1.
French West Africa
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French West Africa was a federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa, Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Dahomey and Niger. The capital of the federation was Dakar, the federation existed from 1895 until 1960. Until after the Second World War almost all the Africans living in the colonies of France were not citizens of France, rather, they were French Subjects, lacking rights before the law, property ownership rights, rights to travel, dissent, or vote. Anyone able to prove they were born in these towns was legally French and they could vote in parliamentary elections, which had been previously dominated by white and Métis residents of Senegal. The Four Communes of Senegal were entitled to elect a Deputy to represent them in the French Parliament in the years 1848–1852, 1871–1876, in 1914, the first African, Blaise Diagne, was elected as the Deputy for Senegal in the French Parliament. In 1916, Diagne pushed through the National Assembly a law granting citizenship to all residents of the so-called Four Communes. In return, he had promised to help millions of Africans to fight in World War I. Thereafter, all black Africans of Dakar, Gorée, Saint-Louis and these conquered areas were usually governed by French Army officers, and dubbed Military Territories. The first Governor General of Senegal was named in 1895, and in 1904, Gabon would later become the seat of its own federation French Equatorial Africa, which was to border its western neighbor on the modern boundary between Niger and Chad. While the latter fell to Free France already after the Battle of Gabon in November 1940, following World War II, the French government began a process of extending limited political rights in its colonies. In 1945 the French Provisional Government allocated ten seats to French West Africa in the new Constituent Assembly called to write a new French Constitution, of these five would be elected by citizens and five by African subjects. The elections brought to prominence a new generation of French-educated Africans and they were all re-elected to the 2nd Constituent Assembly on 2 June 1946. In 1946, the Loi Lamine Guèye granted some limited rights to natives of the African colonies. The French Empire was renamed the French Union on 27 October 1946, in late 1946 under this new constitution each territory was for the first time able elect local representatives, albeit on a limited franchise, to newly established General Councils. These elected bodies had only limited powers, although they did approve local budgets. The Loi Cadre of 23 June 1956 brought universal suffrage to elections held after that date in all French African colonies, the first elections under universal suffrage in French West Africa were the municipal elections of late 1956. On 31 March 1957, under universal suffrage, territorial Assembly elections were held in each of the eight colonies, the leaders of the winning parties were appointed to the newly instituted positions of Vice-Presidents of the respective Governing Councils — French Colonial Governors remained as Presidents. The Constitution of the French Fifth Republic of 1958 again changed the structure of the colonies from the French Union to the French Community, each territory was to become a Protectorate, with the consultative assembly named a National Assembly
2.
Upper Senegal and Niger
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At its creation, the Colony of Upper Senegal and Niger contained the old territories of Upper Senegal, the Middle Niger, and the military Niger territory. A decree of 2 March 1907 added the cercles of Fada Ngourma and Say, on 1 January 1912, the military territory of Niger was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, and became its own colony in 1922. It challenged colonial government authority for more than a year in an area stretching from Koudougou in the east and this was the most significant armed opposition to colonial authority organized anywhere in sub-Saharan Africa in the period preceding World War II. The colony of Upper Senegal and Niger is perhaps remembered most often by philatelists, French West Africa topics French Sudan topics French colonisation in Africa
3.
Ivory Coast
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Ivory Coast or Côte dIvoire, officially the Republic of Côte dIvoire, is a country located in West Africa. Ivory Coasts political capital is Yamoussoukro, and its economic capital and its bordering countries are Guinea and Liberia in the west, Burkina Faso and Mali in the north, and Ghana in the east. The Gulf of Guinea is located south of Ivory Coast, prior to its colonization by Europeans, Ivory Coast was home to several states, including Gyaaman, the Kong Empire, and Baoulé. Two Anyi kingdoms, Indénié and Sanwi, attempted to retain their identity through the French colonial period. Ivory Coast became a protectorate of France in 1843–1844 and was formed into a French colony in 1893 amid the European scramble for Africa. Ivory Coast achieved independence in 1960, led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, the country maintained close political and economic association with its West African neighbors while at the same time maintaining close ties to the West, especially France. Since the end of Houphouët-Boignys rule in 1993, Ivory Coast has experienced one coup détat, in 1999, the first took place between 2002 and 2007 and the second during 2010-2011. As a result, in 2000, the adopted a new Constitution. Ivory Coast is a republic with an executive power invested in its President. Through the production of coffee and cocoa, the country was a powerhouse in West Africa during the 1960s and 1970s. Ivory Coast went through a crisis in the 1980s, contributing to a period of political and social turmoil. Changing into the 21st-century Ivorian economy is largely market-based and still heavily on agriculture. The official language is French, with indigenous languages also widely used, including Baoulé, Dioula, Dan, Anyin. In total there are around 78 languages spoken in Ivory Coast, popular religions include Islam, Christianity, and various indigenous religions. Originally, Portuguese and French merchant-explorers in the 15th and 16th centuries divided the west coast of Africa, very roughly, there was also a Pepper Coast also known as the Grain Coast, a Gold Coast, and a Slave Coast. Like those, the name Ivory Coast reflected the major trade occurred on that particular stretch of the coast. One can find the name Cote de Dents regularly used in older works and it was used in Ducketts Dictionnaire and by Nicolas Villault de Bellefond, for examples, although Antoine François Prévost used Côte dIvoire. In the 19th century, usage switched to Côte dIvoire and it retained the name through French rule and independence in 1960
4.
French Sudan
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French Sudan was a French colonial territory in the federation of French West Africa from around 1880 until 1960, when it became the independent state of Mali. The colony was formally called French Sudan from 1890 until 1899 and then again from 1921 until 1958, the colony was initially established largely as a military project led by French troops, but in the mid-1890s it came under civilian administration. A number of reorganizations in the early 1900s brought increasing French administration over issues like agriculture, religion. Following World War II, the African Democratic Rally under Modibo Keita became the most significant political force pushing for independence, Mali initially retained close connections with France and joined in a short-lived federation with Senegal in 1959, but ties to both countries quickly weakened. In 1960, the French Sudan colony formally became the Republic of Mali and began to distance itself further from Senegal, French Sudan originally formed as a set of military outposts as an extension of the French colony in Senegal. Though the area offered France little economic or strategic gain, the military effectively advocated greater conquest in the region. French conquest began in 1879, when Joseph Gallieni was dispatched to the area to establish a fort and this was followed with the establishment of a number of French forts and political alliances with specific leaders in the region in the early 1880s. Desbordes gradually took more territory, often using inter-ethnic rivalries. Archinard led military campaigns against Samori Ture, Ahmadu Tall, and other resistant leaders in the region, Archinards campaigns were often executed through direct military control, without civilian oversight. As costs increased, the French administration decided to replace Archinards control over the area with a civilian governor, the region was governed under a number of different names between 1880 and 1960. The area was Upper River from 1880 until 18 August 1890, on 10 October 1899, French Sudan was divided, with the southern cercles joining coastal colonies, and the rest split into two administrative areas called Middle Niger and Upper Senegal. In 1902, the region again was organized as a colony under the name Senegambia. The name changed again in 1904 to Upper Senegal and Niger, finally, in 1921, the name changed back to French Sudan. Borders and administration of the colony similarly changed a number of times, originally, and for the initial period, the colony vacillated between military administration and civilian administration from Senegal. In 1893, French Sudan formally came under administration, which lasted until 1899. At that point, a reorganization of the colony split 11 southern provinces to other French colonies like French Guinea, the area that was not reorganized was governed in two administrations linked to other French colonies. Following this, the territory of the colony was reestablished in 1902, though the borders shifted slightly, there was little territorial change until 1933. At that point, the colony of the French Upper Volta dissolved, in 1947, Upper Volta was reestablished, and the French Sudan borders became those that eventually became the borders of Mali
5.
