1.
Loyalty program
–
Loyalty programs are structured marketing strategies designed by merchants to encourage customers to continue to shop at or use the services of businesses associated with each program. These programs exist covering most types of business, each one having varying features, Loyalty cards relate to the loyalty business model. Cards typically have a barcode, magstripe or RFID chip that can be easily scanned, small keyring cards which serve as key fobs bring convenience in carrying and ease of access. By presenting such a card, purchasers typically earn the right either to a discount on the current purchase, hence the card is the visible means of implementing a type of what economists call a two-part tariff. Application forms for cards usually entail agreements by the store concerning customer privacy, the store uses aggregate data internally as part of its marketing research. Over time the data can reveal, for example, a given customers favorite brand of beer, or whether he or she is a vegetarian. One can regard loyalty programs as a form of centralized virtual currency, one with unidirectional cash flow, since reward points can be exchanged into a good or service, b2B loyalty programs reward businesses for their purchase of goods and services from suppliers. For information on historical loyalty programs, see Loyalty marketing history, in the U. S. several major supermarket and fish market chains, and the three major pharmacy chains, require the cards in order for customers to receive the advertised loyalty price. Many retailers allow accumulation of fuel discounts, some have tie-ins with airline frequent-flyer programs, and some agree to donate a percentage of sales to a designated charity. Most notably, Walmart does not have a loyalty card plan though anyone who purchases a gift card can generally get a 3 cent discount per gallon of gas at the stations located on Walmart premises. The practice is common among book and music retailers, from large chains to independent retailers, Best Buy and Sears offer loyalty programs that offer points redeemable for dollar-amount discounts after accumulating a set number of points along with other discounts from time to time. Independent hardware stores such as Ace Hardware and True Value added customer loyalty programs in order to more effectively against larger chains as well as gather customer data. Customers with an association with a particular brand feel benefits for being part of the program, aces program also offers customers a way at the time of purchase to get items at a price which would normally require completing a mail-in rebate. Almost all major chains have cards that allow guests to earn either points or airline miles. All major U. S. airlines also offer rewards credit cards, other travel related reward programs include SeaMiles, with points that can be redeemed for cruises. Some American retailers have not implemented club cards, including grocery stores Whole Foods, Publix, between 2007 and 2013, Albertsons, Shaws, Acme Markets, and Jewel-Osco eliminated their loyalty cards in favor of discounts for all shoppers. Max & Ermas has a loyalty program called Good Neighbor Rewards, customers are rewarded based on their number of visits by either 5%, 10%, or 15% and are periodically given additional rewards by way of free items added to their loyalty card electronically. Truck stop chain Pilot Travel Centers program Driver Payback Points rewards truck drivers for fueling up by giving them points that can be used for purchase inside the store
2.
Airline
–
An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body, Airlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, the largest airline currently is American Airlines Group. DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the worlds first airline and it was founded on November 16,1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1,1914 from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, the four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands KLM, Colombias Avianca, Australias Qantas, and the Czech Republics Czech Airlines. The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, using a fleet of former military Airco DH. 4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger. On 25 August 1919, the company used DH. 16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract, six Royal Air Force Airco DH. 9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force, the first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919, in its first year, the D. L. R. Operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a length of nearly 1000 miles. Network was more than 3000 km long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia, another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden, the Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was awarded a Royal predicate from Queen Wilhelmina. Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, in 1921, KLM started scheduled services
3.
Air travel
–
Air travel is a form of travel in vehicles such as helicopters, hot air balloons, blimps, gliders, hang gliding, parachuting, airplanes, jets, or anything else that can sustain flight. Use of air travel has increased in recent decades - worldwide it doubled between the mid-1980s and the year 2000. Air travel can be separated into two classifications, national/domestic and international flights. Flights from one point to another within the country are called domestic flights. Flights from a point in one country to a point within a different country are known as international flights, travelers can use domestic or international flights in either private or public travel. Travel class on an airplane is usually split into a two, three or four class model service, US Domestic flights usually have two classes, Economy Class and a Domestic First Class partitioned into cabins. International flights may have up to four classes, Economy Class, Premium Economy, Business Class or Club Class, most air travel starts and ends at a commercial airport. Modern aircraft consume less fuel per person and mile travelled than cars when fully booked, instead, the scheduled flights are predominant, resulting in a far worse fuel efficiency. According to the ATAG, flights produced 781 million tonnes of the greenhouse gas CO2 in 2015 globally, deep vein thrombosis is the third-most common vascular disease, next to stroke and heart attack. It is estimated that DVT affects one in 5,000 travellers on long flights, risk increases with exposure to more flights within a short time frame and with increasing duration of flights. During flight, the cabin pressure is usually maintained at the equivalent of 6. Most healthy travelers will not notice any effects, however, for travelers with cardiopulmonary diseases, cerebrovascular disease, anemia, or sickle cell disease, conditions in an aircraft can exacerbate underlying medical conditions. Aircraft cabin air is dry, usually 10%–20% humidity, which can cause dryness of the mucous membranes of the eyes. Http, //openflights. org/ a tool that lets you map your flights around the world
4.
Airport lounge
–
An airport lounge is a hospitality facility operated at many airports. The American Airlines Admirals Club was the first airport lounge when it opened at New York Citys La Guardia Airport in 1939, then AA president C. R. Smith conceived it as a promotional tool. Airlines operate airline lounges as a service to passengers, usually those flying first and business class. Most major carriers have one or more lounges in their hubs, the major US airlines—American, Delta and United —operate dozens of lounges, while smaller airlines like Alaska Airlines tend to only operate a handful of lounges in their hub and focus cities. Airlines outside of North America and Australia generally do not sell lounge membership, however, if one has a lounge membership in an airline in one of the three major airline alliances, they may have access to the lounges of the other members of that alliance. It is however not uncommon for members to agree individually to allow usage of each others lounges. Although Alaska Airlines operates just five Board Rooms, its members have access to American Airlines Admirals Club, Board Room members cannot, however, access the lounges of other Oneworld members, such as British Airways or Japan Airlines. Private companies, such as Aspire Lounges by Swissport and Plaza Premium Lounge, in contrast to airline lounges, these facilities are open to any traveller traversing the airport, regardless of class of ticket or airline, subject to payment of a fee. Most only offer day passes, but some also offer yearly, for many airlines, a first class lounge will also be offered to international first class and top-tier passengers. First class lounges are usually more exclusive and will feature extra amenities over business class that are more in line with the European/Asian concept of an airport lounge. In the few cases where an amenity is offered only in the business class lounge, in most cases, airlines will offer first class passengers a free pass to their standard airport club. Some airlines offer arrival lounges for passengers to shower, rest, access to airport lounges may be obtained in several ways. In Australia, Canada, and the United States, a method to gain access is by purchasing an annual or a lifetime membership, while in Asia. Membership fees are sometimes discounted for elite members of a frequent flyer program. Lounge access can also be attained with an airline status card, the top frequent-flyer levels often offer access to any of an airlines lounges or partner airlines lounges, when traveling in any class of travel on any of the partner airlines. Aspire Airport Lounges can be accessed by anyone, irrespective of airline or flight class, Aspire Lounges are highly regarded through their contemporary design and complimentary food and drink offering. Executive Lounges, also owned by Swissport, offer a range of benefits when booking an Aspire Lounge directly with them. Premium credit and charge cards such as Diners Club International, American Express Platinum, some banks like HSBC and ABN Amro offer lounge access for premium clients
5.
