys consists of rods and wheels, rasti is an Argentine toy block. Tente is a Spanish toy block, zometool is a USA-made system of advanced building blocks
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Nina Paley
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Nina Paley is an American cartoonist, animator and free culture activist. She directed the feature film Sita Sings the Blues. She was the artist and often the writer of comic strips Ninas Adventures and Fluff, Paley was born in Urbana, Illinois, the daughter of Jean and Hiram Paley. Her father was a professor at the University of Illinois and was mayor of Urbana. Her first animation was made when she was 13, it was recorded on Super-8 reels and her first animation as an adult was the short story Follow your Bliss. Her second clay animation, I Heart My Cat, was shot on a Krasnogorsk camera and these two, along with Cancer, were found on VHS with the description NINA PALEY DEMO REEL1998. In 2012, Paley decided to publish them under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license, in 1988, Paley moved to Santa Cruz, California, and began to write and draw the strip Ninas Adventures. In 1991, she moved to San Francisco, in 1995, she began to draw the more mainstream Fluff, a comic strip about a cat, which enjoyed a modest success in syndication. In 1998, she began to experiment with animation. In 1999, she made the worlds first cameraless IMAX film, Pandorama, in 70 mm form, it also ran for about a year as a short feature at Berlin Cinestar and has been shown at IMAX theaters elsewhere. A humorous short cartoon based on a variety of optical illusions. She then embarked on a series based on a controversial subject. The centerpiece of the series was The Stork, in which the environment is bombed to destruction by storks dropping bundled babies. The film is an expression of the conflict between increasing human population and the ecosystem in which it must live. The 3½ minute film was a success at festivals and resulted in an invitation to Sundance in 2003. In this time she also drew comic strips for VHEMT which remain on the VHEMT website today. Early in 2010 Paley started drawing a new comic strip called Mimi & Eunice. She is distributing it on the web using a copyleft license, in 2013, Paley created an animation on Vimeo depicting the Middle East conflicts over history, it was named a Staff Pick
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Sita Sings the Blues
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Sita Sings the Blues is a 2008 animated film written, directed, produced and animated by American artist Nina Paley. The ancient mythological and modern biographical plot are parallel tales, sharing numerous themes, the plot joins the legend at the exile of prince Rama from his fathers court, at the behest of his fathers favorite queen, Kaikeyi. Having earned the right to any single favor by saving the life, Kaikeyi attempts to secure her own sons inheritance over the eldest and favorite, Rama. Sita, Ramas wife, determines to accompany her husband, although the woods are dangerous and overrun with demons. The demon king Ravana, encouraged by his spiteful ogress sister, hears of Sitas beauty and he sends a golden hind past their dwelling to distract Rama, who tries to impress Sita by hunting the hind into the woods. In his absence, Ravana abducts Sita and demands that she submit to him on pain of death, Sita remains staunchly devoted to Rama and refuses to entertain the idea, Ravana sets a deadline for the ultimatum and Sita waits faithfully for Rama to rescue her. Aided by the monkey prince Hanuman, Rama eventually discovers Sitas location, Ravana is slain and Sita restored to her husband, although he expresses serious doubts concerning her fidelity during her confinement. She submits to a trial by fire, a test of her purity, upon throwing herself into the flames, she is rescued by the gods. She accompanies Rama back to the palace, and soon falls pregnant, in the company of ascetics she gives birth to her sons and raises them to love and praise their absent father. Years later, Rama overhears their hymns of adoration to their father, in an episode taken from the directors own life, animator Nina Paley starts the film living happily in a San Francisco apartment with her husband and cat. Her husband then accepts the offer of a six-month contract working in Trivandrum, India, after a month of no contact, he calls to inform his wife that the contract has been extended another year. Bewildered by his callous indifference to their separation, Nina sublets their apartment, leaves their beloved cat behind, upon her arrival he appears deeply unenthusiastic to be reunited and demonstrates neither affection nor sexual interest. A while later, Nina flies to a meeting in New York, sad and alone, she stays in New York, finding comfort in a new cat and her study of the Ramayana. Episodes with dialogue from the Ramayana are enacted using painted figures of the characters in profile, the Rajput style of brush painting was principally enacted on manuscripts and commonly employed in the telling of epics such as the Ramayana. In the film serve as a more traditional style of dramatic narrative, although the dialogue is frequently ironic. The background in each scene is usually static and the poses of each character are kept minimal, speech is enacted by alternating the set pose of the face with a slightly liquified version where the jaw is lower. Aseem Chhabra, Bhavana Nagulapally, and Manish Acharya provided the voices for three silhouettes, traditional Indian shadow puppets and they link episodes of the Ramayana with a lively, unscripted, discussion of their personal impressions and knowledge of the epic. They provide context and commentary for the story, which has innumerable incarnations, during these sections, the ideas and contradictions raised over the course of the puppets discussions are visualised in animated photographic compositions in the background
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Free and open-source software
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Free and open-source software is computer software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright, the benefits of using FOSS can include decreasing software costs, increasing security and stability, protecting privacy, and giving users more control over their own hardware. Free, open-source operating systems such as Linux and descendents of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones, Free software licenses and open-source licenses are used by many software packages. In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s to 1980s, it was common for users to have the source code for all programs they used. Software, including source code, was shared by individuals who used computers. Most companies had a model based on hardware sales, and provided or bundled software with hardware. Organizations of users and suppliers were formed to facilitate the exchange of software, see, for example, SHARE, by the late 1960s, the prevailing business model around software was changing. In United States vs. IBM, filed 17 January 1969, while some software might always be free, there would be a growing amount of software that was for sale only. Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, an article outlining the project and its goals was published in March 1985 titled the GNU Manifesto. The manifesto included significant explanation of the GNU philosophy, Free Software Definition, the Linux kernel, started by Linus Torvalds, was released as freely modifiable source code in 1991. Initially, Linux was not released under a free or open-source software license, however, with version 0.12 in February 1992, he relicensed the project under the GNU General Public License. Much like Unix, Torvalds kernel attracted the attention of volunteer programmers, freeBSD and NetBSD were released as free software when the USL v. BSDi lawsuit was settled out of court in 1993. OpenBSD forked from NetBSD in 1995, also in 1995, The Apache HTTP Server, commonly referred to as Apache, was released under the Apache License 1.0. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this code is today better known as Mozilla Firefox and Thunderbird. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the FSFs free software ideas, the new name they chose was open source, and quickly Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others signed on to the rebranding. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and this view perfectly summarizes the initial response to FOSS by some software corporations. IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market, there has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of free and open-source software
