1.
French colonial empire
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The French colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies, protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. The second empire came to an end after the loss of bitter wars in Vietnam and Algeria, competing with Spain, Portugal, the United Provinces, and later Britain, France began to establish colonies in North America, the Caribbean, and India in the 17th century. A series of wars with Great Britain and other European major powers during the 18th century, France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly in Africa, as well as Indochina and the South Pacific. Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire and it also provided manpower in the World Wars. It became a mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity. In 1884 the leading proponent of colonialism, Jules Ferry declared, The higher races have a right over the lower races, full citizenship rights – assimilation – were offered, although in reality assimilation was always receding the colonial populations treated like subjects not citizens. At its apex, it was one of the largest empires in history, including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 11,500,000 km2 in 1920, with a population of 110 million people in 1939. In World War II, Charles de Gaulle and the Free French used the colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France. However, after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge European authority, the French constitution of October 27,1946, established the French Union which endured until 1958. Newer remnants of the empire were integrated into France as overseas departments. These now total altogether 119,394 km², which amounts to only 1% of the pre-1939 French colonial empires area, by the 1970s, says Robert Aldrich, the last vestiges of empire held little interest for the French. He argues, Except for the decolonization of Algeria, however. During the 16th century, the French colonization of the Americas began, the story of Frances colonial empire truly began on 27 July 1605, with the foundation of Port Royal in the colony of Acadia in North America, in what is now Nova Scotia, Canada. A few years later, in 1608, Samuel De Champlain founded Quebec, which was to become the capital of the enormous, New France had a rather small population, which resulted from more emphasis being placed on the fur trade rather than agricultural settlements. Due to this emphasis, the French relied heavily on creating friendly contacts with the local First Nations community and these became the most enduring alliances between the French and the First Nation community. The French were, however, under pressure from religious orders to them to Catholicism. Through alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were able to exert a loose control over much of the North American continent, areas of French settlement were generally limited to the St. Lawrence River Valley. Prior to the establishment of the 1663 Sovereign Council, the territories of New France were developed as mercantile colonies
2.
Flag of Madagascar
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The flag of Madagascar was adopted on 14 October 1958, two years before the independence of that nation, as Madagascar prepared for a referendum on its status in the French Community. The colors of the flag represent Madagascars history, yearning for independence, red and white were the colors of the Merina kingdom, which succumbed to France in 1896. They were used in the flag of the last Merina monarch and they may indicate the ethnic origins of the Malagasy people in Southeast Asia, and are shared by the flag of Indonesia. Green was the color of the Hova, the largest class of peasant commoners, who played a significant role in anti-French agitation, seal of Madagascar Madagascar at Flags of the World Madagascar flag at Flagscorner
3.
Seal of Madagascar
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The seal of Madagascar includes an outline map of the island at the center, and below it the head of a Zebu. Colors used include red, green, yellow, black, green and red rays emanate from the States map, making it look like the Sun and also the Ravenala, a plant typical of Madagascar. Various versions of the Constitution Article 4 have used other mottos, FOTW page about Madagascars coat of arms National Arms and Emblems Past and Present Annex of the constitution COA of the Kingdom of Merina
4.
La Marseillaise
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La Marseillaise is the national anthem of France. The song was written in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in Strasbourg after the declaration of war by France against Austria, and was originally titled Chant de guerre pour lArmée du Rhin. The Marseillaise was a song, an anthem to freedom, a patriotic call to mobilize all the citizens. The French National Convention adopted it as the Republics anthem in 1795 and it acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching to the capital. The song is the first example of the European march anthemic style, the anthems evocative melody and lyrics have led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and its incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music. As the French Revolution continued, the monarchies of Europe became concerned that revolutionary fervor would spread to their countries, the War of the First Coalition was an effort to stop the revolution, or at least contain it to France. Initially, the French army did not distinguish itself, and Coalition armies invaded France and that evening, Rouget de Lisle wrote Chant de guerre pour lArmée du Rhin, and dedicated the song to Marshal Nicolas Luckner, a Bavarian in French service from Cham. A plaque on the building on Place Broglie where De Dietrichs house once stood commemorates the event. The melody soon became the call to the French Revolution and was adopted as La Marseillaise after the melody was first sung on the streets by volunteers from Marseille by the end of May. A newly graduated medical doctor, Mireur later became a general under Napoléon Bonaparte, the songs lyric reflects the invasion of France by foreign armies that were under way when it was written. Strasbourg itself was attacked just a few days later, the invading forces were repulsed from France following their defeat in the Battle of Valmy. As the vast majority of Alsatians did not speak French, a German version was published in October 1792 in Colmar, the Convention accepted it as the French national anthem in a decree passed on 14 July 1795, making it Frances first anthem. It later lost this status under Napoleon I, and the song was banned outright by Louis XVIII and Charles X, only being re-instated briefly after the July Revolution of 1830. During Napoleon Is reign, Veillons au Salut de lEmpire was the anthem of the regime. Eight years later, in 1879, it was restored as Frances national anthem, several musical antecedents have been cited for the melody, Mozarts Allegro maestoso of Piano Concerto No. Only the first verse and the first chorus are sung today in France, there are some slight historical variations in the lyrics of the song, the following is the version listed at the official website of the French Presidency. Verses sung in the version of the anthem are in bold. The United States Library of Congress holds the following English translation and these verses were omitted from the national anthem
5.
Antananarivo
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Antananarivo, then temporarily French Tananarive, also known by its French colonial shorthand form Tana, is the capital and largest city of Madagascar. The larger urban area surrounding the city, known as Antananarivo-Renivohitra, is the capital of Analamanga region. The city is located 1,280 m above the sea level in the center of the island, all 18 Malagasy ethnic groups, as well as residents of Chinese, Indian, European and other origins, are well represented in the city. Antananarivo is the political, economic, educational and cultural heart of Madagascar, the Presidency, National Assembly, Senate and Supreme Court are located here, as are 21 diplomatic missions and the headquarters of many national and international businesses and NGOs. Antananarivo also hosts the largest number of universities, nightclubs, art venues, medical services, several national and local sports teams, including the championship-winning national rugby team, the Makis, and several basketball and football teams, are based in Antananarivo. Declaring it the site of his capital, Andrianjaka built a rova that expanded to become the palaces of the Kingdom of Imerina. The city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina from its founding until 1710 and his diplomatic and military successes extended Imerina far beyond its traditional borders, bringing the lands of neighboring ethnic groups under Merina control. Antananarivo remained the capital after Madagascar was colonized by the French in 1897. This neighborhood was developed under French rule and continues to serve as the capitals economic heart. The city is managed by the Commune Urbaine dAntananarivo under the direction of its President of the Special Delegation, Ny Havana Andriamanjato, Antananarivo was originally the site of a town called Analamanga, meaning Blue Forest in the central highlands dialect of the Malagasy language. Analamanga was established by a community of Vazimba, the islands first occupants, Andrianjaka, king of the Merina people who migrated to the region from the southeast coast, seized the location as the site of his capital city. According to oral history, he deployed a garrison of 1,000 soldiers to successfully capture, the hill and its city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona, who renamed it Antananarivo in honor of Andrianjakas soldiers. Unlike most capital cities in southern Africa, Antananarivo was already a city before the colonial era. The city was established in around 1610 or 1625 according to varying accounts, early Merina kings used fanampoana to construct a massive system of irrigated paddy fields and dikes around the city to provide adequate rice for the growing population. These paddy fields, of which the largest is called the Betsimitatatra, successive Merina sovereigns ruled over the Kingdom of Imerina from Analamanga through King Andriamasinavalonas reign. Andriamasinavalona designated specific territories for the hova and each andriana subcaste, numerous fady, including injunctions against the construction of wooden houses by non-nobles and the presence of swine within the city limits, were imposed. Upon Andriamasinavalonas death in 1710, Imerina split into four warring quadrants, during the 77-year civil war that followed, the eastern districts capital at Ambohimanga rose in prominence. The last king of Ambohimanga, Andrianampoinimerina, successfully conquered Antananarivo in 1793, he reunited the provinces of Imerina and he moved the kingdoms political capital back to Antananarivo in 1794, and declared Ambohimanga the kingdoms spiritual capital, a role it still maintains
6.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
7.