Virtual currency
–
The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, a bureau of the US Treasury, defined virtual currency in its guidance published in 2013. In particular, virtual currency does not have legal status in any jurisdiction. The Internet currency Flooz was created in 1999, the term virtual currency appears to have been coined around 2009, paralleling the development of digital currencies and social gaming. S. Senate hearing about bitcoin like the Department of Homeland Security, the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission, the Office of the Attorney General. Attributes of a currency, as defined in 2011 in the Code of Federal Regulations, such as real paper money and real coins are simply that they act as legal tender. The IRS decided in March 2014, to treat bitcoin and other currencies as property for tax purposes. Others have stated that a measure like accounting on average cost basis would restore fungibility to the currency, while there may be a grey market for exchanging such currencies or other virtual assets for real world assets, this is usually forbidden by the games terms of service. This type of currency has been known for a time in the form of customer incentive programs or loyalty programs. The business issuing the coupon functions as a central authority, coupons remained unchanged for 100 years until new technology enabling credit cards became more common in the 1980s, and credit card rewards were invented. The latest incarnation drives the increase of commerce, online services. Here virtual or game currency can be bought, but not exchanged back into real money, the virtual currency is akin to a coupon. Examples are frequent flyer programs by various airlines, Microsoft Points, Nintendo Points, Facebook Credits, Ven, a virtual currency that can be bought with and sold back for legal tender is called a convertible currency. It can be centralized as Linden Dollars, the virtual currency of Second Life or decentralized. FinCEN defined centralized virtual currencies in 2013 as virtual currencies that have a centralized repository, similar to a bank. Rather than relying on confidence in an authority, it depends instead on a distributed system of trust. Bitcoin is the first decentralized digital currency, trust in the currency is based on the transaction ledger which is cryptographically verified, and jointly maintained by the currencys users. According to a Forbes journalist, bitcoin mining has become increasingly centralized, to improve bitcoins decentralization, they suggest to encourage fully decentralized mining pools, allow only 1 vote per bitcoin client, and to increase transparency in decision making. Digital currency is a form of currency that is electronically transferred and stored, i. e. distinct from physical currency
6.
United Airlines
–
United Continental Holdings, Inc. commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. It is the worlds third-largest airline when measured by revenue, operates a domestic and international route network. In the late 1920s, just prior to the use of the United Airlines name, The Boeing Company, currently one of the worlds largest aircraft manufacturers, United was previously known as United Air Lines. United is a member of Star Alliance, the worlds largest global airline alliance. Regional service is operated by independent carriers under the brand name United Express and its main competitors are American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines. United operates out of nine airline hubs located in Chicago, Denver, Guam, Houston, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chicago-OHare is Uniteds largest hub, both in terms of passengers carried annually and in terms of departures 181,488 in 2016) and this passed George Bush Intercontinental in Houston, which carried 15.5 million with 178,019 departures. The company employs over 86,000 people while maintaining its headquarters in Chicagos Willis Tower, through the airlines parent company, United Continental Holdings, it is publicly traded under NYSE, UAL with a market capitalization of over $18 billion as of September 2014. United operates maintenance bases in Cleveland and Orlando in addition to the maintenance locations located at Uniteds hubs, United Airlines traces its roots to the Varney Air Lines air mail service of Walter Varney, who also founded Varney Speed Lines from which Continental Airlines had originated. In 1927, aviation pioneer William Boeing founded his airline Boeing Air Transport to operate the San Francisco to Chicago air mail route, in 1933, United began operating the Boeing 247 airliner. It was able to fly a transcontinental flight in 20 hours, after passage of the Air Mail Act in 1934, UATC separated into United Aircraft, the Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. In 1954 United Airlines became the first airline to purchase modern flight simulators which had visual, sound, purchased for US$3 million from Curtiss-Wright, these were the first of todays modern flight simulators for training of commercial passenger aircraft pilots. United merged with Capital Airlines in 1961 and regained its position as the United States largest airline, in 1968, the company reorganized, creating UAL Corporation, with United Airlines as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1970, the UAL Corporation acquired Western International Hotels, the 1970s also saw economic turmoil, resulting in stagflation and labor unrest. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act, resulting in industry shakeups, further added to the difficulties in a loss-making period. In 1982, United became the first carrier to operate the Boeing 767, in May 1985, the airline underwent a 29-day pilot strike over managements proposed B-scale pilot pay rates. Making it one of two US carriers permitted exclusive access to Heathrow under Bermuda II until open skies took effect in 2008, the aftermath of the Gulf War and increased competition from low-cost carriers led to losses in 1991 and 1992. In 1995, United became the first airline to introduce the Boeing 777 in commercial service, in 1997, United co-founded the Star Alliance airline partnership
7.
Western Airlines
–
The airline also served other international destinations such as London, England and Nassau, Bahamas during its existence. Western had hubs at Los Angeles International Airport, Salt Lake City International Airport, before it merged with Delta Air Lines it was headquartered at Los Angeles International Airport. The companys slogan for years was Western Airlines. The Only Way To Fly. In 1925, the United States Postal Service began to give contracts to carry air mail throughout the country. Western Airlines first incorporated in 1925 as Western Air Express by Harris Hanshue and it applied for, and was awarded, the 650-mile long Contract Air Mail Route #4 from Salt Lake City, Utah to Los Angeles. On 17 April 1926, Westerns first flight took place with a Douglas M-2 airplane and it began offering passenger services a month later, when the first commercial passenger flight took place at Woodward Field. Tomlinson perched atop U. S. mail sacks and flew with pilot C. N, jimmy James on his regular eight-hour mail delivery flight to Los Angeles. The company reincorporated in 1928 as Western Air Express Corp, then, in 1930, purchased Standard Air Lines, subsidiary of Aero Corp. of Ca. founded in 1926 by Paul E. Richter, Jack Frye and Walter Hamilton. WAE with Fokker aircraft merged with Transcontinental Air Transport to form Trans World Airlines, in 1934, Western Air Express was severed from TWA and briefly changed its name to General Air Lines, returning to the name Western Air Express after several months. In a 1934 press release by the company, it called itself the Western Air Division of General Air Lines, in 1941 Western Air Express changed its name to Western Air Lines and later to Western Airlines. The carrier also billed itself as Western Airlines International at one point, Western was later awarded a route between Minneapolis and Salt Lake City via Casper, Wyoming, thus allowing the airline to develop from a large regional airline into a major mainline air carrier. This growth also enabled the airline to introduce Douglas DC-6, Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprops, the airlines president was Terrell Terry Drinkwater. Drinkwater got into a dispute with the administration in Washington D. C. that severely hampered WALs growth. Pressured in a phone call by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to buy American made aircraft, Drinkwater reportedly responded, Mr. President, you run your country. Manufacture while their competitors fleets included aircraft that had built in Europe by British or French companies. In August 1953 Western was serving 38 airports, by June 1968, that number had only grown to 42 airports. Western entered the jet age in 1960 when it introduced Boeing 707 jetliners with flights between Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, OR and Seattle, in 1967 WAL acquired Pacific Northern Airlines, which served the state of Alaska from Anchorage and Seattle. In the late 1960s Western aimed for a fleet, adding Boeing 707-320s, 727-200s and 737-200s to their fleet of 720Bs
8.
American Airlines
–
American Airlines, Inc. commonly referred to as American, is a major American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. It is the worlds largest airline measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passenger-kilometres flown. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the name of American Eagle. American operates out of ten located in Dallas/Fort Worth, Charlotte, Chicago-OHare, Philadelphia, Miami, Phoenix, Washington, DC-National, Los Angeles, New York-JFK. American operates its primary base at Tulsa International Airport in addition to the maintenance locations located at its hubs. Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is Americans largest passenger carrying hub handling 51.1 million passengers annually with an average of 140,000 passengers daily, the company as of 2015 employs over 113,300 people. Through the airlines parent company, American Airlines Group, it is traded under NASDAQ. American Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines, the two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first formed in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation and this in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system, between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001. In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, in 2013, US Airways and American Airlines merged. Eventually operations were merged under one operating certificate to create the largest United States airline which kept the American Airlines brand name, American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about 1,400,000 square feet of space. As of 2014 over 4,300 employees work at this complex, before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979 American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a betrayal of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas, the airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility. As of 2015 American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth, in 2015 the airline announced it will build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy is scheduled for summer 2019, the airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building
9.