Niger
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Niger, officially the Republic of Niger, is a landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Niger is bordered by Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, and Algeria to the northwest. Niger covers a area of almost 1,270,000 km2, making it the largest country in West Africa. The countrys predominantly Islamic population of about 19 million is mostly clustered in the far south, the capital city is Niamey, located in the far-southwest corner of Niger. Niger is a country, and is consistently one of the lowest-ranked in the United Nations Human Development Index. Much of the portions of the country are threatened by periodic drought. The economy is concentrated around subsistence and some export agriculture clustered in the fertile south. Nigerien society reflects a diversity drawn from the long independent histories of its ethnic groups and regions. Historically, what is now Niger has been on the fringes of large states. Since independence, Nigeriens have lived under five constitutions and three periods of military rule, following a military coup in 2010, Niger has become a democratic, multi-party state. A majority live in areas, and have little access to advanced education. Early human settlement in Niger is evidenced by archaeological remains. In prehistoric times, the climate of the Sahara was wet and provided favorable conditions for agriculture, in 2005–06, a graveyard in the Tenere desert was discovered by Paul Sereno, a paleontologist from the University of Chicago. His team discovered 5, 000-year-old remains of a woman and two children in the Tenere Desert, the evidence along with remains of animals that do not typically live in desert are among the strongest evidence of the green Sahara in Niger. It is believed that progressive desertification around 5000 BCE pushed sedentary populations to the south and south-east. By at least the 5th century BCE, Niger became an area of trade, led by the Berber tribes from the north. This trade has made Agadez a pivotal place of the trans-Saharan trade and this mobility, which would continue in waves for several centuries, was accompanied with further migration to the south and interbreeding between southern black and northern white populations. It was also aided by the introduction of Islam to the region at the end of the 7th century, several empires and kingdoms also flourished during this era up to the beginning of colonization in Africa
6.
Republic of Upper Volta
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The Republic of Upper Volta was a landlocked West African country established on December 11,1958, as a self-governing colony within the French Community. Before attaining autonomy it had been French Upper Volta and part of the French Union, on August 5,1960, it attained full independence from France. Thomas Sankara came to power through a military coup détat on August 4,1983, after the coup, he formed the National Council for the Revolution, with himself as president. Under the direction of Sankara, the changed its name on August 4,1984, from Upper Volta to Burkina Faso. The name Upper Volta indicated that the contains the upper part of the Volta River. The river is divided into three parts—the Black Volta, White Volta, and Red Volta, which form the colors of the flag corresponding to parts of the river. History of Burkina Faso List of governors of Upper Volta List of heads of state of Burkina Faso List of heads of government of Burkina Faso
7.
Flag of France
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The national flag of France is a tricolour flag featuring three vertical bands coloured blue, white, and red. It is known to English speakers as the French Tricolour or simply the Tricolour, the royal government used many flags, the best known being a blue shield and gold fleur-de-lis on a white background, or state flag. Early in the French Revolution, the Paris militia, which played a prominent role in the storming of the Bastille, wore a cockade of blue and red, the citys traditional colours. According to Lafayette, white, the ancient French colour, was added to the militia cockade to create a tricolour, or national and this cockade became part of the uniform of the National Guard, which succeeded the militia and was commanded by Lafayette. The colours and design of the cockade are the basis of the Tricolour flag, the only difference was that the 1790 flags colours were reversed. A modified design by Jacques-Louis David was adopted in 1794, the royal white flag was used during the Bourbon restoration from 1815 to 1830, the tricolour was brought back after the July Revolution and has been used ever since 1830. The colours adopted by Valéry Giscard dEstaing, which replaced a version of the flag. Currently, the flag is one and a half times wider than its height and, initially, the three stripes of the flag were not equally wide, being in the proportions 30,33 and 37. Blue and red are the colours of Paris, used on the citys coat of arms. Blue is identified with Saint Martin, red with Saint Denis, at the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the Paris militia wore blue and red cockades on their hats. White had long featured prominently on French flags and is described as the ancient French colour by Lafayette, white was added to the revolutionary colours of the militia cockade to nationalise the design, thus creating the tricolour cockade. Although Lafayette identified the white stripe with the nation, other accounts identify it with the monarchy, Lafayette denied that the flag contains any reference to the red-and-white livery of the Duc dOrléans. Despite this, Orléanists adopted the tricolour as their own, blue and red are associated with the Virgin Mary, the patroness of France, and were the colours of the oriflamme. The colours of the French flag may represent the three main estates of the Ancien Régime. Blue, as the symbol of class, comes first and red, representing the nobility, both extreme colours are situated on each side of white referring to a superior order. Lafayettes tricolour cockade was adopted in July 1789, a moment of unity that soon faded. Royalists began wearing white cockades and flying flags, while the Jacobins. The tricolour, which combines royalist white with red, came to be seen as a symbol of moderation
8.
National anthem
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The majority of national anthems are either marches or hymns in style. The countries of Latin America tend towards more operatic pieces, while a handful of countries use a simple fanfare, a national anthem is usually in the national or most common language of the country, whether de facto or official, there are notable exceptions. Amhrán na bhFiann, the anthem of the Republic of Ireland, was written in English, the current national anthem of South Africa is unique in that five of the countrys eleven official languages are used in the same anthem. One of the two national anthems of New Zealand, God Defend New Zealand, is commonly now sung with the first verse in Māori. The tune is the same but the words are not a translation of each other. God Bless Fiji has lyrics in English and Fijian which are not translations of each other, although official, the Fijian version is rarely sung, and it is usually the English version that is performed at international sporting events. There are several countries that do not have official lyrics to their anthems, one of these is the Marcha Real, the anthem of Spain. In 2007 a national competition to write words was held, other anthems with no words include Inno Nazionale della Repubblica, the anthem of San Marino, and that of Kosovo, entitled Europe. National anthems rose to prominence in Europe during the 19th century, the oldest national anthem belongs to the Netherlands and is called the Wilhelmus. It was written between 1568 and 1572 during the Dutch Revolt, but did not become the anthem until 1932. The Japanese anthem, Kimigayo, has the oldest lyrics, which were taken from a Heian period poem, in contrast, the music of Qaumi Taranah, Pakistans national anthem was composed in 1949, preceding its lyrics, which were written in 1952. The Philippine anthem Lupang Hinirang was composed in 1898 as wordless incidental music for the ceremony declaring independence from the Spanish Empire, the Spanish poem Filipinas was written the following year to serve as the anthems lyrics, the current Tagalog version dates to 1962. Spains national anthem, the Marcha Real, written in 1761, was among the first to be adopted as such, in 1770. Denmark adopted the older of its two national anthems, Kong Christian stod ved højen mast, in 1780, and La Marseillaise, Serbia became the first Eastern European nation to have a national anthem – Rise up, Serbia. – in 1804. Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu, the anthem of Kenya, is one of the first national anthems to be specifically commissioned. It was written by the Kenyan Anthem Commission in 1963 to serve as the anthem after independence from the United Kingdom, National anthems are used in a wide array of contexts. Certain etiquette may be involved in the playing of a countrys anthem and these usually involve military honours, standing up/rising, removing headwear etc. In diplomatic situations the rules may be very formal, there may also be royal anthems, presidential anthems, state anthems etc. for special occasions
9.