Malagasy language
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Malagasy is an Austronesian language and the national language of Madagascar. Most people in Madagascar speak it as a first language as do some people of Malagasy descent elsewhere, the Malagasy language is the westernmost member of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family. Its distinctiveness from nearby African languages was noted in 1708 by the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland and it is related to the Malayo-Polynesian languages of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, and more closely to the East Barito languages spoken in Borneo except for its Polynesian morphophonemics. According to Roger Blench, the earliest form of language spoken on Madagascar could have had some non-Austronesian substrata, Madagascar was first settled by Austronesian peoples from Maritime Southeast Asia who had passed through Borneo. 1000, the original Austronesian settlers mixed with Bantus and Arabs, there is evidence that the predecessor of the Malagasy dialects first arrived in the southern stretch of the east coast of Madagascar. Malagasy has a tradition of arts and poetic histories and legends. The most well-known is the epic, Ibonia, about a Malagasy folk hero of the same name. The Malagasy language is the language spoken on the island of Madagascar. It is also spoken by Malagasy communities on neighboring Indian Ocean islands such as Réunion, large expatriate Malagasy communities speaking the language also exist in France, Québec, and to a lesser extent Belgium and Washington DC. The Merina dialect of Malagasy is considered the language of Madagascar. It is one of two official languages alongside French in the 2010 constitution putting in place the Fourth Republic, previously, under the 2007 constitution, Malagasy was one of three official languages alongside French and English. Ethnologue encodes a dozen varieties of Malagasy as distinct languages and they have about a 70% similarity in lexicon with Merina dialect. The two main dialects of Malagasy are easily distinguished by several phonological features, the language has a written literature going back presumably to the 15th century. When the French established Fort-Dauphin in the 17th century, they found an Arabico-Malagasy script in use and this Arabic Ajami script was mainly used for astrological and magical texts. The first bilingual renderings of religious texts are those by Étienne de Flacourt, who also published the first dictionary of the language. The Malagasy alphabet consists of 21 letters, a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, v, y, z. The orthography maps rather straightforwardly to the phonemic inventory, the letters i and y both represent the /i/ sound, while o is pronounced /u/. The affricates /ʈʂ/ and /ɖʐ/ are written tr and dr, respectively, while /ts/ and /dz/ are written ts, the letter h is often silent
8.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
9.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
10.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
11.
Colony
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In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state, distinct from the home territory of the sovereign. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies, some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. The metropolitan state is the state that rules the colony, in Ancient Greece, the city that founded a colony was known as the metropolis. Mother country is a reference to the state from the point of view of citizens who live in its colony. There is a United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, unlike a puppet state or satellite state, a colony has no independent international representation, and its top-level administration is under direct control of the metropolitan state. The term informal colony is used by historians to refer to a country under the de facto control of another state. The word colony comes from the Latin word colōnia and this in turn derives from the word colōnus, which means colonist but also implies a farmer. Cologne is an example of a settlement preserving this etymology, other, less obvious settlements that began as Roman colonia include cities from Belgrade to York. A tell-tale sign of a settlement once being a Roman Colony is a city centre with a grid pattern. The terminology is taken from architectural analogy, where a column pillar is beneath the head capital, so colonies are not independently self-controlled, but rather are controlled from a separate entity that serves the capital function. Roman colonies first appeared when the Romans conquered neighbouring Italic peoples and these were small farming settlements that appeared when the Romans had subdued an enemy in war. A colony could take many forms, as a trade outpost or a base in enemy territory. Its original definition as a settlement created by migrating from a central region to an outlying one became the modern definition. Kandahar formed as a Greek colony during the Hellenistic era by Alexander the great in 330 BC, alaska, a colony of Russia from the middle 18th century until sold to the United States in 1867. It became the 49th American state in 1959, angola, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Australia was formed as an independent country in 1901 from a federation of six distinct British colonies which were founded between 1788 and 1829, barbados, was a colony of Great Britain important in the Atlantic slave trade. It gained its independence in 1966, brazil, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Canada, colonized first by France as New France, then under British rule, congo, Democratic Republic of the, a colony of Belgium from 1908 to 1960
12.
Overseas France
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Overseas France consists of all the French-administered territories outside of the European continent. Their citizens have French nationality and vote for the president of France and they have the right to vote in elections to the European Parliament. From a legal and administrative standpoint, overseas regions are different from overseas collectivities. Overseas regions have exactly the same status as mainland Frances regions, in the French overseas regions, laws cannot be adapted whereas the overseas collectivities are empowered to make their own laws, except in certain areas. The overseas collectivities are governed by elected assemblies and by the French Parliament. Overseas France has an economic zone of 9,821,231 km². Guadeloupe French Guiana Martinique Réunion Mayotte 1976–2003, sui generis overseas territory, 2001–2003, with the designation departmental community, 2003–2011, in the 2009 Mahoran status referendum, Mahorans voted to become an overseas department in 2011, which occurred on March 31,2011. The category of overseas collectivity was created by Frances constitutional reform of March 28,2003, each overseas collectivity has its own statutory laws. French Polynesia In 2004 it was given the designation of overseas country, despite being given the political status of overseas collectivity, Saint Pierre et Miquelon is called collectivité territoriale de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, literally territorial collectivity. It is still referred to as a territoire. Saint Martin, In 2003, the populations of St. Martin, on February 7,2007, the French Parliament passed a bill granting COM status to both jurisdictions. The new status took effect on February 22,2007 when the law was published in the Journal Officiel and they remain part of the European Union, as stated in the Treaty of Lisbon. It is currently the only overseas territory, according to law 2007-224 of February 21,2007, the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean constitute the 5th district of TAAF. New Caledonia was classified as an overseas territory beginning in 1946, a New Caledonian citizenship was established, and a gradual transfer of power from the French state to New Caledonia itself was begun, to last from 15 to 20 years. Clipperton Island is a 9 km2 coral atoll located 1,280 km south-west of Acapulco, Mexico and it is held as state private property under the direct authority of the French government, and is administered by Frances Overseas Minister. With 2,691,000 inhabitants in 2013, Overseas France account for 4. 1% of the population of the French Republic and they enjoy a corresponding representation in the two chambers of the French Parliament. In the 13th Legislature, Overseas France is represented by 27 députés in the French National Assembly,2004, Official website Overseas France at DMOZ
13.
Joseph Gallieni
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Joseph Simon Gallieni was a French soldier, active for most of his career as a military commander and administrator in the French colonies. Gallieni is infamous in Madagascar as the French military leader who exiled Queen Ranavalona III and he was recalled from retirement at the outbreak of the First World War. He was made Marshal of France posthumously in 1921, Gallieni was born in 1849 at Saint-Beat, in the department of Haute-Garonne, in the central Pyrenees. He was of Corsican and Italian descent and his father, born in Pogliano Milanese, had risen from the ranks to be a captain. Gallieni fought at Sedan and was taken prisoner at Bazeilles, scene of the stand of the colonial marines and he learned German whilst a prisoner there, and later kept a notebook in German, English and Italian called “Erinnerungen of my life di ragazzo”. He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1873 and his colonial career began in 1876 in Senegal. He was promoted to Captain in 1878 and he led an expedition to the upper Niger. He also served in Reunion and Martinique, in 1886 he was appointed governor of the French Sudan, during which time he successfully quelled a rebellion by Sudanese insurgents under Mahmadu Lamine. He was outstanding at colonial penetration without open hostilities in West Africa in 1880, in 1888 he was appointed to the War College. In 1892-6 he served as a colonel in French Indochina commanding the military division of the territory in Tonkin. In 1894 he led successful French action against the nationalist leader Đề Thám, in 1896 he was promoted to General and made Governor of Madagascar, then a new French possession, where the French had just been defeated, with 4,613 soldiers dying of disease. He stayed in Madagascar with one interruption until 1905, his future commander Joseph Joffre served under him there. In August 1896 Gallieni reorganised French forces, captured and executed several rebel leaders, early in 1897 he unlawfully abolished the Malagasy monarchy and exiled Queen Ranavalona to Reunion. Like Lyautey, Gallieni practised tache d’huile and politique des races, initially military, his role became more administrative, building roads, a railway, markets, medical services and schools. In 1905 Gallieni defended the code de l’indigenat, as it administered punishment more swiftly than would be possible under due legal process, in 1905 he was appointed Military Governor of Lyon and commandant of the Army of the Alps. Also in 1906 he became a member of the Conseil Superieur de la Guerre, along with Yvon Dubail and Pol Durand, Gallieni was one of those who told War Minister Messimy that General Victor-Constant Michel must be removed. Following Michels removal Gallieni, who was the choice of Prime Minister Caillaux. His former subordinate Joffre was appointed instead, Gallieni commanded Fifth Army until his retirement, and protested that it was not strong enough to advance into Belgium, and that Maubeuge should be fortified more strongly
14.