AAdvantage
–
AAdvantage is the frequent flyer program of American Airlines. Launched May 1,1981, it was the second such loyalty program in the world and they also receive similar privileges from AAs partner airlines, particularly those in oneworld. AAdvantage co-branded credit cards are available and offer other benefits. These cards are issued by CitiCards, subsidiary of Citigroup in the United States, by MBNA in the United Kingdom, AAdvantage allows one-way redemption, starting at 5,000 miles. Increased competition following the 1978 Airline Deregulation Act prompted airline marketing professionals to develop ways to reward repeat customers and build brand loyalty. The first idea at American, a special loyalty fare, was modified and expanded to free first class tickets and upgrades to first class for companions. Membership was seeded by searching AAs SABRE computer reservations system for recurring phone numbers, the 130,000 most frequent flyers, plus an additional 60,000 members of AAs Admirals Club were pre-enrolled and sent letters with their new account numbers. The name was selected by AAs advertising agency, and is consistent with other American Airlines programs featuring AA in the name, the logo was designed by Massimo Vignelli. Less than a later, rival United Airlines launched its MileagePlus program, other airlines followed in the ensuing months. In 1982 AAdvantage also became the first program to cooperate with a carrier, members could accrue. In 2005 American Airlines joined other major U. S. carriers in introducing an online shopping portal allowing shoppers to earn AAdvantage miles when shopping online, there are five membership tiers in AAdvantage, standard, Gold, Platinum, Platinum Pro and Executive Platinum. Gold status requires 25,000 flown elite qualifying miles or 30 flown elite qualifying segments plus $3,000 elite qualifying dollars, Gold status confers priority boarding, expedited security, complimentary same-day standby, discounted Admirals Club membership, and ability to earn and redeem 500-mile upgrades. All fares receive one free checked bag, Gold status provides oneworld Ruby status when flying a oneworld partner airline. Platinum status requires 50,000 flown elite qualifying miles or 60 flown elite qualifying segments plus $6,000 elite qualifying dollars, all fares receive two free checked bags. It also confers a greater standing on upgrade lists and a phone line. Platinum status provides oneworld Sapphire status when flying a oneworld partner airline, Platinum Pro status requires 75,000 flown elite qualifying miles or 90 flown elite qualifying segments plus $9,000 elite qualifying dollars. All fares receive two free checked bags and it also confers a greater standing on upgrade lists and a special phone line. Platinum Pro status provides oneworld Sapphire status when flying a oneworld partner airline, Executive Platinum status requires 100,000 flown elite qualifying miles or 120 flown elite qualifying segments plus $12,000 elite qualifying dollars
10.
MileagePlus
–
MileagePlus is the loyalty program of United Airlines and Aeromar that offers rewards to passengers traveling on certain types of tickets. Following the 2011 merger agreement between United Airlines and Continental Airlines, United Mileage Plus was chosen to be the frequent flyer program for the combined airline. The program was renamed to MileagePlus, and maintains its relationship with its Star Alliance partners, as well as other airline. Following the integration and phase out of Continental OnePass on March 3,2012, MileagePlus also became the frequent flyer program for Copa Airlines and Copa Airlines Colombia. The new program member IDs follow the OnePass format in lieu of the old Mileage Plus format, in March 2015, Copa Airlines announced that it would phase out the MileagePlus program in favor of a new frequent flyer program called ConnectMiles. Frequent flier programs were introduced in 1979 by Texas International Airlines, two years later, American Airlines launched their AAdvantage program, and Uniteds Mileage Plus was launched one week later. On June 29,2011, United Airlines officially changed the name of the program from Mileage Plus to MileagePlus, on July 9,2011, Tom Stuker became the first member of the MileagePlus program to reach ten million flown miles on United. He earned this distinction flying from Los Angeles to Chicago on flight 942, jeff Smisek, the president and CEO of United Airlines, was on hand to congratulate him. For reaching the ten million mile number, he was given the only United Titanium Card, several controversial changes were introduced to the program in 2012, following the integration of the Continental OnePass program into MileagePlus. Changes have also occurred to the process, where upgrades are being sold at check-in for prices as low as $69. Million Mile Flyer George Lagen filed, in late May 2012, in addition to United Airlines, all 25 members of the Star Alliance as well as a number of other airlines participate in the MileagePlus program to a certain degree. MileagePlus miles can then be both earned and redeemed on flights with United, as well as any partner airline, however, certain booking classes on partner airlines are excluded from mileage accrual. MileagePlus offers saver and standard awards, at two different tiers of pricing with different capacity control mechanisms, saver awards are capacity-controlled awards available for travel on all partner airlines. The release of saver award seats is dictated by the operating airline, on flights operated by United Airlines, additional saver award inventory is offered to Premier members, in addition to that offered to general members. Historically, United Airlines engaged in the practice of preventing its MileagePlus members, regardless of tier, at the time, United Airlines was the only known Star Alliance member to restrict access to reward flights that were available for redemption in the Star Alliance network. This practice was discontinued in 2011, after the merger with Continental Airlines, standard awards are only available for travel on United and Copa, and have greater availability than saver awards. Standard awards cost two to three more than the equivalent saver award. Redeemable miles do not expire, provided there is account activity within the previous 18 months
11.
Delta Air Lines
–
Delta Air Lines, Inc. is a major American airline, with its headquarters and largest hub at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport in Atlanta, Georgia. Regional service is operated under the brand name Delta Connection, One of the five remaining legacy carriers, Delta is the sixth-oldest operating airline by foundation date, and the oldest airline still operating in the United States. The companys history can be traced back to Huff Daland Dusters, founded in 1924 in Macon, Georgia as a crop dusting operation. The company moved to Monroe, Louisiana, and was later renamed Delta Air Services, in reference to the nearby Mississippi Delta region, among predecessors of todays Delta Air Lines, Western Airlines and Northwest Airlines began flying passengers in 1926 and 1927, respectively. In 2013, Delta Air Lines was the worlds largest airline in terms of scheduled passengers carried, Delta Air Lines began as a crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Incorporated. The company was founded on May 30,1924 in Macon, Georgia and they flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. Collett E. Woolman, one of the directors, purchased the company on September 13,1928. Service began on June 17,1929 with the flight between Dallas, Texas and Jackson, Mississippi. Delta moved its headquarters to its current location in Atlanta in 1941, and continued to grow through the addition of routes and they replaced propeller planes with jets in the 1960s and entered international competition to Europe in the 1970s and across the Pacific in the 1980s. Deltas more recent history is marked by its emergence from bankruptcy on April 25,2007, the merger was announced April 14,2008, and was set to create the worlds largest airline. After approval of the merger on October 29,2008, Northwest continued to operate as an owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31,2009 when both carriers operating certificates were merged. Delta completed the integration with Northwest on January 31,2010 when their reservation systems and websites were combined, Delta Air Lines as it exists today is the result of numerous mergers over its history. Predecessor carriers forming the current Delta Air Lines include, Chicago, Delta flew under the carrier name of Delta-C&S for the following two years. After successfully introducing 50-seat planes into the United States, it was acquired by Delta in October 1999, Comair became the main carrier of Delta Connection and operated over 400 daily flights from Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport throughout the U. S. Mexico, and Caribbean. Comair ceased operations on September 29,2012, and was folded into Delta Connection operations, Delta Express began service in October 1996 in an attempt by Delta to compete with low cost airlines on leisure-oriented routes. Its main base of operations was Orlando International Airport and it used Boeing 737–200 aircraft and it ceased operations in November 2003 after Song was established. Song began service on April 15,2003 as an airline operated by Delta to compete directly with JetBlue Airways from both airlines hub at New York–JFK. While the brand was considered an addition to the Northeast-to-Florida market
12.
SkyMiles
–
Created in 1981 as the Delta Air Lines Frequent Flyer Program, its name was changed to SkyMiles in 1995. Delta claims that it is the only major U. S. airline without mileage expiration, SkyMiles allows both round-trip and one-way redemption but at full round-trip pricing, with economy awards starting at 15,000 miles. These are known as Medallion statuses and can be achieved by flying a number of Medallion Qualification Miles or Medallion Qualification Segments between January 1 and December 31 each year. Beginning in 2014, a number of Medallion Qualification Dollars is required for the US members in addition to either the MQM or the MQS requirement. Delta Private Jets Card holders receive Diamond Medallion tier status, in addition, preferred coach seating such as in the Economy Comfort section is set aside for medallion members for when first and business class upgrades are not available. When the frequent flyer program was first established in 1981, new members were awarded an enrollment bonus of 10,000 miles, on May 1,1995, Delta Air Lines modified its frequent flyer program. In addition to renaming it SkyMiles, mileage expiration policies were put in place, Miles from the old program would never expire but newly earned miles in the SkyMiles program would if there was no account activity for three years. Beginning January 1,2007, expiration was triggered by two years of no activity, at the same time, the old Frequent Flyer Program miles were combined into SkyMiles, effectively negating their unlimited shelf-life. Deltas most frequent patrons still refer to Silver Medallion status as FO short for Flying Orchid after an early Delta loyalty acknowledgement program and this is ostensibly to avoid confusion between Silver Medallion and SkyMiles. On July 31,2008, Delta adjusted the cost of tickets by implementing a four-tiered pricing system. For example, a coach ticket costs 25,000,32,500,40,000. On January 1,2009, Delta changed the date of its miles. Previously, the miles expired at the end of the year following 24 months of inactivity. The new policy caused the miles to expire immediately after 24 months of inactivity, on July 27,2009, Delta introduced Rollover for Delta Medallion members. Flyers who reach an elite tier in a year are able to roll over any extra Medallion Qualification Miles above their earned tier to the next year. For example, a passenger who earned 65,000 MQM in 2010 will earn Gold Medallion status for reaching 50,000 MQMs, on October 1,2009, Northwest Airlines former frequent flyer program, WorldPerks, officially became SkyMiles. This remained until the system and website became Delta on January 31,2010. On January 1,2011, Delta eliminated its mileage expiration policy, the announcement was made on February 15,2011
13.