La Marseillaise
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La Marseillaise is the national anthem of France. The song was written in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle in Strasbourg after the declaration of war by France against Austria, and was originally titled Chant de guerre pour lArmée du Rhin. The Marseillaise was a song, an anthem to freedom, a patriotic call to mobilize all the citizens. The French National Convention adopted it as the Republics anthem in 1795 and it acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching to the capital. The song is the first example of the European march anthemic style, the anthems evocative melody and lyrics have led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and its incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music. As the French Revolution continued, the monarchies of Europe became concerned that revolutionary fervor would spread to their countries, the War of the First Coalition was an effort to stop the revolution, or at least contain it to France. Initially, the French army did not distinguish itself, and Coalition armies invaded France and that evening, Rouget de Lisle wrote Chant de guerre pour lArmée du Rhin, and dedicated the song to Marshal Nicolas Luckner, a Bavarian in French service from Cham. A plaque on the building on Place Broglie where De Dietrichs house once stood commemorates the event. The melody soon became the call to the French Revolution and was adopted as La Marseillaise after the melody was first sung on the streets by volunteers from Marseille by the end of May. A newly graduated medical doctor, Mireur later became a general under Napoléon Bonaparte, the songs lyric reflects the invasion of France by foreign armies that were under way when it was written. Strasbourg itself was attacked just a few days later, the invading forces were repulsed from France following their defeat in the Battle of Valmy. As the vast majority of Alsatians did not speak French, a German version was published in October 1792 in Colmar, the Convention accepted it as the French national anthem in a decree passed on 14 July 1795, making it Frances first anthem. It later lost this status under Napoleon I, and the song was banned outright by Louis XVIII and Charles X, only being re-instated briefly after the July Revolution of 1830. During Napoleon Is reign, Veillons au Salut de lEmpire was the anthem of the regime. Eight years later, in 1879, it was restored as Frances national anthem, several musical antecedents have been cited for the melody, Mozarts Allegro maestoso of Piano Concerto No. Only the first verse and the first chorus are sung today in France, there are some slight historical variations in the lyrics of the song, the following is the version listed at the official website of the French Presidency. Verses sung in the version of the anthem are in bold. The United States Library of Congress holds the following English translation and these verses were omitted from the national anthem
10.
Ouagadougou
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Ouagadougou is the capital of Burkina Faso and the administrative, communications, cultural and economic centre of the nation. It is also the countrys largest city, with a population of 1,475,223, the citys name is often shortened to Ouaga. The spelling of the name Ouagadougou is derived from the French orthography common in former French African colonies, Ouagadougous primary industries are food processing and textiles. It is served by an airport and it is linked by rail to Abidjan in the Ivory Coast. There is no service to Kaya. There is a highway to Niamey, Niger, south to Ghana. Ouagadougou was the site of Ouagadougou grand market, one of the largest markets in West Africa, other attractions include the National Museum of Burkina Faso, the Moro-Naba Palace, the National Museum of Music, and several craft markets. The name Ouagadougou dates back to the 15th century when the Ninsi tribes inhabited the area and they were in constant conflict until 1441 when Wubri, a Yonyonse hero and an important figure in Burkina Fasos history, led his tribe to victory. He then renamed the area from Kumbee-Tenga, as the Ninsi had called it, to Wage sabre soba koumbem tenga, Ouagadougou is a Francophone spelling of the name. The city became the capital of the Mossi Empire in 1441 and was the permanent residence of the Mossi emperors from 1681, the Moro-Naba Ceremony is still performed every Friday by the Moro-Naba and his court. The French made Ouagadougou the capital of the Upper Volta territory in 1919, in 1954 the railroad line from Ivory Coast reached the city. The population of Ouagadougou doubled from 1954 to 1960 and has been doubling every ten years since. On 15 January 2016, gunmen armed with heavy weapons attacked the Cappuccino restaurant,28 people were killed, while at least 56 were wounded, a total of 176 hostages were released after a government counter-attack into the next morning as the siege ended. Ouagadougou, situated on the plateau, grew around the imperial palace of the Mogho Naaba. Being an administrative center of colonial rule, it became an important urban center in the post-colonial era, first the capital of the Mossi Kingdoms and later of Upper Volta and Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou became a veritable communal center in 1995. The climate of Ouagadougou is hot semi-arid under Köppen-Geiger classification, that borders with tropical wet. The city is part of the Sudano-Sahelian area, with a rainfall of about 800 mm per year, the rainy season stretches from May to October, its height from June to September, with a mean average temperature of 28 °C. The cold season runs from December to January, with an average temperature of 16 °C
11.
Interwar period
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There were numerous new nations in Eastern Europe, most of them small in size. The United States gained dominance in world finance, by the middle of the decade, prosperity was widespread, with the second half of the decade known, especially in Germany, as the Golden Twenties. The Roaring Twenties highlighted novel and highly social and cultural trends. These trends, made possible by sustained economic prosperity, were most visible in major cities like New York, Chicago, Paris, Berlin, the Jazz Age began and Art Deco peaked. For women, knee-length skirts and dresses became socially acceptable, as did bobbed hair with a marcel wave, the women who pioneered these trends were frequently referred to as flappers. Not all was new, “normalcy” returned to politics in the wake of hyper-emotional wartime passions in the United States, France, and Germany. The leftist revolutions in Finland, Poland, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Spain were defeated by conservatives, but succeeded in Russia, in Italy the fascists came to power under Mussolini after threatening a march on Rome. Most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918. There were a few countries that held out until after the Second World War. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Greece did especially well, in advanced economies the prosperity reached middle class households and many in the working class. With radio, automobiles, telephones, and electric lighting and appliances, there was unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The media began to focus on celebrities, especially sports heroes, major cities built large sports stadiums for the fans, in addition to palatial cinemas. The Great Depression was a worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. The depression originated in the United States, after a decline in lofty stock prices. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession
12.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
13.