Philibert Tsiranana
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Philibert Tsiranana was a Malagasy politician and leader, who served as the first President of Madagascar from 1959 to 1972. This stability contributed to Tsirananas popularity and his reputation as a remarkable statesman, compared with the leaders of other developing countries of the time, his conduct appears honorable. Madagascar experienced moderate economic growth under his pragmatic socialist policies and came to be known as the Happy Island, the benevolent schoolmaster public image that Tsiranana cultivated disguised intense firmness that tended toward authoritarianism. Nonetheless, he remains an esteemed Malagasy political figure remembered throughout the country as its Father of Independence, according to his official biography, Tsiranana was born on 18 October 1912 in Ambarikorano, Sofia Region, in northeastern Madagascar. Born to Madiomanana and Fisadoha Tsiranana, Catholic cattle ranchers from the Tsimihety ethnic group, however, following the death of his father in 1923, Tsirananas brother, Zamanisambo, suggested that he attend a primary school in Anjiamangirana. A brilliant student, Tsiranana was admitted into the Analalava regional school in 1926, after completing his studies, he started a teaching career in his hometown. In 1946, he obtained a scholarship to the École normale dinstituteurs in Montpellier, France and he left Madagascar on 6 November. In 1943, Philibert Tsiranana joined the teachers union and in 1944 entered the General Confederation of Labor. With the end of World War II and the creation of the French Union by the Fourth Republic, the colonized peoples now had the right to be politically organized. Tsiranana joined the Group of Student Communists of Madagascar in January 1946 and he assumed the role of treasurer. The GEC enabled him to future leaders of the PADESM. The PADESM was an organization composed mainly of Mainty and Tanindrana from the coastal region. The PADESM came about as a result of the holding of the French constituent elections of 1945 and 1946, for the first time, the people of Madagascar were allowed to participate in French elections, with electing settlers and indigenous people to the French National Assembly. The coastal people agreed to seek the election of Paul Ralaivoavy in the west, while leaving the east to the Merina candidate and this agreement was not honoured and the Merina Joseph Raseta won the second seat in October 1945 and June 1946. In July 1946, Tsiranana refused the post of general of PADESM on account of his impending departure for the École normale de Montpellier. Tsiranana had become known for his contributions to PADESMs journal Voromahery, as a result of his journey to France, Tsiranana escaped the Malagasy Uprising of 1947 and its bloody suppression. Moved by the events, Tsiranana participated in an anti-colonial protest in Montpellier on 21 February 1949, during his time in France, Tsiranana became conscious of the bias towards the Malagasy elite in education. He found that only 17 of the 198 Malagasy students in France were coastal people, in his view, there could never be a free union between all Malagasy while a cultural gap remained between the coastal people and the people of the highlands
15.
New Imperialism
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New Imperialism or Neo-imperialism was a period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and the Empire of Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The period is distinguished by a pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest. During the era of New Imperialism, the Western powers conquered almost all of Africa, the new wave of imperialism reflected ongoing rivalries among the great powers, the economic desire for new resources and markets, and a civilizing mission ethos. Many of the colonies established during this era gained independence during the era of decolonization that followed World War II, the qualifier new is used to differentiate between imperialism which generally refers to the first wave of European colonization between the 15th and early 19th centuries. In the first wave of colonization, European powers conquered and colonized the Americas and later established outposts in Africa, the American Revolution and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America around 1820 ended the first era of European imperialism. Especially in Great Britain these revolutions helped show the deficiencies of mercantilism, in 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed and manufacturers gained, as the regulations enforced by the Corn Laws had slowed their businesses. With the repeal in place, the manufacturers were able to trade more freely. Thus, Britain began to adopt the concept of free trade, the establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart of Europe, to Britains advantage. The years from 1871 to 1914 would be marked by an unstable peace. The imposition of rule in terms of effective occupation necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples. One of the goals of the conference was to reach agreements over trade, navigation, however, of all of the 15 nations in attendance of the Berlin Conference, none of the countries represented were African. The main dominating powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great Britain and they remapped Africa without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the end of the conference, Africa was divided into 50 different colonies, the attendants established who was in control of each of these newly divided colonies. They also planned, noncommittally, to end the trade in Africa. In Britain, the age of new imperialism marked a time for significant economic changes, because the country was the first to industrialize, Britain was technologically ahead of many other countries throughout the majority of the nineteenth century. However, by the end of the century, other countries such as Germany, the United States, Russia. After several decades of monopoly, the country was battling to maintain a dominant economic position while other became more involved in international markets
16.
French franc
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The franc, also commonly distinguished as the French franc, was a currency of France. Between 1450 and 1999, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it was revalued in 1960, with each new franc being worth 100 old francs. The French franc was a commonly held reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries. The first franc was a gold coin introduced in 1360 to pay the Ransom of King John II of France and this coin secured the kings freedom and showed him on a richly decorated horse earning it the name franc à cheval. The obverse legend, like other French coins, gives the title as Francorum Rex. Its value was set as one livre tournois, john’s son, Charles V, continued this type. It was copied exactly at Brabant and Cambrai and, with the arms on the horse cloth changed, conquests led by Joan of Arc allowed Charles VII to return to sound coinage and he revived the franc à cheval. John II, however, was not able to strike enough francs to pay his ransom, John II died as a prisoner in England and his son, Charles V was left to pick up the pieces. Charles V pursued a policy of reform, including stable coinage, an edict dated 20 April 1365 established the centerpiece of this policy, a gold coin officially called the denier d’or aux fleurs de lis which had a standing figure of the king on its obverse. Its value in money of account was one livre tournois, just like the franc à cheval, in accordance with the theories of the mathematician, economist and royal advisor Nicolas Oresme, Charles struck fewer coins of better gold than his predecessors. In the accompanying deflation both prices and wages fell, but wages fell faster and debtors had to settle up in better money than they had borrowed, the Mayor of Paris, Etienne Marcel, exploited their discontent to lead a revolt which forced Charles V out of the city. The States General which met at Blois in 1577 added to the pressure to stop currency manipulation. Henry III agreed to do this and he revived the franc and this coin and its fractions circulated until 1641 when Louis XIII of France replaced it with the silver Écu. Nevertheless, the franc continued in accounting as a synonym for the livre tournois. The decimal franc was established as the currency by the French Revolutionary Convention in 1795 as a decimal unit of 4.5 g of fine silver. This was slightly less than the livre of 4.505 g, silver coins now had their denomination clearly marked as “5 FRANCS” and it was made obligatory to quote prices in francs. e. Coinage with explicit denominations in decimal fractions of the franc also began in 1795, decimalization of the franc was mandated by an act of 7 April 1795, which also dealt with of weights and measures. France’s first decimal coinage used allegorical figures symbolizing revolutionary principles, like the designs the United States had adopted in 1793
17.
Malagasy franc
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The franc was the currency of Madagascar until January 1,2005. It was subdivided into 100 centimes, the first francs to circulate in Madagascar were French francs. These were supplemented during the First World War by emergency issues, the Banque de Madagascar was created on July 1,1925 by the French government. The currency was issued by the government-owned Banque de Madagascar and was pegged at par to the French franc, only banknotes were issued with French coins continuing to circulate. When the Comoro Islands became a separate French territory, the name of the bank was changed to Banque de Madagascar et des Comores. The Madagascar-Comores CFA franc replaced the franc of Madagascar on December 26,1945, the CFA franc was worth 1.7 French francs until 1948 when a devaluation of the French currency increased the rate to 1 CFA franc =2 French francs. When the new French franc was introduced in 1960, the rate became 1 CFA franc =0.02 French francs, after independence from France, the privilege to issue bank notes was transferred to the Institut dÉmission Malgache on December 31,1961. The CFA franc was replaced by the Malagasy franc on July 1,1963 and it was pegged to the French franc with the same value as the CFA franc, guaranteed by the French treasury. Denominations were given both in francs and ariary, with 5 francs =1 ariary, Madagascar left the CFA franc zone in 1972 and the Malagasy franc was declared inconvertible. Banknotes were issued by the Institut dÉmission Malgache until 1974 when the Banque Centrale de Madagascar took over that function, the peg to the French franc was kept until 1982, when a series of devaluations began. Finally, the franc was floated freely in May 1994, on June 1,1995, the exchange rate had dropped to 1 FRF =777 MGF. On January 1,2005, it was replaced by the ariary at a rate of 5 francs to the ariary, by then, the exchange rate was 1 FRF =1758 MGF. The first Malagasy coins were issued in 1943 by the Free French and these were bronze 50 centime and 1 franc coins bearing the Cross of Lorraine symbol. In 1948, aluminum 1 and 2 franc coins were introduced, followed by aluminum 5 francs, from 1965, coins were issued denominated in both francs and ariary. The lower three denominations were replaced by coins in the 1940s and 50s, with 5000 franc notes introduced in 1950, from 1961, banknotes were issued denominated in both francs and ariary. Following France’s switch to the euro, Madagascar decided it was time to phase out the franc as well, while still denominated in both ariary and francs, on notes issued since 31 July 2003, the former is emphasized with larger fonts and predominant placement. Central Bank of Madagascar web site History of Malagasy currencies Les Monnaies à Madagascar Historical banknotes of Madagascar
18.