Continental Airlines
–
Continental Airlines was a major United States airline, founded in 1934 and eventually headquartered in Houston, Texas. It had ownership interests and brand partnerships with several carriers, Continental was a minority owner of ExpressJet Airlines, which operated under the Continental Express trade name but was a separately managed and public company. Chautauqua Airlines also flew under the Continental Express identity, and Cape Air, Colgan Air, CommutAir, Continental did not have any ownership interests in these companies. Continental started out as one of the carriers in the United States. Post 1978, Continental grew into one of the countrys largest carriers despite facing financial troubles and other issues, in May 2010, the airline announced that it would merge with UAL Corporation, the parent company of United Airlines, via a stock swap. Continentals shares were acquired by UAL Corporation, the acquisition was completed in October 2010, at which time the holding company was renamed United Continental Holdings. During the integration period, each ran a separate operation under the direction of a combined leadership team. The integration was completed on March 3,2012, the airline commenced operations with the Lockheed Vega, a single-engine plane that carried four passengers. Following cancellation of all domestic airmail contracts by the Roosevelt administration in 1934, Six learned of an opportunity to buy into the Southwest Division of Varney Speed Lines which needed money to handle its newly won Pueblo-El Paso route. Six was introduced to Louis Mueller, Mueller had helped found the Southwest Division of Varney in 1934 with Walter T. Varney. As an upshot of all this, Six bought into the airline with US$90,000, Varney was awarded a 17-cent-rate airmail contract between Pueblo and El Paso, it carried passengers as a sideline. The carrier was renamed Continental Air Lines on July 8,1937, Six relocated the airlines headquarters to Denver Union Airport in Denver in October 1937. Six changed the name to Continental because he wanted the name to reflect his desire to have the airline fly all directions throughout the United States. During World War II Continentals Denver maintenance base converted Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses, Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, profits from military transportation and aircraft conversion enabled Continental to contemplate expansion and acquisition of new airliners after the war. Among those were the Douglas DC-3, the Convair 240 and the Convair 340, the Convairs were Continentals first pressurized airliners. The airlines early route was El Paso to Denver, with routes being added during the war from Denver and Albuquerque across Kansas, Oklahoma, in 1946 Continental flew Denver to Kansas City, Tulsa, and to Oklahoma City, and from El Paso and Albuquerque to San Antonio. Each route included stops in several of 22 smaller cities, in 1955 Continental merged with Pioneer Airlines, gaining access to 16 more cities in Texas and New Mexico. Pioneers Executive Vice President Harding Luther Lawrence arrived at Continental as a result of the merger, Bob Six commented on more than on occasion that, the reason we bought Pioneer was to get Harding
14.
Air Canada
–
Air Canada is the flag carrier and largest airline of Canada. The airline, founded in 1937, provides scheduled and charter air transport for passengers and it is the worlds eighth-largest passenger airline by fleet size, and is a founding member of the Star Alliance. Air Canadas corporate headquarters are located in Montréal, Quebec, while its largest hub is at Toronto Pearson International Airport, Air Canada had passenger revenues of CA$13.8 billion in 2015. The airlines regional service is Air Canada Express, Canadas national airline originated from the Canadian federal governments 1936 creation of Trans-Canada Airlines, which began operating their first transcontinental flight routes in 1938. In 1965, TCA was renamed Air Canada following government approval, after the deregulation of the Canadian airline market in the 1980s, the airline was privatized in 1988. On 4 January 2000, Air Canada acquired their largest rival, in 2003, the airline filed for bankruptcy protection and in the following year emerged and reorganized under the holding company ACE Aviation Holdings Inc. In 2007,34 million people flew with Air Canada as the celebrated their 70th anniversary. The carriers operating divisions include Air Canada Cargo, Air Canada Express and their subsidiary, Air Canada Vacations, provides vacation packages to over 90 destinations. Together with their partners, the airline operates on average more than 1,530 scheduled flights daily. Air Canadas predecessor, Trans-Canada Airlines, was created by legislation as a subsidiary of Canadian National Railway on 11 April 1937. The newly created Department of Transport under Minister C. D, howe desired an airline under government control to link cities on the Atlantic coast to those on the Pacific coast. Transcontinental routes from Montreal to Vancouver began on 1 April 1939, using 12 Lockheed Model 14 Super Electras, by January 1940, the airline had grown to about 500 employees. Canadian Pacific Airlines suggested in 1942 a merger with TCA, prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King rejected the proposal and introduced legislation regulating TCA as the only airline in Canada allowed to provide transcontinental flights. With the increase in air travel after World War II, CP Air was granted one coast-to-coast flight, with the development of the ReserVec in 1953, TCA became the first airline in the world to use a computer reservation system with remote terminals. This bill failed but it was resubmitted and passed, with the name change taking effect on 1 January 1965. During the 1970s government regulations ensured Air Canadas dominance over domestic regional carriers, short-haul carriers were each restricted to one of five regions, and could not compete directly with Air Canada and CP Air. CP Air was subject to capacity limits on flights. Air Canadas fares were also subject to regulation by the government, in the late 1970s, with reorganization at CNR, Air Canada became an independent Crown corporation
15.
Altitude
–
Altitude or height is defined based on the context in which it is used. As a general definition, altitude is a measurement, usually in the vertical or up direction. The reference datum also often varies according to the context, although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage. Vertical distance measurements in the direction are commonly referred to as depth. In aviation, the altitude can have several meanings, and is always qualified by explicitly adding a modifier. Parties exchanging altitude information must be clear which definition is being used, aviation altitude is measured using either mean sea level or local ground level as the reference datum. When flying at a level, the altimeter is always set to standard pressure. On the flight deck, the instrument for measuring altitude is the pressure altimeter. There are several types of altitude, Indicated altitude is the reading on the altimeter when it is set to the local barometric pressure at mean sea level. In UK aviation radiotelephony usage, the distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from mean sea level. Absolute altitude is the height of the aircraft above the terrain over which it is flying and it can be measured using a radar altimeter. Also referred to as radar height or feet/metres above ground level, true altitude is the actual elevation above mean sea level. It is indicated altitude corrected for temperature and pressure. Height is the elevation above a reference point, commonly the terrain elevation. Pressure altitude is used to indicate flight level which is the standard for reporting in the U. S. in Class A airspace. Pressure altitude and indicated altitude are the same when the setting is 29.92 Hg or 1013.25 millibars. Density altitude is the altitude corrected for non-ISA International Standard Atmosphere atmospheric conditions, aircraft performance depends on density altitude, which is affected by barometric pressure, humidity and temperature. On a very hot day, density altitude at an airport may be so high as to preclude takeoff and these types of altitude can be explained more simply as various ways of measuring the altitude, Indicated altitude – the altitude shown on the altimeter
16.