History of Burkina Faso
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Recent archeological discoveries at Bura in southwest Niger and in adjacent southwest Burkina Faso have documented the existence of the iron-age Bura culture from the 3rd century to the 13th century. The Bura-Asinda system of settlements apparently covered the lower Niger River valley, further research is needed to understand the role this early civilization played in the ancient and medieval history of West Africa. Loropéni is a pre-European stone ruin which was linked to the gold trade and it has been declared as Burkina Fasos first World Heritage site. For several centuries, Mossi peasants were farmers and soldiers. When the French troops of Kimberly arrived and claimed the area in 1896, in 1919, certain provinces from Ivory Coast were united into French Upper Volta in the French West Africa federation. In 1932, the new colony was split up for economic reasons, after World War II, the Mossi actively pressured the French for separate territorial status and on September 4,1947, Upper Volta became a French West African territory again in its own right. A revision in the organization of French Overseas Territories began with the passage of the Basic Law of July 23,1956 and this act was followed by reorganizational measures approved by the French parliament early in 1957 that ensured a large degree of self-government for individual territories. Upper Volta became a republic in the French community on December 11,1958. On July 11,1960 France agreed to Upper Volta becoming fully independent, the Republic of Upper Volta declared independence on 5 August 1960. The first president, Maurice Yaméogo, was the leader of the Voltaic Democratic Union, the 1960 constitution provided for election by universal suffrage of a president and a national assembly for 5-year terms. Soon after coming to power, Yaméogo banned all parties other than the UDV. The coup leaders suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, the army remained in power for 4 years, on June 14,1970, the Voltans ratified a new constitution that established a 4-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments and he faced a major crisis in the form of the Sahel drought and was sent in 1973 to the UN and the US in order to secure aid. After conflict over the 1970 constitution, a new constitution was written and approved in 1977, lamizanas government faced problems with the countrys traditionally powerful trade unions and on November 25,1980, Colonel Saye Zerbo overthrew President Lamizana in a bloodless coup. Colonel Zerbo established the Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the governmental authority. Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from unions and was overthrown two years later on November 7,1982, by Major Dr. Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo and the Council of Popular Salvation. The CSP continued to ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a transition to civilian rule, factional infighting developed between moderates in the CSP and radicals led by Captain Thomas Sankara, who was appointed prime minister in January 1983. The internal political struggle and Sankaras leftist rhetoric led to his arrest and subsequent efforts to bring about his release and this release effort resulted in yet another military coup détat on August 4,1983
14.
Mossi Kingdoms
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The kingdoms were founded when warriors from the Mamprusi area, in modern-day Ghana moved into the area and intermarried with local people. Centralization of the political and military powers of the kingdoms begin in the 13th century, in 1896, the French took over the kingdoms and created the French Upper Volta which largely used the Mossi administrative structure for many decades in governing the colony. Accounts of the origin of the Mossi kingdom and parts of their history are very imprecise with contradictory oral traditions that disagree on significant aspects of the story, the origin story is unique in that a woman plays a key role as the progenitor of the royal line. The origins of the Mossi state are claimed by one prominent oral tradition to come from when a Mamprusi princess left the city of Gambaga because of a dispute with her father and this event dates in different oral histories to be anytime between the 11th and the 15th centuries. According to the story, the princess Yennega escaped dressed as a man when she came to the house of an elephant hunter from the Boussansi tribe named Ryallé and he initially believed she was a man but one day she revealed that she was a woman and the two married. They had a son named Wedraogo or Ouédraogo who was given name from the horse that Niennega escaped from Gambaga on. Wedraogo visited his grandfather in Dagomba at the age of fifteen and was given four horses,50 cows, with these forces, Wedraogo conquered the Boussansi tribes, married a woman named Pouiriketa who gave him three sons, and built the city of Tenkodogo. The oldest was Diaba Lompo who founded the city of Fada Ngourma, the second son, Rawa, became the ruler of Zondoma Province. His third son, Zoungrana became the ruler in Tenkodogo after Wedraogo died, Zoungrana and Pouitenga had a son, Oubri, who further expanded the kingdom by conquering the Kibissi and some Gurunsi tribes. Oubri, who ruled from around 1050 until 1090 ACE, is considered the founder of the Ouagadougou dynasty which ruled from the capital of Ouagadougou. Following Oubri, centralization and small-scale expansion of the kingdoms were the primary tasks, the Ouagadougou dynasty retained control in Ouagadougou, but the other kingdoms established by the sons of Wedraogo retained independence in Tenkodogo, Fada Ngourma, and Zondoma. War between Komdimie and Yatenga lasted for years with Yatenga eventually taking over the independent Mossi state of Zondoma. At the same time, Komdimie created a new level of authority for his sons as Dimas of separate provinces with some autonomy and this system of taking over territory and appointing sons as Dimas would last for many of the future rulers. Increasing power of the Mossi kingdoms resulted in conflicts with regional powers. The Kingdom of Yatenga became a key power attacking the Songhai Empire between 1328 and 1477 taking over Timbuktu and sacked the important trading post of Macina. When Askia Mohammad I became the leader of the Songhai Empire with the desire to spread Islam, although the Mossi forces were defeated in this effort, they resisted attempts to impose Islam. With the conquest of the Songhai by the Moroccans of the Saadi dynasty in 1591, by the 18th century, the Mossi kingdoms had increased significantly in terms of economic and military power in the region. Foreign trade relations increased significantly throughout Africa with significant connections to the Fula kingdoms and these relations included military attacks on many times with the Mossi being attacked by a variety of African forces
15.