Merina Kingdom
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The Merina Kingdom was a pre-colonial state off the coast of Southeast Africa that, by the 19th century, dominated most of what is now Madagascar. The two peoples coexisted peacefully for several generations and are known to have intermarried, in this way, a reigning Vazimba queen married a Hova man named Manelobe. Ralambo was the first to assign the name of Imerina to the central highland territories where he ruled, imposing a capitation tax for the first time, he was able to establish the first standing Merina royal army and established units of blacksmiths and silversmiths to equip them. He famously repelled an invasion by an army of the powerful western coastal Betsimisaraka people. Upon succeeding his father, Andrianjaka led a military campaign to capture the final major Vazimba stronghold in the highlands on the hill of Analamanga. There he established the compound that would form the heart of his new capital city of Antananarivo. Upon his orders, the first structures within this compound were constructed, several traditional royal houses were built. These buildings took on a political and spiritual significance, ensuring their preservation until being destroyed by fire in 1995. Andrianjaka obtained a sizable cache of firearms and gunpowder, materials that helped to establish and preserve his dominance, political life on the island from the 16th century was characterised by sporadic conflict between the Merina and Sakalava kingdoms, originating with Sakalava slave-hunting incursions into Imerina. King Andriamasinavalona quartered the kingdom to be ruled by his four sons, producing persistent fragmentation. He extended the borders of the kingdom to their largest historical extent prior to the kingdoms fragmentation and it was from this context in 1787 that Prince Ramboasalama, nephew of King Andrianjafy of Ambohimanga expelled his uncle and took the throne under the name Andrianampoinimerina. The new king used both diplomacy and force to reunite Imerina with the intent to bring all of Madagascar under his rule and this objective was largely completed under his son, Radama I, who was the first to admit and regularly engage European missionaries and diplomats in Antananarivo. Her son and heir, King Radama II, signed the unpopular Lambert Charter giving French entrepreneur Joseph-François Lambert exclusive rights to many of the islands resources and his liberal policies angered the aristocracy, however, and Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony had the King strangled in a coup détat. This aristocratic revolution saw Rasoherina, the dowager, placed on the throne upon her acceptance of a constitutional monarchy that gave greater power to the Prime Minister. She replaced the incumbent Prime Minister with his brother, Rainilaiarivony, the next sovereign, Ranavalona II, converted the nation to Christianity and had all the sampy burnt in a public display. The last Merina sovereign, Queen Ranavalona III, acceded the throne at age 22 and was exiled to Réunion Island and later French Algeria following French colonisation of the island in 1896. Angry at the cancellation of the Lambert Charter and seeking to restore property taken from French citizens, at the war’s end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. The agreement augured ill for the monarchy of Madagascar
19.
Malagasy Protectorate
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The Malagasy Protectorate was a French protectorate in what is now Madagascar. Through the protectorate, France attempted to control the affairs of the Kingdom of Imerina through its representative at Antananarivo. It ended in 1897 as Madagascar became a French colony, France engaged Madagascar diplomatically and bombarded coastal cities in an attempt to enforce its claims, but Madagascar continued to govern its affairs with relatively little interference. As a result, a French expeditionary force occupied Antananarivo in September 1895 and imprisoned the queen, in January 1897 France declared Madagascar a French colony and deported the prime minister to Algeria, where he died shortly afterward. A civil governor was put in place and key figures were imprisoned or executed. The queen was allowed to continue managing certain internal affairs as a figurehead, after violently quelling the rebellion in 1897, the French executed key members of the royal family and sent the queen into exile first in Réunion and later Algeria, where she died in 1917
20.
History of the Comoros
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The history of the Comoros goes back some 1,500 years. It has been inhabited by various groups throughout this time, France colonised the islands in the 19th century. The Comoros finally became independent in 1975, according to myth, the Comoros islands were first visited by Phoenician sailors. The earliest inhabitants of the islands were probably Bantu-speaking Africans, the earliest evidence of settlement of the dates from the sixth century. Traces of this culture have blended with successive waves of African, Arab. Shirazi immigrants appear to have arrived some time after the tenth century A. D, over the centuries, the Comoro Islands have been settled by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, Southeast Asia and Madagascar. Portuguese explorers first visited the archipelago in 1505, both the British and the French turned their attention to the Comoros islands in the middle of the 19th century. William Sunley, a planter and British Consul from 1848–1866, was an influence on Anjouan, on 25 March 1841, France purchased the island of Maore, which became a colony. In 1850 Sultan Selim of Johanna island seized the American whaler Maria and imprisoned her commander, in response the United States Navy launched the Johanna Expedition in February 1852 to gain the release of Moores and extract compensation. Initially the sultan did not meet the demands, and the sloop-of-war USS Dale bombarded the fortifications, ultimately Selim paid US$1,000. Résidents were posted on the three islands, on 9 April 1908, France declared the protectorates and Mayotte a single colony, Mayotte and dependencies. On 25 July 1912, it was annexed to Madagascar as a province of that colony, from 16 June 1940 -1942 the colonial administration remained loyal to Vichy France, but 25 September 1942 -13 October 1946 they were, like Madagascar, under British occupation. Until the opening of the Suez Canal, the used to be an important refuelling and provisioning station for ships from Europe to the Indian Ocean. Independence came gradually for the Comoros, after World War II, the islands became a French overseas territory and were represented in Frances National Assembly. Internal political autonomy was granted in 1961, agreement was reached with France in 1973 for the Comoros to become independent in 1978. On July 6,1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring unilateral independence, in two referendums, in December 1974 and February 1976, the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France. Mayotte thus remains under French administration, and the Comorian Government has effective control over only Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli. In 1961 it was granted autonomous rule and, seven years after the general unrest and left-wing riots of 1968, from the very beginning Mayotte refused to join the new republic and aligned itself even more firmly to the French Republic, but the other islands remained committed to independence
21.
Banc du Geyser
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The Banc is a dangerous oval-shaped reef 8 km long and 5 km wide that becomes exposed only at low tides, with the exception of some rock formations in the southern part of the reef. The rocks are generally 1.5 to 3 m in height, in the eastern part of the reef there are some sandy cays,1 to 3 m in height covered with grass and small bushes. The entrance into the lagoon is possible from a south-southeastern direction. There is an abundance of sea birds, and the cays are covered in tons of guano, the Geysir Reef was first known by Arab sailors around the year 700, and was shown on some navigation-charts dated around 800. Around 1650 the reef was shown on Spanish maps as Arecife de Santo Antonio, the current name was given on 23 December 1678, when the British vessel Geysir ran on the reef. France and the Comoros claim the Banc du Geyser as part of their exclusive economic zone, the reef is also claimed Madagascar. From the French point of view, it is part of the EEZ of Glorioso Islands, in 2012, France included the reef in the parc naturel marin des Glorieuses, a marine protected area, to preserve the endangered flora and fauna of Glorioso Islands. About 20 km southwest of Geysir is Zélée Bank, a submarine feature. Satellite images of Banc du Geysir, archived from the original on December 23,2010. CS1 maint, Unfit url Sailing Directions, East Africa and the South Indian Ocean
22.
Bassas da India
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Bassas da India is an uninhabited, roughly circular French atoll that is part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. Overall, the atoll is about 10 km in diameter, rising steeply from the seabed 3000 m below to encircle an area of 80 km2 and its exclusive economic zone,123,700 km2 in size, is contiguous with that of Europa Island. The atoll consists of ten barren rocky islets, with no vegetation and those on the north and east sides are 2.1 to 3 m high, while those on the west and south sides are 1.2 m high. The reef, whose coastline measures 35.2 km, is covered by the sea from three hours before high tide to three hours afterward. The region is subject to cyclones, making the atoll a long-time maritime hazard. Jaguar Seamount and Hall Tablemount lie, respectively, about 40 and 70 km further southwest, the Bassas da India was first recorded by Portuguese explorers in the early sixteenth century as the Baixo da Judia. The Judia was the Portuguese ship that discovered the feature by running aground on it in 1506, the name became Bassas da India due to transcription errors by cartographers. The Santiago broke up on the shoal in 1585 and it was rediscovered by the Europa in 1774, whence the name Europa Rocks. The Malay was lost 27 July 1842 on the Europa Rocks, in 1897, the shoal became a French possession, later being placed under the administration of a commissioner residing in Réunion in 1968. Madagascar became independent in 1960 and claims sovereignty over the shoal since 1972, mooring at Bassas da India requires a permit from the French Government. Fishing without such a permit may result in the boat being expelled or even confiscated, several illegal tourism charters departing from Mozambique or South Africa have been seized since 2013 by the French navy. Wikimedia Atlas of Bassas da India Oceandots, archived from the original on 23 December 2010. CS1 maint, BOT, original-url status unknown Sailing Directions, East Africa and the South Indian Ocean French Southern and Antarctic Lands
23.