British Airways
–
British Airways, often shortened to BA, is the flag carrier and the largest airline in the United Kingdom based on fleet size. When measured by passengers carried, it is second-largest in the United Kingdom behind easyJet, the airline is based in Waterside near its main hub at London Heathrow Airport. On 31 March 1974, all four companies were merged to form British Airways, after almost 13 years as a state company, British Airways was privatised in February 1987 as part of a wider privatisation plan by the Conservative government. The carrier soon expanded with the acquisition of British Caledonian in 1987, followed by Dan-Air in 1992, British Airways is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and the now defunct Canadian Airlines. The alliance has since grown to become the third-largest, after SkyTeam, IAG is listed on the London Stock Exchange and in the FTSE100 Index. A long-time Boeing customer, British Airways ordered 59 Airbus A320 family aircraft in August 1998, in 2007 it purchased 12 Airbus A380s and 24 Boeing 787 Dreamliners, marking the start of its long-haul fleet replacement. The centrepiece of the airlines fleet is the Boeing 777. British Airways is the largest operator of the Boeing 747-400, with 51 registered to the airline, on 1 September 1972 the management service functions of both BOAC and BEA were combined under the newly formed British Airways Group. British Airways was established as an airline on 31 March 1974 by the dissolution of BOAC, British Airways and Air France operated the supersonic airliner Aerospatiale-BAC Concorde, and the worlds first supersonic passenger service flew in January 1976 from London Heathrow to Bahrain. Services to the US began on 24 May 1976 with a flight to Washington Dulles airport, service to Singapore was established in co-operation with Singapore Airlines as a continuation of the flight to Bahrain. The final commercial Concorde flight was BA002 from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 24 October 2003, in 1981 the airline was instructed to prepare for privatisation by the Conservative Thatcher government. Sir John King, later Lord King, was appointed chairman, while many other large airlines struggled, King was credited with transforming British Airways into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world. The flag carrier was privatised and was floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1987, British Airways effected the takeover of the UKs second airline, British Caledonian, in July of that same year. The formation of Richard Bransons Virgin Atlantic Airways in 1984 created a competitor for BA and this campaign included allegations of poaching Virgin Atlantic customers, tampering with private files belonging to Virgin and undermining Virgins reputation in the City. As a result of the case BA management apologised unreservedly, Lord King stepped down as chairman in 1993 and was replaced by his deputy, Colin Marshall, while Bob Ayling took over as CEO. Virgin filed an action in the US that same year regarding BAs domination of the trans-Atlantic routes. In 1992 British Airways expanded through the acquisition of the financially troubled Dan-Air, British Asia Airways, a subsidiary based in Taiwan, was formed in March 1993 to operate between London and Taipei. That same month BA purchased a 25% stake in the Australian airline Qantas and, with the acquisition of Brymon Airways in May, in September 1998, British Airways, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and Canadian Airlines, formed the Oneworld airline alliance
17.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
18.
Supreme Court of the United States
–
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
19.
Airline Deregulation Act
–
The Airline Deregulation Act is a 1978 United States federal law that deregulated the airline industry in the United States, removing U. S. The Civil Aeronautics Boards powers of regulation were phased out, since 1938, the federal Civil Aeronautics Board had regulated all domestic interstate air transport routes as a public utility, setting fares, routes, and schedules. Airlines that flew only intrastate routes, however, were not regulated by the CAB and those airlines were regulated by the governments of the states in which they operated. The CAB promoted air travel, for instance by generally attempting to hold fares down in the short-haul market, the CAB also was obliged to ensure that the airlines had a reasonable rate of return. The CAB earned a reputation for bureaucratic complacency, airlines were subject to lengthy delays when applying for new routes or fare changes, which were not often approved. For example, World Airways applied to begin a low-fare New York City to Los Angeles route in 1967, continental Airlines began service between Denver and San Diego after eight years only because a United States Court of Appeals ordered the CAB to approve the application. This rigid system encountered tremendous pressure in the 1970s, the 1973 oil crisis and stagflation radically changed the economic environment, and technological advances such as the jumbo jet did the same thing. United States Congress became concerned that air transport in the run might follow the nations railroads into trouble. In 1970 the Penn Central Railroad had collapsed in what was then the largest bankruptcy in history, resulting in a taxpayer bailout. Leading economists had argued for decades that this sort of regulation led to inefficiency. Senator Ted Kennedy took the lead in these hearings, the committee was deemed a more friendly forum than what likely would have been the more appropriate venue, the Aviation Subcommittee of the Commerce Committee. The Gerald Ford administration supported the Judiciary Committee initiative, in 1977, President Jimmy Carter appointed Alfred E. Kahn, a professor of economics at Cornell University, to be chair of the CAB. This coalition swiftly gained legislative results in 1978, dan McKinnon would be the last chairman of the CAB and would oversee its final closure on January 1,1985. Senator Howard Cannon of Nevada introduced S.2493 on February 6,1978, the bill was passed and was signed by Carter on October 24,1978. In practice, changes came rather more rapidly than that, the ADA also has the effect of preempting state law with regard to claims against airlines for delays, discrimination, consumer protection violations and other allegations of passenger mistreatment. A1996 Government Accountability Office report found that the fare per passenger mile was about nine percent lower in 1994 than in 1979. Between 1976 and 1990 the paid fare had declined approximately thirty percent in inflation-adjusted terms, passenger loads have risen, partly because airlines can now transfer larger aircraft to longer, busier routes and replace them with smaller ones on shorter, lower-traffic routes. However, these trends have not been distributed throughout the national air transportation network
20.
Airline alliance
–
An airline alliance is an aviation industry arrangement between two or more airlines agreeing to cooperate on a substantial level. Alliances may provide marketing branding to facilitate travelers making inter-airline codeshare connections within countries and this branding may involve unified aircraft liveries of member aircraft. In 2015, Star Alliance was the largest with 23% of total scheduled traffic in RPK, followed by SkyTeam with 20. 4% and Oneworld with 17. 8%, benefits can consist of, An extended network, often realised through codeshare agreements. Many alliances started as only codeshare networks, cost reduction from sharing of, sales offices maintenance facilities operational facilities, e. g. catering or computer systems. Operational staff, e. g. ground handling personnel, at check-in, investments and purchases, e. g. in order to negotiate extra volume discounts. Traveler benefits can include, lower prices due to lowered operational costs for a given route, more departure times to choose from on a given route. Shorter travel times as a result of optimised transfers, a wider range of airport lounges shared with alliance members faster mileage rewards by earning miles for a single account on several different carriers. Round-the-world tickets, enabling travelers to fly over the world for a low price. Airline alliances may also create disadvantages for the traveler, such as, less frequent flights, for instance, if two airlines separately fly three and two times a day respectively on a shared route, their alliance might fly less than 5 times a day on the same route. This might be especially true between hub cities for each airline, E. g. flights between Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The ability of an airline to join an alliance may be restricted by laws, competition law issues must also be considered in some countries. The first airline alliance was formed in the 1930s, when Panair do Brasil, the first large alliance began in 1989, when Northwest Airlines and KLM agreed to large-scale codesharing. Normally landing rights are granted for a number of flights per week to a fixed destination. Each adjustment requires negotiations, often between governments rather than between the companies involved, in return, the United States granted antitrust immunity to the alliance between Northwest Airlines and KLM. Other alliances would struggle for years to overcome the barriers and lack of antitrust immunity. The Star Alliance was founded in 1997, which brought competing airlines to form Oneworld in 1999, in 2010 Richard Branson, chairman of the Virgin Group, announced his intention to form a fourth alliance among Virgin branded airlines. Then in September 2011, Branson said that Virgin would join one of the existing alliances, in December 2012, Delta Air Lines purchased Singapore Airlines 49% stake in Virgin Atlantic for £224 million. On February 14,2013, it was announced that American Airlines and US Airways would merge, retaining the American Airlines name, US Airways participation in the Star Alliance lapsed
21.
Codeshare agreement
–
A codeshare agreement, sometimes simply codeshare, is an aviation business arrangement where two or more airlines share the same flight. Sharing, in sense, means that each airline publishes and markets the flight under its own airline designator. The term code refers to the used in flight schedule, generally the two-character IATA airline designator code. Thus, XX123, might also be sold by airline YY as YY456, Airlines YY and ZZ are in this case called Marketing airlines. Most of the major airlines today have code sharing partnerships with other airlines, typically, code-sharing agreements are also a part of the commercial agreements between airlines in the same airline alliances. When a flight is sold under several designators and flight numbers as described above, in 1967, Richard A. Henson joined with US Airways predecessor Allegheny Airlines in the nations first codeshare relationship. Code sharing has become widespread in the industry since that time. These alliances have extensive codesharing and networked frequent flyer programs and this is not only a superficial addition as cooperating airlines also strive to synchronize their schedules. When an airline sacrifices its capacity to other airlines as a code share partner, several types of codeshare exist, commonly three types, Block space codeshare, A commercial airline purchases a fixed number of seats from the administrating carrier. A fixed price is paid, and the seats are kept away from the Administrating carriers own inventory. The marketing airline decides on their own which booking classes the seats are sold in, free flow codeshare, The airlines inventory and reservation systems communicate in real-time by messaging, commonly IATA AIRIMP/PADIS messaging. A booking class mapping is defined between the airlines, no seats are locked to any of the airlines, and any airline can sell any number of seats. Capped free flow, Basically the same as above, but a capping are defined for each of the marketing airlines participating in the codeshare with the Administrating carrier, much competition in the airline industry revolves around ticket sales strategies. Criticism has been leveled against code sharing by consumer organizations and national departments of trade since it is claimed it is confusing, there are also code sharing agreements between airlines and rail lines. These are more known as an air-rail alliance, but more commonly known as Rail & Fly due to the popularity of the Deutsche Bahn codeshare with many airlines. In Europe these air-rail alliances are used to divide markets by selling these combination tickets abroad for a price to attract more customers. The systems also prevent local customers from buying these much cheaper tickets as the customer is allowed to board the plane with a valid train stamp from a station outside the country. Change of gauge Interlining Snyder, Brett and this isnt the airline I signed up for
22.