Burkina Faso
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Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in Africa around 274,200 square kilometres in size. It is surrounded by six countries, Mali to the north, Niger to the east, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, in 2014 its population was estimated at just over 17.3 million. Burkina Faso is a country and French is an official language of government. Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta, the country was renamed Burkina Faso on 4 August 1984 by then-President Thomas Sankara, residents of Burkina Faso are known as Burkinabé. Before the conquest of what is now Burkina Faso by the French, after gaining independence from France in 1960, the country underwent many governmental changes. Blaise Compaoré was the most recent president and ruled the country from 1987 until he was ousted from power by the popular youth upheaval of 31 October 2014 and this resulted in a semi-presidential republic which lasted from October 2014 to September 2015. On 17 September 2015 the provisional government was in turn toppled by an apparent military coup carried out by the Regiment of Presidential Security. On 24 September 2015, after pressure from the African Union, ECOWAS, and the forces, the military junta agreed to step down. Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta, the country was renamed Burkina Faso on 4 August 1984 by then-President Thomas Sankara, the bé suffix added onto Burkina to form the demonym Burkinabé comes from the Fula language and means men or women. The northwestern part of todays Burkina Faso was populated by hunter-gatherers between 14,000 and 5000 BC and their tools, including scrapers, chisels and arrowheads, were discovered in 1973 through archeological excavations. Agricultural settlements were established between 3600 and 2600 BC, the Bura culture was an Iron-Age civilization centered in the southwest portion of modern-day Niger and in the southeast part of contemporary Burkina Faso. Iron industry, in smelting and forging for tools and weapons, had developed in Sub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BC, historians began to debate about the exact dates when Burkina Fasos many ethnic groups arrived to the area. During the Middle Ages the Mossi established several kingdoms including those of Tenkodogo, Yatenga, Zandoma. Sometime between 1328 and 1338 Mossi warriors raided Timbuktu but the Mossi were defeated by Sonni Ali of Songhai at the Battle of Kobi in Mali in 1483, during the early 16th century the Songhai conducted many slave raids into what is today Burkina Faso. During the 18th century the Gwiriko Empire was established at Bobo Dioulasso and ethnic groups such as the Dyan, Lobi, starting in the early 1890s a series of British, French and German military officers made attempts to claim parts of what is today Burkina Faso. At times these colonialists and their armies fought the local peoples, at times they forged alliances with them, the colonialist officers and their home governments also made treaties amongst themselves. Through a complex series of events what is Burkina Faso eventually became a French protectorate in 1896, the eastern and western regions, where a standoff against the forces of the powerful ruler Samori Ture complicated the situation, came under French occupation in 1897. By 1898, the majority of the corresponding to Burkina Faso was nominally conquered, however
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Agacher Strip War
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The Agacher Strip War was fought over a 100-mile long strip of land located in northern Burkina Faso, in the province of Gorom-Gorom. The Agacher Strip was thought to contain substantial natural resources, both sides hoped that the exploitation of these resources would help improve the dire economic situations in their respective countries. The dispute between the two countries first erupted into a conflict on 25 November 1974. The conflict was characterized by a lack of operations or any significant fighting. Only a few border skirmishes that involved exchanges of small arms fire were reported in late November and mid-December 1974, casualties on both sides were minimal. Mediation efforts by President Gnassingbé Eyadéma of Togo and President Seyni Kountché of Niger to resolve the conflict were unsuccessful, as tensions escalated, numerous reprisals against Malians in Upper Volta were reported. This prompted the Organization of African Unity to create a commission to mediate the crisis, the mediators recommended that a neutral technical commission be set up to demarcate the boundary. At a meeting held on 18 June 1975 in Lomé, Togo, from 1977, Upper Volta and Mali engaged in political mediation within a regional West African group known as the Non-Aggression and Defense Aid Agreement. In 1983, military captain Thomas Sankara instigated a coup and seized power in Burkina Faso, the relations between the two countries were already deteriorated when Drissa Keita, a Malian diplomat in Burkina Faso, was expelled. The two presidents, Sankara and Moussa Traoré, also had strained relations for a while, negotiations between the countries top diplomats failed, and the dispute further escalated. Some Burkina Faso newspapers accused Mali of preparing an invasion, Mali rejected the accusations, by 1985, both countries had experienced several years of drought. Rainfall finally came in late 1985, but it washed out roads and hindered distribution of food, during this period, the Burkinabé government organized a nationwide census. The census agents visited Fula camps in Mali, which sparked outrage from the Malian government, who saw it as a violation of their sovereignty. Reports were made that Burkinabé ground troops were present in the Agacher Strip, as Burkina Faso believed they had sovereignty over the area, Malian President Traoré publicly denounced the act, and for ten days asked African leaders to pressure Sankara. However, the Burkinabé soldiers did not leave the area, on 25 December 1985, the Malian military launched several ground attacks against Burkinabé border posts and police stations. The Burkinabé army responded by mobilizing soldiers in the region and launching counterattacks, however, the Malian army was more prepared and better organized, with many successful assaults resulting in the capture of many villages and outposts. The Libyan government attempted to negotiate a ceasefire on 26 December, the war culminated in an airstrike by the Malian Air Force on a marketplace in Ouahigouya, in which a number of civilians were killed. A second ceasefire instigated by the governments of Nigeria and Libya on 29 December also failed, a third ANAD-sponsored truce was signed on 30 December, bringing to an end what became known as the Christmas War
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Thomas Sankara
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Thomas Isidore Noël Sankara was a Burkinabé military captain, Marxist revolutionary, pan-Africanist theorist, and President of Burkina Faso from 1983 to 1987. Viewed by supporters as a charismatic and iconic figure of revolution, Sankara seized power in a 1983 popularly supported coup at the age of 33, with the goal of eliminating corruption and the dominance of the former French colonial power. He immediately launched one of the most ambitious programmes for social, to symbolize this new autonomy and rebirth, he renamed the country from the French colonial Upper Volta to Burkina Faso.5 million children against meningitis, yellow fever, and measles. On the localized level Sankara also called on every village to build a dispensary and had over 350 communities construct schools with their own labour. To counter his opposition in towns and workplaces around the country, he also tried corrupt officials, counter-revolutionaries, additionally, as an admirer of Fidel Castros Cuban Revolution, Sankara set up Cuban-style Committees for the Defense of the Revolution. His revolutionary programs for African self-reliance made him an icon to many of Africas poor, Sankara remained popular with most of his countrys impoverished citizens. He was overthrown and assassinated in a coup led by Blaise Compaoré on 15 October 1987. A week before his assassination, he declared, While revolutionaries as individuals can be murdered, Thomas Sankara was born Thomas Isidore Noël Sankara on 21 December 1949, in Yako, French Upper Volta as the third of ten children to Joseph and Marguerite Sankara. His father, a gendarme, was of mixed Mossi–Fulani heritage and he spent his early years in Gaoua, a town in the humid southwest to which his father was transferred as an auxiliary gendarme. As the son of one of the few African functionaries then employed by the colonial state, the family lived in a brick house with the families of other gendarmes at the top of a hill overlooking the rest of Gaoua. Sankara attended primary school at Bobo-Dioulasso and he applied himself seriously to his schoolwork and excelled in mathematics and French. He went to often, and impressed with his energy and eagerness to learn. Despite initially agreeing, he took the exam required for entry to the grade in the secular educational system. Thomass decision to continue his education at the nearest lycée Ouezzin Coulibaly proved to be a turning point and this step got him out of his fathers household since the lycée was in Bobo-Dioulasso, the countrys commercial centre. At the lycée Sankara made close friends, including Fidèle Too, whom he named a minister in his government, and Soumane Touré. His Roman Catholic parents wanted him to become a priest, the military was popular at the time, having just ousted a despised president. Besides, acceptance into the academy would come with a scholarship. He took the exam and passed
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French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
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French Third Republic
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It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again