Europa Island
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Europa Island is a 28-square-kilometre low-lying tropical atoll in the Mozambique Channel, about a third of the way from southern Madagascar to southern Mozambique. The island had never been inhabited until 1820, when the French family Rosier moved to it, the island officially became a possession of France in 1897. The island, garrisoned by a detachment from Réunion, has a station and is visited by scientists. Though uninhabited, it is part of the Scattered Islands of the French Southern, Europa Island was the setting of a 1968 episode of The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau, partly focusing on the breeding habits of the green sea turtle. Europa is 6 kilometres in diameter, with an altitude of 6 metres. It is surrounded by beaches and a fringing reef and encloses a mangrove lagoon of around 9 square kilometres. There are no ports or harbours but anchorage is possible offshore and its Exclusive Economic Zone, contiguous with that of Bassas da India, is 127,300 square kilometres. The airstrip is 1,500 metres metres long, the island is a nature reserve. Its vegetation consists of dry forest, scrub, euphorbia, the swamp. It is one of the worlds largest nesting sites for green sea turtles and it is also home to goats introduced by settlers in the late 18th century. The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports a large and diverse population of breeding seabirds and it is the only known breeding site outside Aldabra and Madagascar for Malagasy pond herons. Seabirds include the second largest colony in the western Indian Ocean of great frigatebirds, Audubons shearwaters, dimorphic egrets, the island is also home to an endemic subspecies of white-tailed tropicbird. There are three species of landbirds present, one of which is a subspecies of the Malagasy white-eye. Additionally, the island is home to its own species of hissing cockroach. Climate is affected by the Agulhas Current with water temperatures usually above 30 °C, southeast trade winds during the winter and occasional cyclones. While the island has probably been sighted by navigators since at least the 16th century, it takes its name from the British ship Europa, ruins and graves on Europa island attest to several attempts at settlement from the 1860s to the 1920s. For example, the French Rosiers family moved to the island in 1860, but subsequently abandoned it
24.
Glorioso Islands
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The Glorieuses or Glorioso Islands are a group of French islands and rocks totalling 5 square kilometres, at 11°33′S 47°20′E, in the Indian Ocean, about 160 kilometres northwest of Madagascar. In 2012, France founded parc naturel marin des Glorieuses, a protected area, to preserve the endangered flora. The Glorieuses have an Exclusive Economic Zone of 48,350 square kilometres, there are anchorages offshore, and Grande Glorieuse has a 1, 300-metre long airstrip. The archipelago consists of two islands, Grande Glorieuse and Île du Lys, as well as eight rock islets, Wreck Rock, South Rock and Verte Rocks and they form part of a coral reef and lagoon. Grande Glorieuses is roughly circular and measures about 3 kilometres across and it is thickly vegetated, mainly by the remains of a coconut plantation and casuarina trees. Île du Lys, located at 11°30′59. 35″S 47°22′36. 02″E about 8 kilometres northeast of Grande Glorieuses, is about 600 metres long and consists of sand dunes and it was formerly quarried for phosphate. The climate is tropical and the terrain is low and flat, Île de Lys in particular is a nesting ground for migratory seabirds, and turtles lay eggs on the beaches. Perhaps earlier known to Arab navigators, the Glorieuses were named and settled in 1880 by a Frenchman, Hippolyte Caltaux, the archipelago became a French possession in 1892 when Captain Richard of the Primauget made a formal claim. In 1895, the Glorioso Island became a part of the colony of Mayotte, from 1914 to 1958 concessions to exploit the islands were given to Seychelles companies. The islands are nature reserves with a meteorological station garrisoned by French troops. The Comoros claims Mayotte and Glorioso Islands, the Seychelles claimed the islands too before the France–Seychelles Maritime Boundary Agreement. In 2012, France founded parc naturel marin des Glorieuses, a protected area, to preserve the endangered flora
25.
Juan de Nova Island
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Anchorage is possible off the northeast of the island which also has a 1,300 metres airstrip. Administratively, the island is one of the Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean, the island is garrisoned by French troops from Réunion and has a weather station. Juan de Nova, about 6 kilometres long and 1.6 kilometres at its widest, is a reserve surrounded by reefs which enclose an area of roughly 40 square kilometres. Forests, mainly of Casuarinaceae, cover about half the island, sea turtles nest on the beaches around the island. The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports a large colony of sooty terns. It also has a smaller colony of greater crested terns. Of at least seven species of landbirds present, most are probably introduced, the island is named after Juan de Nova, a Galician admiral in the service of Portugal who came across the island in 1501. The island had never been inhabited when it became a possession of France in 1897, in 1921, France decided to transfer the administration of Juan de Nova from Paris to Tananarive in its colony of Madagascar and Dependencies. Before the independence of Madagascar, France transferred the administration to Saint-Pierre on Réunion Island, Madagascar became independent in 1960 and claims sovereignty over the island since 1972. Guano deposits were exploited from the start of the 20th century until 1970, the island was abandoned during World War II and was visited by German submariners. Installations, including a hangar, rail lines, houses and a jetty are in ruins, the island lies on the sea route between South Africa and the northern tip of Madagascar. It is affected by currents, and has become the site of numerous wrecks. Most visible are the remains of the SS Tottenham which ran onto the southern fringing reef in 1911
26.
Crozet Islands
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The Crozet Islands are a sub-antarctic archipelago of small islands in the southern Indian Ocean. They form one of the five districts of the French Southern. The Crozet Islands were discovered on 24 January 1772 by the expedition of French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne and his second-in-command Jules Crozet landed on Île de la Possession, claiming the archipelago for France. The expedition continued east and landed at New Zealand, where Captain Marion, Crozet survived the disaster, and successfully led the survivors back to their base at Mauritius. In 1776 Crozet met James Cook at Cape Town, at the onset of Cooks third voyage, Crozet shared the charts of his ill-fated expedition, and as Cook sailed eastward he stopped at the islands, naming the western group Marion and the eastern group Crozet. In the early 19th century, the islands were visited by sealers. Subsequently, whaling was the activity around the islands, especially by the whalers from Massachusetts. In 1841 there were a dozen whaleships around the islands, within a couple of years this had increased to twenty from the United States alone. Such exploitation was short-lived, and the islands were visited for the rest of the century. Shipwrecks occurred frequently at the Crozet Islands, the British sealer, Princess of Wales, sank in 1821, and the survivors spent two years on the islands. The Strathmore was wrecked in 1875, in 1887, the French Tamaris was wrecked and her crew stranded on Île des Cochons. They tied a note to the leg of an albatross, which was seven months later in Fremantle. Because shipwrecks around the islands were so common, for some time the Royal Navy dispatched a ship every few years to look for stranded survivors, the steamship Australasian also checked for survivors en route to Australia. Between 1924 and 1955, France administered the islands as a dependency of Madagascar, Crozet Islands became part of the French Southern Territories in 1955. In 1938, the Crozet Islands were declared a nature reserve, in 1961, a first research station was set up, but it was not until 1963 that the permanent station Alfred Faure opened at Port Alfred on Île de la Possession. The station is staffed by 18 to 30 people and does meteorological, biological, and geological research, maintains a seismograph, not including minor islets or rock reefs etc. the Crozet group consists of six islands. From west to east, Group of two islands and about 20 pinnacle rocks. Previous scientific stations included La Grande Manchotière and La Petite Manchotière, analysis of magnetic anomalies on the sea floor indicates that the Crozet Plateau formed some 50 million years ago
27.