Expedia
–
Expedia. com is a travel website owned by Expedia Inc. The website can be used to book tickets, hotel reservations, car rentals, cruises, vacation packages and various attractions. The website initially launched on October 22,1996 as the first Microsoft internet property, in 2001, Bill Gates decided to spin off the property to become a public company. Rich Barton became its CEO and Lloyd Frink who used to work for Richard at Microsoft joined the now independent company, in July 2001, USA Networks, Inc. bought Expedia from Microsoft. In December 2010, listings for AMR Corporation, the parent company of American Airlines, the decision resulted from a dispute over the degree of access to the sites customers. AMR reversed its decision in April 2011, allowing tickets to once again be sold through the aggregate site, in June 2014, Expedia started accepting bitcoins. In September 2014, Expedia Inc. partnered with Citigroup and created the Expedia+ card where members can earn points and earn benefits. Expedia hit by big drop in Google search traffic, Expedia needs to speed up £2,500 refund for flights
23.
Vacation
–
A vacation or holiday is a leave of absence from a regular occupation, or a specific trip or journey, usually for the purpose of recreation or tourism. People often take a vacation during specific holiday observances, or for festivals or celebrations. Vacations are often spent with friends or family, a person may take a longer break from work, such as a sabbatical, gap year, or career break. The concept of taking a vacation is a recent invention, and has developed through the last two centuries, historically, the idea of travel for recreation was a luxury that only wealthy people could afford. In the Puritan culture of early America, taking a break from work for other than weekly observance of the Sabbath was frowned upon. However, the concept of vacation was led by a later religious movement encouraging spiritual retreat. The notion of breaking from work periodically took root among the middle, in the United Kingdom, vacation once specifically referred to the long summer break taken by the law courts and then later the term was applied to universities. The custom was introduced by William the Conqueror from Normandy where it facilitated the grape harvest, in the past, many upper-class families moved to a summer home for part of the year, leaving their usual home vacant. Recent developments in communication technology—internet, mobile, instant messaging, presence tracking, Vacation today means absence from the workplace rather than temporary cession of work. It is now the norm in North America and Great Britain to carry on working or remain on call while on vacation rather than abandon work altogether, office employees telecommute whilst on vacation. Workers may choose to unplug for a portion of a day, antithetically, workers may take time out of the office to go on vacation, but remain plugged-in to work-related communications networks. While remaining plugged-in over vacation may generate short-term business benefits, the psychological impacts of these developments are only beginning to be understood. Vacation, in English-speaking North America, describes recreational travel, such as a pleasure trip. People in Commonwealth countries use the term holiday to describe absence from work as well as to describe a vacation or journey, Vacation can mean either staying home or going somewhere. Canadians often use vacation and holiday interchangeably referring to an away from home or time off work. In Australia and the UK, holiday can refer to a vacation or a public holiday, the scions of New York City took to declaring that they would “vacate” their city homes for their lakeside summer retreats, and the term “vacation” replaced the British “holiday” in common parlance. In Hungarian, the word vakáció can mean both a recreational trip, an officially granted absence from work, and the school break. For absence from work, the word szabadság can be used, family vacation refers to recreation taken together by the family
24.
Monash University
–
Monash University is an Australian public research university based in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1958, it is the second oldest university in the State of Victoria, Monash is one of two Australian universities to be ranked in the École des Mines de Paris ranking on the basis of the number of alumni listed among CEOs in the 500 largest worldwide companies. Monash is in the top 20% in teaching, top 10% in international outlook, top 20% in industry income, Monash enrolls over 48,000 undergraduate and almost 21,000 graduate students, It also has more applicants than any university in the state of Victoria. In 2014, its revenue was over $2.2 billion. The university has a number of campuses, five of which are in Victoria, Monash also has a research and teaching centre in Prato, Italy, a graduate research school in Mumbai, India and a graduate school in Jiangsu Province, China. Since December 2011, Monash has had an alliance with the University of Warwick in the United Kingdom. Monash University courses are delivered at other locations, including South Africa. The Clayton campus contains the Robert Blackwood Hall, named after the universitys founding Chancellor Sir Robert Blackwood, in 2014, the University ceded its Gippsland campus to Federation University. On 15 July 2016, Monash confirmed that Federation University Australia would take over the operations of the Berwick campus prior to the end of 2018, the university was named after the prominent Australian general Sir John Monash. This was the first university in Australia to be named after a person, rather than a city, the original campus was in the south-eastern Melbourne suburb of Clayton. The first University Council, led by Monashs first Chancellor Sir Robert Blackwood, selected Sir Louis Matheson, to be the first Vice-Chancellor of Monash University, the University was granted an expansive site of 100 hectares of open land in Clayton. The 100 hectares of land consists of the former Talbot Epileptic Colony, in its early years, it offered undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in engineering, medicine, science, arts, economics, politics, education, and law. It was a provider for international student places under the Colombo Plan. In its early years of teaching, research and administration, Monash was not disadvantaged by entrenched traditional practices, Monash was able to adopt modern approaches without resistance from those who preferred the status quo. A modern administrative structure was set up, Australias first research centres, from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s, Monash became the centre of student radicalism in Australia. It was the site of mass student demonstrations, particularly concerning Australias role in Vietnam War. By the late 1960s, several student organisations, some of which were influenced by or supporters of communism, turned their focus to Vietnam, with numerous blockades, in the late 1970s and 1980s, some of Monashs most publicised research came through its pioneering of in-vitro fertilisation. Led by Professors Carl Wood and Alan Trounson, the Monash IVF Program achieved the worlds first clinical IVF pregnancy in 1973, in 1980, they delivered the first IVF baby in Australia
25.
Melbourne
–
Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
26.
Australia
–
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
27.
Tax
–
A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, or evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent, the legal definition and the economic definition of taxes differ in that economists do not regard many transfers to governments as taxes. For example, some transfers to the sector are comparable to prices. Examples include tuition at public universities and fees for utilities provided by local governments, governments also obtain resources by creating money and coins, through voluntary gifts, by imposing penalties, by borrowing, and by confiscating wealth. In modern taxation systems, governments levy taxes in money, but in-kind and corvée taxation are characteristic of traditional or pre-capitalist states, the method of taxation and the government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly debated in politics and economics. Tax collection is performed by a government agency such as the Canada Revenue Agency, when taxes are not fully paid, the state may impose civil penalties or criminal penalties on the non-paying entity or individual. The levying of taxes aims to raise revenue to fund governing and/or to alter prices in order to affect demand, States and their functional equivalents throughout history have used money provided by taxation to carry out many functions. A governments ability to raise taxes is called its fiscal capacity, when expenditures exceed tax revenue, a government accumulates debt. A portion of taxes may be used to service past debts, governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services. These services can include education systems, pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits, energy, water and waste management systems are also common public utilities. A tax effectively changes relative prices of products and they have therefore sought to identify the kind of tax system that would minimize this distortion. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates, historically, taxes on the poor supported the nobility, modern social-security systems aim to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on those who are still working. A states tax system often reflects its communal values and the values of those in current political power. To create a system of taxation, a state must make choices regarding the distribution of the tax burden—who will pay taxes and how much they will pay—and how the taxes collected will be spent. In democratic nations where the public elects those in charge of establishing or administering the tax system, in countries where the public does not have a significant amount of influence over the system of taxation, that system may reflect more closely the values of those in power. All large businesses incur administrative costs in the process of delivering revenue collected from customers to the suppliers of the goods or services being purchased. Taxation is no different, the resource collected from the public through taxation is always greater than the amount which can be used by the government, the difference is called the compliance cost and includes the labour cost and other expenses incurred in complying with tax laws and rules
28.