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Colony of Niger
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The French Colony of Niger was a French colonial possession covering much of the territory of the modern West African state of Niger, as well as portions of Mali, Burkina Faso and Chad. It existed in various forms from 1900 to 1960, but was titled the Colonie du Niger only from 1922 to 1958, while French control of some of the areas of modern Niger began in the 1890s, a formal Zinder Military Territory was formed on 23 July 1900. This military territory only governed what is modern southern Mexico, with only nominal rule east of Zinder or north of Tanout and its Commandant was based at the village of Sorbo-Haoussa near Niamey, where the headquarters was moved in 1903. Administratively, it was part of the Senegambia and Niger Colony from 1900 to 1904 and Upper Senegal, the area also appears on French maps as the Third Military Territory. On 22 June 1910, the territory was renamed Niger Military Territory, despite this, French control of the northern and eastern areas remained minimal. Along with Mauritania, Niger remained the part of French West Africa to remain under military rule. On 13 October 1922 the civilian Colony of Niger took control of most of southern and western areas, the 1919 creation of French Upper Volta as a civil colony removed the areas of modern Niger west of the Niger River. In 1926, the capitol was moved again to Niamey from Zinder, Niger Colony officials, unlike neighboring Chad, remained loyal to the French Vichy government after 1940, and thus closed its southern border and eastern border until 1944. On 31 December 1946 the Military Territories of NGuigmi and Agadez were ceded to Niger Colony and this area in the far north east only came under French civilian administration in 1956. In 1947, French Upper Volta was reconstituted, and the Cercles of Dori, while there were minor border changes after 1947, the modern borders of Niger were roughly established with this change. Following the 1956 Loi Cadre, rudiments of internal rule were created with the Territorial Assembly of Niger elected by popular vote, but holding only advisory and administrative powers. On 12 March 1959 the Constituent Assembly became the Legislative Assembly of Niger, with the head of government, Hamani Diori, nominal executive powers were vested in the Assembly. Following the Algerian War and the collapse of the French Fourth Republic, Niger ratified its first fully independent constitution on 8 November 1960 and Jean Colombani stepped down as High Commissioner on 10 November 1960. Niger History of Niger List of colonial heads of Niger Niger, Rulers. org
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French Union
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The French Union was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial system, colloquially known as the French Empire. It was the end of the indigenous status of French subjects in colonial areas. The French Union had five components, Metropolitan France, which included French Algeria, old colonies, notably those of the French West Indies in the Caribbean that became Overseas departments in 1946. It had been expected that other protectorates would become part of the French Union, united Nations Trust Territories, such as French Cameroons and French Togoland, successors of the League of Nations mandates. The French Union was established by the French constitution of October 27,1946, the goal of this union was assimilation of the overseas territories into a greater France, inhabited by French citizens, and blessed by French culture. This French Union had a President, a High Council and an Assembly, the President was the President of the Republic. The High Council ultimately only met three times, first in 1951, the Assembly was the only actually functioning institution that could manage legislation within the overseas territories. In reality, the areas had representation but all power remained in the French Parliament. The colonies had local assemblies but these had limited local power. Instead, various natives of the territories in metropolitan France grew into a group of elites. Cambodia withdrew on 25 September 1955, south Vietnam withdrew on 9 December 1955. Laos withdrew on 11 May 1957 by amending its constitution, decolonization First Indochina War CEFEO French Community French colonial empire Cooper, Frederick. French Africa, 1947–48, Reform, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Situation, in JSTOR Simpson, Alfred William Brian. Human Rights and the End of Empire, Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention, a comparative study of French and British decolonization. Comparative Studies in Society and History 20#1 pp, 70-102, the French Colonial Consensus and Peoples War, 1946-58
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French Community
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The French Community was an association of some states which were once a part of the Second French Empire. During 1958 it replaced the French Union, which had succeeded the French colonial empire during 1946. The constitution of the Fifth Republic, which created the French Community, was a consequence of the war in Algeria, in reality, the colonies had little power, with all power remaining centralized in the French Parliament. This was an attempt to quell the concerns over Algerian independence, however, this did not stop the demands for independence. The 1 million French colonists in Algeria were determined to resist any possible Algerian independence, the trouble, which threatened to become a civil war, provoked a political crisis in France and caused the end of the Fourth Republic. General Charles de Gaulle was recalled to power and a new constitution was written and this attitude was manifest in the new constitution, which provided for the right of the overseas territories to request complete independence. Under this new constitution, the French Union was replaced by the French Community, become a state of the French Community. None of the overseas territories opted to become overseas departments, by early 1959, the members of the French Community were as follows, The French Republic, which was one and indivisible. All the inhabitants were French citizens and participated with the election of the president of the republic and it consisted of, European France, including Corsica. These areas, considered a part of France, were divided into departments,13 in Algeria and 2 in Sahara. All the inhabitants were French citizens, but the Muslims preserved their own juridical status, all sent representatives to the French assemblies and elected municipalities. Their administration and legislation were in principle those of the metropole, the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, with no permanent population, were administered directly from Paris. The member states, which were initially, Central African Republic, although there was only one citizenship of the Community, the territories that became Community member states did not form part of the French Republic, and were granted broad autonomy. They had their own constitutions and could create unions among themselves, agreements of Association could also be made by the Community with other states. Associated with the Community were the United Nations trust territories of French Cameroun and French Togoland, article 91 of the constitution stipulated that the institutions of the Community were to be established by 4 April 1959. These were as follows, The President of the Community was the President of the French Republic, the member states also participated with his election and he was represented in each state by a High Commissioner. During 1958 President de Gaulle was elected by an majority in all the states. To promote autonomy within France, Gaulle gave autonomy to the colonies so that they would stay within the community
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Volta River
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The Volta River is a river, primarily flowing in Volta Region and Dagbon in the Northern Region of Ghana, that drains into the Atlantic Ocean at the Gulf of Guinea in Ada. It has three main tributaries—the Black Volta, White Volta and Red Volta, Lake Volta is a reservoir impounded by the Akosombo Dam on the lower Volta River in southern Ghana. It is one of the largest reservoirs in the world and it extends from the Akosombo Dam in southeastern Ghana to the town of Yapei in Dagbon, some 400 kilometres to the north. The reservoirs dam generates electricity for the Volta River Authority, and it may be a resource for irrigation and fish farming. The depth of the river is 45 feet below Lake Volta, the Volta River is crossed by the Adome Bridge below the Akosombo Dam and the reservoir. The Volta River was named by Portuguese gold traders in Ghana and it was their farthest extent of exploration before returning. River of return or “river of bend, ” in reference to its course, impacts of the Akosombo Hydroelectric Project — environmental and human health issues from the Akosombo Dam and Lake Volta
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Mossi people