Kerguelen Islands
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The Kerguelen Islands, also known as the Desolation Islands, are a group of islands in the southern Indian Ocean constituting one of the two exposed parts of the mostly submerged Kerguelen Plateau. They are among the most isolated places on Earth, located 450 km northwest of the uninhabited Heard Island and McDonald Islands and more than 3,300 km from Madagascar, the nearest populated location. The main island, Grande Terre, is 6,675 km2 in area and is surrounded by a further 300 smaller islands and islets, the climate is raw and chilly with frequent high winds throughout the year. The surrounding seas are generally rough and they remain ice-free year-round, there are no indigenous inhabitants, but France maintains a permanent presence of 45 to 100 scientists, engineers and researchers. There are no airports on the islands, so all travel, Kerguelen Islands appear as the Ile de Nachtegal on Philippe Buaches map from 1754 before the island was officially discovered in 1772. It is possible this early name was after Tasmans ship De Zeeuwsche Nachtegaal, on the Buache map, Ile de Nachtegal is located at 43°S, 72°E, about 6 degrees north and 2 degrees east of the accepted location of Grande Terre. The islands were discovered by the French navigator Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec on 12 February 1772. The next day Charles de Boisguehenneuc landed and claimed the island for the French crown, yves de Kerguelen organised a second expedition in 1773 and arrived at the baie de lOiseau by December of the same year. On 6 January 1774 he commanded his lieutenant, Henri Pascal de Rochegude, since the end of the whaling and sealing era, most of the islands species have been able to increase their population again. In 1800, Hillsborough spent eight months sealing and whaling around the islands, during this time Captain Robert Rhodes, her master, prepared a chart of the islands. In 1825, the British sealer John Nunn and three members from Favourite, were shipwrecked on Kerguelen until they were rescued in 1827 by Captain Alexander Distant during his hunting campaign. The islands were not completely surveyed until the Ross expedition of 1840, for the 1874 transit of Venus, George Biddell Airy at the Royal Observatory of the UK organised and equipped five expeditions to different parts of the world. Three of these were sent to the Kerguelen Islands, the Reverend Stephen Joseph Perry led the British expeditions to the Kerguelen Islands. He set up his main station at Observatory Bay and two auxiliary stations, one at Thumb Peak led by Sommerville Goodridge, and the second at Supply Bay led by Cyril Corbet. Observatory Bay was also used by the German Antarctic Expedition led by Erich Dagobert von Drygalski in 1902–03, in January 2007, an archaeological excavation of this site was carried out. In 1874–1875, British, German and U. S. expeditions visited Kerguelen to observe the transit of Venus, in 1877 the French started a coal mining operation, however, this was abandoned soon after. The German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis called at Kerguelen during December 1940, during their stay the crew performed maintenance and replenished their water supplies. This ships first fatality of the war occurred when a sailor, Bernhard Herrmann and he is buried in what is sometimes referred to as the most southerly German war grave of World War II
28.
Malagasy Republic
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The Malagasy Republic was a state situated in Southeast Africa. It was established in 1958 as a republic within the newly created French Community. The AKFM and other nationalists opposed to the concept of limited self-rule mustered about 25 percent of votes cast, the vast majority of the population at the urging of the PSD leadership voted in favor of the referendum. The vote led to the election of Tsiranana as the countrys first president on April 27,1959, the cornerstone of Tsirananas government was the signing with France of fourteen agreements and conventions designed to maintain and strengthen Franco-Malagasy ties. These agreements were to provide the basis for increasing opposition from Tsirananas critics, a spirit of political reconciliation prevailed in the early 1960s. Similar to other African leaders during the independence era, Tsiranana oversaw the consolidation of his own partys power at the expense of other parties. A political system that favored the incumbent complemented these actions. For example, although the process allowed minority parties to participate. Tsirananas position was strengthened by the broad, multiethnic popular base of the PSD among the côtiers. A new force on the scene provided the first serious challenge to the Tsiranana government in April 1971. The National Movement for the Independence of Madagascar led a peasant uprising in Toliara Province, the creator and leader of Monima was Monja Jaona, a côtier from the south who also participated in the Revolt of 1947. The main issue was government pressure for tax collection at a time when local cattle herds were being ravaged by disease, the protesters attacked military and administrative centers in the area, apparently hoping for support in the form of weapons and reinforcements from China. Such help never arrived, and the revolt was harshly and quickly suppressed, an estimated fifty to 1,000 persons died, Monima was dissolved, and Monima leaders, including Jaona and several hundred protesters, were arrested and deported to the island of Nosy Lava. Another movement came on the scene in early 1972, in the form of student protests in Antananarivo. By early May, the PSD sought to end the student strike at any cost, on May 12 and 13, authorities also closed the schools and banned demonstrations. Forces unleashed by the economic crisis combined with student unrest to create an opposition alliance. Workers, public servants, peasants, and many unemployed urban youth of Antananarivo joined the student strike, protesters set fire to the town hall and to the offices of a French-language newspaper in the capital. The turning point occurred on May 13 when the Republican Security Force opened fire on the rioters, Tsiranana declared a state of national emergency and on May 18 dissolved his government, effectively ending the First Republic
29.
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
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The French Southern and Antarctic Lands is an overseas territory of France. It consists of, Kerguelen Islands, a group of islands in the southern Indian Ocean, southeast of Africa. The territory is called the French Southern Lands or French Southern Territories. The latter excludes Adélie Land, where French sovereignty is not widely recognized, the lands are not connected to France Antarctique, a former French colony in Brazil. The territory has no permanent civilian population and those resident consist of visiting military personnel, officials, scientific researchers and support staff. The French Southern and Antarctic Lands have formed a territoire doutre-mer of France since 1955, the territory is divided into five districts, a According to new law 2007-224 of February 21,2007, the Scattered Islands constitute the TAAFs fifth district. The TAAF website does not mention their population, the data are not included in the totals. b The Îles Éparses principal station is on Tromelin. The headquarters of the district chief lies beyond the TAAF, in Saint Pierre on Réunion Island. c The Territorys principal station is Martin-de-Viviès on Île Amsterdam, the capital and headquarters of the Territorial administrator lies beyond the TAAF, in Saint Pierre on Réunion Island. Each district is headed by a chief, who has powers similar to those of a French mayor. Because there is no permanent population, there is no elected assembly, Adélie Land and the islands, totaling 7,781 km2, have no indigenous inhabitants, though in 1997 there were about 100 researchers whose numbers varied from winter to summer. Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul are extinct volcanoes and have been delineated as the Amsterdam, the highest point in the territory is Mont Ross on Île Kerguelen at 1,850 m. There are very few airstrips on the islands, only existing on islands with weather stations, the islands in the Indian Ocean are supplied by the special ship Marion Dufresne sailing out of Le Port in Réunion Island. Terre Adélie is supplied by Astrolabe sailing out of Hobart in Tasmania and this register, however, is to vanish, replaced by the International French Register. The territory contains the land mass that is antipodal to the Contiguous United States. Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul lie antipodal to two areas in south-eastern Colorado, near the cities of Lamar and Cheyenne Wells, respectively. The territorys natural resources are limited to fish and crustaceans, economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets. The main fish resources are Patagonian toothfish and spiny lobster, both are poached by foreign fleets, because of this, the French Navy and occasionally other services patrol the zone and arrest poaching vessels. Such arrests can result in heavy fines and/or the seizure of the ship, France used to sell licenses to foreign fisheries to fish the Patagonian toothfish, because of overfishing, it is now restricted to a small number of fisheries from Réunion Island
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Madagascar
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Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar, and numerous smaller peripheral islands, consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The islands diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the growing human population. The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC, human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo. These were joined around AD1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa, other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by an assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles, the monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in an uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair, Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community. Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations, Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascars development strategy. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis, in the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The islands appellation Madagascar is not of origin, but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. On St. Laurences Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island, polos name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. At 592,800 square kilometres, Madagascar is the worlds 47th largest country, the country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros, the nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west
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Comoros