Bribery
–
Bribery is the act of giving money, goods or other forms of recompense to a recipient in exchange for an alteration of their behavior that the recipient would otherwise not alter. Gifts of money or other items of value which are available to everyone on an equivalent basis. Offering a discount or a refund to all purchasers is a rebate and is not bribery. Giving the rebate to influence them to look favorably on the utilitys rate increase applications, however. The bribe is the gift bestowed to influence the recipients conduct, in economics, the bribe has been described as rent. Bribery in bureaucracy has been viewed as a reason for the higher cost of production of goods, one must be careful of differing social and cultural norms when examining bribery. Expectations of when a transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Tipping, for example, is considered bribery in some societies, in some Spanish-speaking countries, bribes are referred to as mordida. In Arab countries, bribes may be called baksheesh or shay, french-speaking countries often use the expressions dessous-de-table, pot-de-vin, or commission occulte. While the last two expressions contain inherently a negative connotation, the expression dessous-de-table can be understood as a commonly accepted business practice. In German, the term is Schmiergeld. The forms that bribery take are numerous, for example, a motorist might bribe a police officer not to issue a ticket for speeding, a citizen seeking paperwork or utility line connections might bribe a functionary for faster service. Bribery may also take the form of a commission, a profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment. Euphemisms abound for this Bribers and recipients of bribery are likewise numerous although bribers have one common denominator, Bribery around the world is estimated at about $1 trillion. The reason for this dissociation is to make the steps of a corrupt deal already an offence and, thus. Besides, such a dissociation makes the prosecution of bribery offences easier since it can be difficult to prove that two parties have formally agreed upon a corrupt deal. A grey area may exist when payments to smooth transactions are made, in some countries, this practice is the norm, often resulting from a developing nation not having the tax structure to pay civil servants an adequate salary. Nevertheless, most economists regard bribery as a bad thing because it encourages rent seeking behaviour, a state where bribery has become a way of life is a kleptocracy
29.
General Services Administration
–
The General Services Administration is an independent agency of the United States government, established in 1949 to help manage and support the basic functioning of federal agencies. GSA employs about 12,000 federal workers and has an operating budget of roughly $26.3 billion. GSA oversees $66 billion of procurement annually and it contributes to the management of about $500 billion in U. S. federal property, divided chiefly among 8,300 owned and leased buildings and a 210,000 vehicle motor pool. GSAs business lines include the Federal Acquisition Service, the Public Buildings Service, the GSA is member of the Procurement G6, an informal group leading the use of framework agreements and e-procurement instruments in public procurement. In 1947 President Harry Truman asked former President Herbert Hoover to lead what became known as the Hoover Commission to make recommendations to reorganize the operations of the federal government, one of the recommendations of the commission was the establishment of an Office of the General Services. This proposed office would combine the responsibilities of the following organizations, General Jess Larson, Administrator of the War Assets Administration, was named GSAs first Administrator. The first job awaiting Administrator Larson and the newly formed GSA was a renovation of the White House. The structure had fallen into such a state of disrepair by 1949 that one inspector of the time said the structure was standing “purely from habit. Everything, except the four walls without a roof, was stripped down. GSA completed the renovation in 1952, GSA headquarters, located at Eighteenth and F Streets, NW, was U. S. General Services Administration Building listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 as Interior Department Offices, in 1960, GSA created the Federal Telecommunications System, a government-wide intercity telephone system. In 1970, the Nixon administration created the Consumer Product Information Coordinating Center, the Federal Buildings Fund was initiated in 1974, which allowed the GSA to issue rent bills to federal agencies. In 1972, the GSA established the Automated Data and Telecommunications Service, in 1973, the GSA created the Office of Federal Management Policy. GSA’s Office of Acquisition Policy centralized procurement policy in 1978, in 1984, GSA introduced the federal government to the use of charge cards, known as the GMA SmartPay system. The National Archives and Records Administration was spun off into an independent agency in 1985, the same year, the GSA began to provide governmentwide policy oversight and guidance for federal real property management as a result of an Executive Order signed by President Ronald Reagan. In 2003, the Federal Protective Service was moved to the Department of Homeland Security, in 2005, GSA reorganized to merge the Federal Supply Service and Federal Technology Service business lines into the Federal Acquisition Service. On April 3,2009, President Barack Obama nominated Martha N. Johnson to serve as the GSA Administrator, after a 9-month delay, the United States Senate confirmed her nomination on February 4,2010. In July 1991, GSA contractors began the excavation of what is now the Ted Weiss Federal Building in New York City, when initial excavation disturbed burials, destroying skeletons and artifacts, GSA sent archaeologists to excavate—but hid their findings from the public
30.
Environmental impact of aviation
–
The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat, noise, particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming. From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5. 2% per year, and in the European Union, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. These concerns are highlighted by the present volume of commercial aviation, globally, about 8.3 million people fly daily, twice the total in 1999. U. S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the months between October 2013 and September 2014. Emissions weighting factor i. e. the factor by which aviation CO2 emissions should be multiplied to get the CO2-equivalent emissions for annual fleet average conditions is in the range 1. 3–2.9. In 1999 the contribution of civil aircraft-in-flight to global CO2 emissions was estimated to be around 2%, a 2007 report from Environmental Change Institute / Oxford University posits a range closer to 4 percent cumulative effect. The level and effects of CO2 emissions are currently believed to be broadly the same regardless of altitude, at the high altitudes flown by large jet airliners around the tropopause, emissions of NOx are particularly effective in forming ozone in the upper troposphere. High altitude NOx emissions result in greater concentrations of O3 than surface NOx emissions, the effect of O3 concentrations are regional and local. NOx emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, another greenhouse gas, but this effect does not offset the O3 forming effect of NOx emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete O3 and these effects have not been quantified. This problem does not apply to aircraft that fly lower in the troposphere, one of the products of burning hydrocarbons in oxygen is water vapour, a greenhouse gas. Water vapour produced by aircraft engines at high altitude, under certain conditions, condenses into droplets to form Condensation trails. Contrails are visible line clouds that form in cold, humid atmospheres and are thought to have a warming effect. Contrails are extremely rare from lower-altitude aircraft, or from aircraft or rotorcraft. Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the persistent formation of contrails and have found to have a global warming effect over-and-above that of contrail formation alone. However, a 2015 study found that artificial cloudiness caused by contrail outbreaks reduce the difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures, the former are decreased and the latter are increased, in comparison to temperatures the day before and the day after such outbreaks. On days with outbreaks the day/night temperature difference was diminished by about 6F° in the U. S, south and 5F° in the Midwest. Least significant is the release of soot and sulfate particles, soot absorbs heat and has a warming effect, sulfate particles reflect radiation and have a small cooling effect
31.
FlyerTalk
–
FlyerTalk is an Internet forum for discussion of airline frequent-flyer programs, hotel loyalty programs and other issues related to air travel. The site was founded in 1998 by Randy Petersen and was acquired by Internet Brands in 2007, according to Petersen, as editor of InsideFlyer, he saw FlyerTalk as a way to allow the readers to combine their knowledge into a knowledgebase. Since that time, the site has grown to more than 200 forums, the site has approximately 20 million page views per month and 27,000 –52,000 daily unique visitors. On 16 November 2010, Randy Petersen announced that he would leave FlyerTalk at the end of the year, some of the hotel and airline forum participants include official presences who use the site to learn about the issues important to their customer base. FlyerTalk has been cited as a voice in shaping airlines reward programs. List of Internet forums FlyerTalk FlyerTalk on Twitter
32.