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The Mossi are a people in central Burkina Faso, living mostly in the villages of the Nazinon and Nakanbe River Basin. The Mossi are the largest ethnic group in Burkina Faso, constituting more than 40% of the population, the other 60% of Burkina Fasos population is composed of more than 60 ethnic groups, mainly the Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo and Fulani. The Mossi speak the Mòoré language, the Mossi people originated in Burkina Faso, although significant numbers of Mossi live in neighboring countries, including Benin, Côte dIvoire, Ghana, Mali, and Togo. In 1996, the population of Burkina Faso was 10,623,323. Five to six million are probably Mossi, another 1.2 million Mossi live in Côte dIvoire, according to tradition, the Mossi comes from the marriage of a Mamprusi princess and Mandé hunter. Yennenga was a princess, daughter of a Mamprusi king in upper east Ghana. While exploring her kingdom on horseback, she lost her way and was rescued by Rialé and they got married and gave birth to the first authentic Mossi, Ouedraogo, who is recognised as the father of Mossi people. The Mossi are directly descended from the Mamprusi people and similarly live in upper east Ghana with a capital of Bawku/Nalerigu and these legendary origins apply only to the Nakomse, or the ruling class. The Tengabisi and other Mossi peoples do not share these origin myths, as the Mossi peoples history has been kept by oral tradition, it is impossible to assign precise dates for the period before colonization. Nevertheless, historians assign the beginning of their existence as a state to the 15th century. The Mossi were able to conquer a vast amounts of territory thanks to their mastering of the horse, created a prosperous empire, the expansion of the Mossi empire was stopped in the 19th century with the initiation of intensive colonisation by the French. French rule affected Mossi society and weakened the power of the Mossi emperor, despite colonization, the Mogho Naaba was given some authority over the Mossi during the French colonial period. He is consulted today for crucial decisions, especially affecting the destiny of society. In 1896, the Mogho accepted the French protectorate, though it has not been generally recognized, the Mossi played a key role in Frances military during World War II. They constituted the greater part of the corps in the troops of French West Africa. The Mossi people have organised their society in an original process in which family. The Mossi peoples are very heterogeneous, when horsemen invaded from the south they created a political or ruling class, called Nakomse, and a spiritual class called Tengabisi. All chiefs come from the ruling class, the Tengabisi include Saya, smiths, Nyonyose, farmers, Yarse, weavers and merchants, and others
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Ghana
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Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy, located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in the subregion of West Africa. Spanning a land mass of 238,535 km², Ghana is bordered by the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo in the east, Ghana means Warrior King in the Soninke language. The territory of present-day Ghana has been inhabited for a millennium, numerous kingdoms and empires emerged over the centuries, of which the most powerful was the Kingdom of Ashanti. Beginning in the 15th century, numerous European powers contested the area for trading rights, following over a century of native resistance, Ghanas current borders were established by the 1900s as the British Gold Coast. On 6 March 1957, it became the first sub-Saharan African nation to become independent of European colonisation, a multicultural nation, Ghana has a population of approximately 27 million, spanning a variety of ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. Five percent of the population practices traditional faiths,71. 2% adhere to Christianity and 17. 6% are Muslim and its diverse geography and ecology ranges from coastal savannahs to tropical jungles. Ghana is a country led by a president who is both head of state and head of the government. Ghanas economy is one of the strongest and most diversified in Africa, following a century of relative stability. Ghanas growing economic prosperity and democratic political system have made it a power in West Africa. It is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States, Group of 24, Ghana was already recognized as one of the great kingdoms in Bilad el-Sudan by the ninth century. Ghana was inhabited in the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms in the Southern and this included the Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Mankessim Kingdom. Until the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghanas territorial area was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans. Although the area of present-day Ghana in West Africa has experienced many population movements, by the early 11th century, the Akans were firmly established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo Region is named. From the 13th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan states of Ghana and these states included Bonoman, Ashanti, Denkyira, Mankessim Kingdom, and Akwamu Eastern region. By the 19th century, the territory of the part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti. The Kingdom of Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan Ashanti people created an advanced economy based on principally gold and gold bar commodities then traded with the states of Africa. The earliest known kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the Mole-Dagbani states, the Mole-Dagombas came on horseback from present-day Burkina Faso under a single leader, Naa Gbewaa. The death of Naa Gbewaa caused civil war among his children, some of whom broke off and founded separate states including Dagbon, Mamprugu, Mossi, Nanumba, Akan trade with European states began after contact with Portuguese in the 15th century
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Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
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Voltaic Democratic Union
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The African Democratic Rally is a political party in Burkina Faso. It was originally known as the Voltaic Democratic Union-African Democratic Rally and was formed in 1957 as the Voltaic section of the African Democratic Rally, soon after Independence in 1960, UDV-RDA became the only legal political party in Upper Volta and a civilian dictatorship was set up. In 1966, there was a coup to overthrow the government. Under the rule of Sangoulé Lamizana UDV-RDA was reconstructed and developed relations with the government. The relation to Lamizana did however cause internal dissent, the pro-Lamizana faction was led by Prime Minister Joseph Conombo and the anti-Lamizana faction was led by Joseph Ouédrago. At the time of the presidential and legislative elections 1978 UDV-RDA had one list for legislative, the party officially supported Lamizanas candidature. The dissidents, grouped as the Rejectors Front-RDA supported the candidature of Joseph Ouédrago, after the elections this faction split away and joined the Voltaic Progressive Front of Joseph Ki-Zerbo. After the elections Lamizana joined the party, the party was also joined by the National Union of Independents and the African Regroupment Party, which lost their status as political parties following the elections. When Lamizana was overthrown in 1980, military rule was reinstituted, nowadays it is part of the Alliance for Democracy and Federation-African Democratic Rally, the largest of the many opposition parties in Burkina Faso
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Norbert Zongo
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Norbert Zongo, also known under the pen name of Henri Segbo or H. S. A Burkinabé founder, publisher, editor of the newspaper LIndépendent in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, under Zongos supervision, LIndépendent exposed extortion and impunity within the government of Burkina Faso President Blaise Compaoré. He was assassinated after his newspaper began investigating the murder of a driver who had worked for the brother of Burkinabé President Blaise Compaoré, Norbert Zongo was born in Koudougou, Boulkiemdé Province in French Upper Volta to Augustine Zongo, his mother, in July 1949. Zongos early attempt was shut down when the political content caught the attention of the authorities, after high school, Zongo pursued legal studies at University of Abidjan in Cameroon and journalism at the University of Benin in Togo. The latter university expelled him and he was imprisoned in Burkina Faso after Zongo published his political novel Le Parachutage and he was able to finish his education in journalism at the University of Yaoundé in Cameroon. Zongo was a supporter of human rights and also helped found the Movement for Human and Peoples Rights, Norbert Zongos remains are buried in Gounghin Military Cemetery located just east of Ouagadougou. Norbert Zongo began his career as a teacher after high school in Ouagadougou, Kadiogo Province and his first novel Le Parachutage was a thinly disguised political critique of Togos President Gnassingbé Eyadema set in the post-colonial era. In the preface of the novel in 1988, Zongo mentions being arrested and he followed this novel with the colonial setting for Rougebeinga two years later, which was also political satire of leadership. Norbert Zongo began his career at Sidwaya and at Carrefour Africain. His byline also appeared in such as L Observateur and Le Journal du Jeudi. As a journalist, his articles were critical of the government, in 1991, Norbert Zongo founded La Clef with Saturnin Ki. It was the first newspaper in Burkina Faso to openly criticize the government, the newspaper La Clef collapsed in 1993. Then Zongo founded his own weekly newspaper LIndépendent in 1993, as a journalist Zongo applied his skills as an investigative journalist to auditing government and focusing on corruption. The following year, Zongo directly criticized the Burkinabé parliaments decision to amend the constitution to allow Compaoré to seek a third term, ouedrago was tortured and killed for allegedly stealing large sums of money. Zongo reported the case and wrote small excerpts every week for his newspaper and he began getting death threats and the government ignored them. His wife, Genevieve Zongo, confirmed that he was receiving threats from 1997 to his death in 1998. She was told that Norbert would often be followed by a car while on his motorbike, Zongo was also approached to convince him to drop his investigation, but he continued until his death. On December 13,1998, four bodies were found shot and burned in a Toyota Land cruiser on the side of the road in Sapouy, Ziro Province
29.