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Other countries near the Comoros are Tanzania to the northwest and the Seychelles to the northeast. Its capital is Moroni, on Grande Comore, the Union of the Comoros has three official languages – Comorian, Arabic and French. The religion of the majority of the population is Islam, at 1,660 km2, excluding the contested island of Mayotte, the Comoros is the third-smallest African nation by area. The population, excluding Mayotte, is estimated at 798,000, as a nation formed at a crossroads of different civilisations, the archipelago is noted for its diverse culture and history. The archipelago was first inhabited by Bantu speakers who came from East Africa, supplemented by Arab, the country consists of three major islands and numerous smaller islands, all in the volcanic Comoros archipelago. The major islands are known by their French names, northwestern-most Grande Comore, Mohéli. France has vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions that would affirm Comorian sovereignty over the island, in addition, Mayotte became an overseas department and a region of France in 2011 following a referendum passed overwhelmingly. It became part of the French colonial empire in the 19th century before becoming independent in 1975, since declaring independence, the country has experienced more than 20 coups détat or attempted coups, with various heads of state assassinated. As of 2008 about half the population lived below the poverty line of US$1.25 a day. The Comoros is the state to be a member of the African Union, Francophonie, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Arab League. The name Comoros derives from the Arabic word قمر qamar, the first human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are thought to have been Polynesian and Melanesian settlers, Malays and Indonesians, travelling by boat. The islands of the Comoros were populated by a succession of peoples from the coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf, the Malay Archipelago, and Madagascar. Bantu-speaking settlers reached the islands as a part of the greater Bantu expansion that took place in Africa throughout the first millennium, according to pre-Islamic mythology, a jinni dropped a jewel, which formed a great circular inferno. This became the Karthala volcano, which created the island of the Comoros, development of the Comoros was divided into phases. The earliest reliably recorded phase is the Dembeni phase, during each island maintained a single. From the eleventh to the centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar and merchants from the Middle East flourished, smaller villages emerged. Many Comorians can trace their genealogies to ancestors from Yemen, mainly Hadhramaut, and Oman. According to legend, in 632, upon hearing of Islam, islanders are said to have dispatched an emissary, Mtswa-Mwindza, to Mecca—but by the time he arrived there, the Islamic prophet Muhammad had died
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France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
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Mayotte
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Mayotte is an insular department and region of France officially named Département de Mayotte. It consists of an island, Grande-Terre, a smaller island, Petite-Terre. The archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Southeast Africa, the department status of Mayotte is recent and the region remains the poorest in France. Mayotte is nevertheless much more prosperous than the countries of the Mozambique Channel. Mayottes area is 374 square kilometres and, with its 212,645 people, is densely populated at 569 per km². The biggest city and prefecture is Mamoudzou on Grande-Terre, however, the Dzaoudzi–Pamandzi International Airport is located on the neighbouring island of Petite-Terre. The territory is part of the Comoro Islands. The territory is known as Maore, the native name of its main island. The language of the majority is Shimaore, a Bantu language variety closely related to the varieties in the neighbouring Comoros islands, the second most widely spoken native language is Kibushi, a Malagasy language variety most closely related to the Sakalava dialect of Malagasy with influences from Shimaore. The vast majority of the population is Muslim, the island was populated from neighbouring East Africa with later arrival of Arabs, who brought the Islamic religion. A sultanate was established in 1500, the people of Mayotte voted to remain politically a part of France in the 1974 referendum. The term Mayotte may refer to all of the islands, of which the largest is known as Maore and includes Maores surrounding islands, most notably Pamanzi. The main island, Grande-Terre, geologically the oldest of the Comoro Islands, is 39 kilometres long and 22 kilometres wide, because of the volcanic rock, the soil is relatively rich in some areas. A coral reef encircling much of the island ensures protection for ships, Dzaoudzi was the capital of Mayotte until 1977. It is situated on Petite-Terre, which at 10 square kilometres is the largest of several islets adjacent to Maore, in 1500, the Maore or Mawuti sultanate was established on the island. In 1503, Mayotte was observed by Portuguese explorers, but not colonized, in 1832, Mayotte was conquered by Andriantsoly, former king of Iboina on Madagascar, in 1833, it was conquered by the neighbouring sultanate of Mwali. On 19 November 1835, Mayotte was again conquered by the Ndzuwani Sultanate, however, in 1836 it regained its independence under a last local Sultan. Mayotte was purchased by France in 1841 and it was the only island in the archipelago that voted in referendums in 1974 and 1976 to retain its link with France and forgo independence
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History of Madagascar
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Over the past two thousand years the island has received waves of settlers of diverse origins including Austronesian, Bantu, Arab, South Asian, Chinese and European populations. The majority of the population of Madagascar today is a mixture of Austronesian, Bantu, North Indian, Arab, centuries of intermarriages created the Malagasy people, who primarily speak Malagasy, an Austronesian language with Bantu, Malay, Arabic, French and English influences. Most of the makeup of the average Malagasy, however, reflects an almost equal blend of Austronesian and Bantu influences. Other populations often intermixed with the existent population to a limited degree or have sought to preserve a separate community from the majority Malagasy. By the European Middle Ages, over a dozen predominant ethnic identities had emerged on the island, among some communities, such as the Sakalava, Merina and Betsimisaraka, leaders seized the opportunity to unite these disparate communities and establish true kingdoms under their rule. These kingdoms increased their wealth and power through exchanges with European, Arab and other seafaring traders, the Sakalava and Merina kingdoms in particular exploited European trade to strengthen the power of their kingdoms, trading Malagasy slaves in exchange for European firearms and other goods. Throughout this time, European and Arab seafarers operating in the Indian Ocean traded with coastal communities, beginning in the early 19th century, the British and French colonial empires competed for influence in Madagascar. By the turn of the 19th century, King Andrianampoinimerina had reunited the highly populous Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at Antananarivo. His son, Radama I, began to exert its authority over the other polities and was the first Malagasy sovereign to be recognized by a foreign power as the ruler of the greater Merina Kingdom. Christianity, introduced by members of the London Missionary Society, was made the religion under Queen Ranavalona II and her prime minister. The French launched |two military campaigns known as the Franco-Hova Wars to force submission, in French Madagascar, Malagasy were required to fulfill corvée labor on French-run plantations, which generated high revenues for the colonial administration. The capital city was transformed and modernized, and the royal palaces were transformed into a school. The country gained independence from France in 1960 in the wake of decolonization. Under the leadership of President Philibert Tsiranana, Madagascars First Republic was established as a democratic system modeled on that of France, as Madagascars economy quickly unraveled, standards of living declined dramatically and growing social unrest was increasingly met with violent repression on the part of the Ratsiraka government. By 1992, free and fair multiparty elections were held, ushering in the democratic Third Republic, under the new constitution, the Malagasy public elected successive presidents Albert Zafy, Didier Ratsiraka, and Marc Ravalomanana. Rajoelina ushered in the Malagasy constitutional referendum,2010 and ruled Madagascar as president of the High Transitional Authority without recognition from the international community, elections were held on December 20,2013 to elect a new president and return the country to constitutional governance. The earliest unambiguous evidence of presence in Madagascar was found at Andavakoera. There is some evidence for earlier human presence, but it is ambiguous or not widely studied yet, archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE
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Common Era
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Common Era or Current Era is a year-numbering system for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i. e. since AD1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era, the Current Era notation system can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD and BC. The two notation systems are equivalent, thus 2017 CE corresponds to AD2017 and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC. The year-numbering system for the Gregorian calendar is the most widespread civil calendar used in the world today. For decades, it has been the standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. The expression has been traced back to Latin usage to 1615, as vulgaris aerae, the term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish academics. He attempted to number years from a reference date, an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, numbering years in this manner became more widespread in Europe with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, in 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The first use of the Latin term vulgaris aerae discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler, Kepler uses it again in a 1616 table of ephemerides, and again in 1617. A1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, a 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,6. A1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, before the beginning of the vulgar æra, a 1796 book uses the term vulgar era of the nativity. The first so-far-discovered usage of Christian Era is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac, a 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of Christian Era. The English phrase common Era appears at least as early as 1708, a 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. The first-so-far found usage of the phrase before the era is in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era, the Catholic Encyclopedia in at least one article reports all three terms being commonly understood by the early 20th century. Thus, the era of the Jews, the common era of the Mahometans, common era of the world
36.