French colonial empire
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The French colonial empire constituted the overseas colonies, protectorates and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. The second empire came to an end after the loss of bitter wars in Vietnam and Algeria, competing with Spain, Portugal, the United Provinces, and later Britain, France began to establish colonies in North America, the Caribbean, and India in the 17th century. A series of wars with Great Britain and other European major powers during the 18th century, France rebuilt a new empire mostly after 1850, concentrating chiefly in Africa, as well as Indochina and the South Pacific. Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire and it also provided manpower in the World Wars. It became a mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity. In 1884 the leading proponent of colonialism, Jules Ferry declared, The higher races have a right over the lower races, full citizenship rights – assimilation – were offered, although in reality assimilation was always receding the colonial populations treated like subjects not citizens. At its apex, it was one of the largest empires in history, including metropolitan France, the total amount of land under French sovereignty reached 11,500,000 km2 in 1920, with a population of 110 million people in 1939. In World War II, Charles de Gaulle and the Free French used the colonies as bases from which they fought to liberate France. However, after 1945 anti-colonial movements began to challenge European authority, the French constitution of October 27,1946, established the French Union which endured until 1958. Newer remnants of the empire were integrated into France as overseas departments. These now total altogether 119,394 km², which amounts to only 1% of the pre-1939 French colonial empires area, by the 1970s, says Robert Aldrich, the last vestiges of empire held little interest for the French. He argues, Except for the decolonization of Algeria, however. During the 16th century, the French colonization of the Americas began, the story of Frances colonial empire truly began on 27 July 1605, with the foundation of Port Royal in the colony of Acadia in North America, in what is now Nova Scotia, Canada. A few years later, in 1608, Samuel De Champlain founded Quebec, which was to become the capital of the enormous, New France had a rather small population, which resulted from more emphasis being placed on the fur trade rather than agricultural settlements. Due to this emphasis, the French relied heavily on creating friendly contacts with the local First Nations community and these became the most enduring alliances between the French and the First Nation community. The French were, however, under pressure from religious orders to them to Catholicism. Through alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were able to exert a loose control over much of the North American continent, areas of French settlement were generally limited to the St. Lawrence River Valley. Prior to the establishment of the 1663 Sovereign Council, the territories of New France were developed as mercantile colonies
30.
French North Africa
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French North Africa was a collection of territories in North Africa controlled by France and centering on French Algeria. At its height, it was a part of the Maghreb. The origins of French North Africa lay in the decline of the Ottoman Empire, in 1830, the French captured Algiers, and, from 1848 until independence in 1962, Algeria was treated as an integral part of France. Seeking to expand their influence beyond Algeria, the French established protectorates to the east and west of it, the French protectorate of Tunisia was established in 1881, following a military invasion, the French protectorate in Morocco in 1912. These lasted until 1955, in the case of Morocco, and 1956, until its independence, French Algeria had been a part of metropolitan France, since before the First World War. French North Africa came to an end soon after the Évian Accords of March 1962, the Government of French North Africa Thomas, Martin, French Empire Between the Wars Wallerstein, Immanuel M. Africa, The Politics of Independence and Unity
31.
French Algeria
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French Algeria began in 1827 with the blockade of Algiers by the French navy and lasted from 1830 to 1962, under a variety of governmental systems. From 1848 until independence, the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria was administered as an part of France. The vast arid interior of Algeria, like the rest of French North Africa, was never considered part of France, one of Frances longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, known as colons and later, as pieds-noirs. However, indigenous Muslims remained a majority of the population throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population with its lack of political and economic status fueled calls for political autonomy. Tensions between the two groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began. The war concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements, since the 1516 capture of Algiers by the Ottoman admirals, the brothers Oruç and Hayreddin Barbarossa, Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean. In 1681, Louis XIV asked Admiral Abraham Duquesne to fight the Berber pirates, again, dEstrées bombarded Tripoli and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited the Court in Versailles, and a Treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century, however, Bonaparte refused to pay the bill back, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII paid back half of the Directorys debts, the dey, who had loaned to the Bacri 250,000 francs, requested from France the rest of the money. The Dey of Algiers himself was politically, economically. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States, along with todays Tunisia – which depended on the Ottoman Empire then led by Mahmud II —, the Barbary Coast was then the stronghold of the Berber pirates, which carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent United States of America culminated in the First, an Anglo-Dutch force, led by Admiral Lord Exmouth, carried out a punitive expedition, the August 1816 bombardment of Algiers. The Dey was forced to sign the Barbary treaties, while the advance of U. S. British. The name of Algeria itself came from the French and his intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by skirmishing against the dey. In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs, Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. These merchants, Bacri and Boushnak who had debts to the dey, devals nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône, further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle against the terms of prior agreements. After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide answers on 29 April 1827
32.
French protectorate in Morocco
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The French Protectorate in Morocco, Arabic, حماية فرنسا في المغرب Ḥimāyat Faransā fi-l-Maḡrib) was established by the Treaty of Fez. It existed from 1912, when a protectorate was established, until independence. However, in the part of the 19th century Morocco’s weakness and instability invited European intervention to protect threatened investments. The first years of the 20th century witnessed a rush of diplomatic maneuvering through which the European powers, French activity in Morocco began during the end of the 19th century. France and Spain secretly partitioned the territory of the sultanate, with Spain receiving concessions in the far north and south of the country. The First Moroccan Crisis grew out of the rivalries of the great powers, in this case. Germany took immediate action to block the new accord from going into effect. Although the Algeciras Conference temporarily solved the First Moroccan Crisis it only worsened international tensions between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente, in 1911, a rebellion broke out in Morocco against the Sultan, Abdelhafid. By early April 1911, the Sultan was besieged in his palace in Fez, the French dispatched a flying column at the end of April 1911 and Germany gave approval for the occupation of the city. Moroccan forces besieged the French-occupied city, approximately one month later, French forces brought the siege to an end. On 5 June 1911 the Spanish occupied Larache and Ksar-el-Kebir, on 1 July 1911 the German gunboat Panther arrived at the port of Agadir. There was a reaction from the French, supported by the British. France officially established a protectorate over Morocco with the Treaty of Fez, from a strictly legal point of view, the treaty did not deprive Morocco of its status as a sovereign state. The Sultan reigned but did not rule, Sultan Abdelhafid abdicated in favor of his brother Yusef after signing the treaty. On April 17,1912, Moroccan infantrymen mutinied in the French garrison in Fez, in late May 1912, Moroccan forces again unsuccessfully attacked the enhanced French garrison at Fez. First, the protectorate was established two years before the outbreak of World War I, which brought with it a new attitude toward colonial rule. Second, Morocco had a tradition of independence, though it had been strongly influenced by the civilization of Muslim Iberia. These circumstances and the proximity of Morocco to Spain created a relationship between the two countries
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