Democratic Republic of Madagascar
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The Democratic Republic of Madagascar was a socialist state that existed on the island of Madagascar from 1975 until 1992. Didier Ratsiraka was elected to a term as president in a national referendum on December 21,1975, confirming the mandate for consensus. The guiding principle of Ratsirakas administration was the need for a socialist revolution from above, the socialist revolution, explains the Red Book, is the only choice possible for us in order to achieve rapid economic and cultural development in an autonomous, humane, and harmonious manner. Several early policies collectively decided by Ratsiraka and other members of the SRC set the tone of the revolution from above, the first major SRC decision was to bring the French-held sectors of the economy under government control. This economic decolonization was welcomed by nationalists, who long had clamored for economic, the government also lifted martial law but retained rigid press censorship. Finally, the SRC ordered the closure of a satellite tracking station operated by the United States as part of its commitment to nonaligned foreign relations. Political consolidation proceeded apace following the addition of ten civilians to the SRC in January 1976 and this act constituted the beginning of a civil-military partnership in that the SRC became more representative of the countrys major political tendencies and ethnic communities. In March the Vanguard of the Malagasy Revolution was founded as the government party, membership in the FNDR, necessary for participation in the electoral process, was preconditioned on party endorsement of the revolutionary principles and programs contained in the Red Book. Ratsiraka and Arema clearly dominated the political system, in the fokonolona elections held in March 1977, for example, Arema captured 90 percent of 73,000 contested seats in 11,400 assemblies. In June 1977, Arema won 220 out of a total of 232 seats in elections for six provincial general assemblies and this trend toward consolidation was most vividly demonstrated by Rasirakas announcement of his 1977 cabinet in which Arema members held sixteen of eighteen ministerial posts. Yet, less than three years after taking power, Ratsirakas regime was confronted with growing popular disenchantment, as early as September 1977, anti-government demonstrations erupted in Antananarivo because of severe shortages in foodstuffs and essential commodities. Ratsiraka defiantly adopted authoritarian tactics in response to the opposition, sending in the armed forces to stifle dissent. The results of elections within the de facto one-party framework that prevailed throughout the Second Republic clearly demonstrated Ratsirakas declining political fortunes. Massive demonstrations against Ratsirakas inauguration led to violent clashes in Antananarivo that, according to figures, left seventy-five dead. Ratsiraka already faced an economy crippled by a strike that had begun in May, as well as a divided. When the Presidential Guard opened fire on the marchers and killed and wounded hundreds, Madagascar History of Madagascar This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/
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Third Republic of Madagascar
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The Third Republic of Madagascar refers to the 18-year-long period in Malagasy history after the dissolution of the socialist regime in 1992. A new draft constitution was approved by 75 percent of voting in a national referendum on August 19,1992. The first round of presidential elections followed on November 25, the remaining votes were split among a variety of other candidates. Because neither candidate obtained a majority of the votes cast, a round of elections between the two frontrunners was held on February 10,1993. Zafy emerged victorious with nearly 67 percent of the popular vote, the Third Republic officially was inaugurated on March 27,1993, when Zafy was sworn in as president. The victory of the Forces Vives was further consolidated in elections held on June 13,1993, voters turned out in low numbers because they were being called upon to vote for the fourth time in less than a year. The Forces Vives and other allied parties won seventy-five seats and this coalition gave Zafy a clear majority and enabled him to choose Francisque Ravony of the Forces Vives as prime minister. Adding to these woes was the minor but nonetheless embarrassing political problem of Ratsirakas refusal to vacate the Presidents Palace. In short, the Zafy regime faced the dilemma of using relatively untested political structures and rules of the game to resolve issues of governance. Albert Zafy was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, didier Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. National GDP grew at a rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the later half of his term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, Madagascar History of Madagascar This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/
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High Transitional Authority
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The HAT was primarily dominated by members of Determined Malagasy Youth, Rajoelinas party. On September 17,2011, a Roadmap for Ending the Crisis in Madagascar, was signed by leaders that was backed by the Southern African Development Community. This resolution aimed at creating a stable government once more, the HAT repeatedly rescheduled the general election, which was held on 20 December 2013, following a first round of presidential elections on 25 October. The presidential elections in December were a runoff between Jean Louis Robinson and Hery Rajaonarimampianina, the top two candidates to emerge from the first round of voting in October. The official results of the round were announced on 7 January 2014 with Rajaonarimampianina proclaimed the victor with nearly 54% of the vote. This election ended the HAT and restored a constitutional government in Madagascar
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East Africa
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East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. The first five are included in the African Great Lakes region. Burundi and Rwanda are sometimes considered to be part of Central Africa. Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia – collectively known as the Horn of Africa, Comoros, Mauritius and Seychelles – small island nations in the Indian Ocean. Réunion and Mayotte – French overseas territories also in the Indian Ocean, Mozambique and Madagascar – often considered part of Southern Africa, on the eastern side of the sub-continent. Madagascar has close ties to Southeast Asia and the islands of the Indian Ocean. Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe – often also included in Southern Africa, Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan – collectively part of the Nile Valley. Situated in the portion of the continent, and Egypt. Also members of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa free trade area, the geography of East Africa is often stunning and scenic. Shaped by global plate tectonic forces that have created the East African Rift, East Africa is the site of Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya and it also includes the worlds second largest freshwater lake Lake Victoria, and the worlds second deepest lake Lake Tanganyika. The climate of East Africa is rather atypical of equatorial regions, in fact, on the coast of Somaliland and Puntland, many years can go by without any rain whatsoever. Unusually, most of the falls in two distinct wet seasons, one centred on April and the other in October or November. Annual rainfall here ranges from over 1,600 millimetres on the slopes to around 1,250 millimetres at Addis Ababa and 550 millimetres at Asmara. In the high rainfall can be over 2,500 millimetres. Temperatures in East Africa, except on the hot and generally humid coastal belt, are moderate, with maxima of around 25 °C, at altitudes of above 2,500 metres, frosts are common during the dry season and maxima typically about 21 °C or less. The unique geography and apparent suitability for farming made East Africa a target for European exploration, exploitation and colonialization in the nineteenth century, today, tourism is an important part of the economies of Kenya, Tanzania, Seychelles, and Uganda. The easternmost point of the continent, that is Ras Hafun in Somalia, is of archaeological, historical and economical importance, there are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus or several, a multiple dispersal model involves the Southern Dispersal theory. A growing number of researchers suspect that North Africa was instead the home of the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent
40.
Franco-Hova Wars
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Hova refers to a class within the Merina social structure. European colonial powers, primarily Britain and France, had ambitions to control Madagascar, the Merina Kingdom of Madagascar had successfully repelled multiple attempts by both European powers to seize control of the territory throughout the 19th century. Defense of the island was aided by its size and diversity of terrain, the organized military and government structures. She successfully repelled French attacks on Foulepointe and other coastal cities, during several periods, Ranavalonas restrictions on the practice of Christianity minimized European presence on the island. Upon Ranavalonas death, her son succeeded her as King Radama II in 1861, as prince, he had already made concessions to Joseph-François Lambert, a Frenchman who had resided at Ranavalonas court and assisted in the development of numerous resources. The Lambert Charter Radama had approved conceded significant tracts of land to Lambert in neglect of the significance attached to ancestral land. In addition, the French government received a letter written by the prince. The origins and authenticity of the letter are disputed, and the British alleged that it was crafted by Laborde to support French military action on the island, after a brief reign, Radama was strangled in an 1863 coup detat termed the Aristocratic Revolution. The despotism of the minister led him to be replaced by his younger brother, Rainilaiarivony. Rainilaiarivony and successive queens Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III sought to maintain the sovereignty of Madagascar, the Merina monarchy vigorously attempted to resolve the issue through negotiation and diplomacy, relying heavily on the support of their British and American trading partners. They sent ambassadors to England and France to resolve the claims and this provided the necessary pretext for a French military invasion of the island, which took place in two waves between 1883-1895. France invaded Madagascar in 1883, in became known as the first Franco-Hova War. With the signing of the Treaty of Tamatave in January 1886, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana on the northern coast to France and paid a hefty fine of 10 million francs. The treaty included an Instructive Letter which was to clarify the treaty, the terms and impositions of the treaty were not fully agreed by Rainilaiarivony. With the opening of the Suez Canal, the significance of Madagascar had declined. Rainilaiarivony prepared to defend the island from French military invasion by sending Colonel Shervinton, his European military adviser, the French administration was determined to bring about a full Protectorate on the island, and thus evacuated its nonessential citizens from the region. Active hostilities commenced on December 12,1894, when the French marines took possession of Tamatave, General Duchesne and his flying column landed in Mahajanga and marched to the capital, Antananarivo, hampered by the jungle, shallow river, disease, and lack of roads. They finally reached the city and began the assault in the last week of September 1895, the defenders were stationed on the main road to the capital, to the south of the city
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Merina people
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The Merina people, also known as the Imerina, Antimerina or Hova, are the largest ethnic group in Madagascar. They are the highlander Malagasy ethnic group of the African island and their origins are mixed, predominantly with Malayo-Indonesians arriving before the 5th century AD, then many centuries later by Arabs, Africans and other ethnic groups. They speak the Merina language, and one of their dialects is the official Malagasy language of Madagascar, the Merina people are most commonly found in the center of the island. The French fought two wars with the Merina people in 1883-1885 and in 1895, colonized Madagascar in 1895–96 and they built innovative and elaborate irrigation infrastructure and highly productive rice farms in high plateaus of Madagascar by the 18th century. Austronesian people started settling in Madagascar between 200 to 500 CE and they arrived by boats and were from various southeast Asian groups. Later Swahili-Arabs and Indian traders came to the northern regions. African slaves were brought to the coasts between the 13th and the 18th centuries. The Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century and this influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities in the mid-2nd millennium. The Merina were probably the early arrivals, though this is uncertain, the Merina peoples culture likely mixed and merged with the Madagascar natives named Vazimba about whom little is known. They emerged as the dominant group and a wealthy kingdom towards the close of the 18th century. The capital of their remains the capital of contemporary Madagascar. Oral history traces the emergence of a kingdom in the central highlands of Madagascar – a region called Imerina – back to early 16th-century king Andriamanelo. The colonial British empire recognized the sovereignty of the Merina kingdom, Radama I welcomed European traders and allowed Christian missionaries to establish missions on Madagascar. After him, the Merina people were ruled by Queen Ranavolona I ruled from 1828 to 1861, Queen Rasoherina from 1863 to 1868, the Merina people called the Malagasy living along the coasts as Cotier. These operations and plantations were worked by the labor of imported slaves. The largest influx of slaves was brought in by the Umani Arabs, the Makua people from Mozambique were one of the major victims of this demand, slave capture and export that attempted to satisfy this demand. The slavery was abolished by the French administration in 1896, which impacted the fortunes of Merina and non-Merina operated slave-run plantations. The dominance of the Merina kingdom over all of Madagascar came to an end with the first Franco-Hova War of 1883 to 1885, the French declared Madagascar as a protectorate in 1894, which the then Merina Queen refused to sign to
Madagascar
Comoros
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Madagascar portal
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