Scrip
–
Scrip is a term for any substitute for legal tender and is often a form of credit. Besides company scrip, other forms of scrip include land scrip, vouchers, token coins such as tokens, IOUs, arcade tokens and tickets. Scrips have gained importance and become a subject of study in numismatics and exonumia due to their wide variety. Scrip behaves similarly to a currency, and as such can be used to study monetary economics, company scrip was a credit against the accrued wages of employees. In the United States, where everything in a mining or logging camp was owned and operated by a single company and these remote locations were cash poor. Workers had very little choice but to purchase food and other goods at a company store, in this way, the company could charge enormous markups on goods in a company store, making workers completely dependent on the company, thus enforcing their loyalty to the company. Additionally, while employees could exchange scrip for cash, this could rarely be done at face value and this kind of scrip was valid only within the settlement where it was issued. While store owners in neighboring communities could accept the scrip as currency, they rarely did so at face value, when U. S. President Andrew Jackson issued his Specie Circular of 1836 due to credit shortages, Virginia Scrip was accepted as payment for federal lands. In 19th-century Western Canada, the government devised a system of land grants called scrip. Notes in the form of money scrip or land scrip, valued at 160 acres or 240 acres, were offered to the Métis people in exchange for their Aboriginal rights. During the Great Depression, many governments were forced to pay employees in scrip at the height of the crisis. Scrip became illegal under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, the expression scrip is also used in the stock market where companies can sometimes pay dividends in the form of additional shares/stock rather than in currency. It is also a document that acknowledges debt. After World War I and World War II, scrip was used in Germany and Austria, Scrip was used extensively in prisoner-of-war camps during World War II, at least in countries that complied with the Third Geneva Convention. Under the Geneva Conventions, enlisted POWs could be made to work, but had to be paid for their labor, but not necessarily in cash. Since ordinary currency could be used in attempts, they were given scrip that could only be used with the approval of camp authorities. The utility of the scrip varied from case to case, in Germany, in particular, the general lack of goods available at POW camps meant that many Allied POWs in German captivity found little use for their POW scrip. Poker chips, also referred to as tokens, are commonly used as currency with which to gamble
33.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
The Economist
–
The Economist is an English-language weekly magazine-format newspaper owned by the Economist Group and edited at offices in London. Continuous publication began under its founder, James Wilson, in September 1843, in 2015 its average weekly circulation was a little over 1.5 million, about half of which were sold in the United States. The publication belongs to the Economist Group and it is 50% owned by the English branch of the Rothschild family and by the Agnelli family through its holding company Exor. The remaining 50% is held by investors including the editors. The Rothschilds and the Agnellis are represented on the board of directors, a board of trustees formally appoints the editor, who cannot be removed without its permission. Although The Economist has an emphasis and scope, about two-thirds of the 75 staff journalists are based in the London borough of Westminster. For the year to March 2016 the Economist Group declared operating profit of £61m, previous major shareholders include Pearson PLC. The Economist takes a stance of classical and economic liberalism which is supportive of free trade, globalisation, free immigration. The publication has described itself as a product of the Caledonian liberalism of Adam Smith and it targets highly educated readers and claims an audience containing many influential executives and policy-makers. The publications CEO described this recent global change, which was first noticed in the 1990s and accelerated in the beginning of the 21st century, on the contents page of each issue, The Economists mission statement is written in italics. The Economist was founded by the British businessman and banker James Wilson in 1843, to advance the repeal of the Corn Laws, articles relating to some practical, commercial, agricultural, or foreign topic of passing interest, such as foreign treaties. An article on the principles of political economy, applied to practical experience, covering the laws related to prices, wages, rent, exchange, revenue. Parliamentary reports, with focus on commerce, agriculture and free trade. Reports and accounts of popular movements advocating free trade, general news from the Court of St. Jamess, the Metropolis, the Provinces, Scotland, and Ireland. Law reports, confined chiefly to areas important to commerce, manufacturing, books, confined chiefly, but not so exclusively, to commerce, manufacturing, and agriculture, and including all treatises on political economy, finance, or taxation. A commercial gazette, with prices and statistics of the week, correspondence and inquiries from the news magazines readers. It has long respected as one of the most competent. Its logo was designed in 1959 by Reynolds Stone, in January 2012 The Economist launched a new weekly section devoted exclusively to China, the first new country section since the introduction of a section about the United States in 1942
35.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
36.
University of California, Davis
–
The University of California, Davis, is a public research university and one of the 10 campuses of the University of California system. It is located in Davis, California, just west of Sacramento, the university has been labeled one of the Public Ivies, a publicly funded university considered to provide a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League. The Carnegie Foundation classifies UC Davis as a doctoral research university with a medical program. The UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine is the largest in the United States and has ranked first in the nation for two consecutive years,2015 and 2016. The UC Davis Aggies athletic teams compete in the NCAA Division I level, primarily in the Big West Conference as well as the Big Sky Conference, in its first year of full Division I status,11 UC Davis teams qualified for NCAA post-season competition. In 1905, the California legislature passed the University Farm Bill, the commission took a year to select a site for the campus, a tiny town then known as Davisville. UC Davis opened its doors as the University Farm to 40 degree students from UC Berkeley in January 1909, the Farm was established largely the result of the vision and perseverance of Peter J. Shields, secretary of the State Agricultural Society. The Peter J. Shields Library at UC Davis was named in his honor, Shields began to champion the cause of a University Farm to teach agriculture after learning that California students were going to out-of-state universities to pursue such education. After two failed bills, a law authorizing the creation of a University Farm was passed on March 18,1905, Yolo County, home to some of Californias prime farmland, was chosen as the site. A committee appointed by the Regents purchased land near Davisville in 1906, the Regents officially took control of the property in September 1906 and constructed four buildings in 1907. Short courses were first offered in 1908 and a three-year non-degree program set up in 1909, in 1911, the first class graduated from the University Farm. The Farm accepted its first female students in 1914 from Berkeley, the three-year non-degree program continued until 1923. At that time, a two-year non-degree program began, continuing until 1958, in 1922, a four-year undergraduate general academic program was established, with the first class graduating in 1926. Renamed in 1922 as the Northern Branch of the College of Agriculture, by 1951 it had expanded to a size of 3,000 acres. In 1959, the campus was declared by the Regents of the University of California as the general campus in the University of California system. Davis Graduate Division was established in 1961 followed by the College of Engineering in 1962, the Law School opened for classes in Fall 1966, and the School of Medicine began instruction in Fall 1968. In a period of increasing activism, a Native American studies program was started in 1969, one of the first at a major university, it was later developed as a full department within the university. The incident drew attention and led to further demonstrations, a formal investigation
37.
Commercial aviation
–
Commercial aviation is the part of civil aviation that involves operating aircraft for hire to transport passengers or multiple loads of cargo. There were 17,721 business jets in the fleet at the end of 2011 with about 70% of the fleet in North America. The European market is the next largest, with growing activity in the Middle East, Asia, in 2014 the total airplane billing amounted to just over USD22 billion and 722 business jets were delivered to customers across the globe. After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, using mostly ex-military aircraft to transport people and this growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy and super-heavy bomber airframes like the B-29 and Avro Lancaster that could be converted into commercial aircraft. The DC-3 also made for easier and longer commercial flights, the first commercial jet airliner to fly was the British de Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state airline BOAC had introduced the Comet into scheduled service, while a technical achievement, the plane suffered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressurization of the cabin, by the time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to the skies
38.
Airline codes
–
This is a list of airline codes. The table lists IATAs two-character airline designators, ICAOs three-character airline designators, IATA airline designators, sometimes called IATA reservation codes, are two-character codes assigned by the International Air Transport Association to the worlds airlines. The standard is described in IATAs Standard Schedules Information Manual and the codes themselves are described in IATAs Airline Coding Directory, Airline designator codes follow the format xx, i. e. two alphanumeric characters followed by an optional letter. Although the IATA standard provides for three-character airline designators, IATA has not used the third character in any assigned code. This is because some legacy computer systems, especially the central reservations systems, have failed to comply with the standard, the codes issued to date comply with IATA Resolution 762, which provides for only two characters. These codes thus comply with the current airline designator standard, there are three types of designator, unique, numeric/alpha and controlled duplicate. IATA airline designators are used to identify an airline for commercial purposes in reservations, timetables, tickets, tariffs, air waybills, a flight designator is the concatenation of the airline designator, xx, and the numeric flight number, n, plus an optional one-letter operational suffix. Therefore, the format of a flight designator is xxn. After an airline is delisted, IATA can make the code available for reuse after six months, controlled duplicates are issued to regional airlines whose destinations are not likely to overlap, so that the same code is shared by two airlines. The controlled duplicate is denoted here, and in IATA literature, an example of this is the code 6Y, which refers to both Mid Airlines, a charter airline in Sudan, and Med Airways, a charter airline in Lebanon. IATA also issues an accounting or prefix code and this number is used on tickets as the first three characters of the ticket number. The IATA codes originally based on the ICAO designators which were issued in 1947 as two-letter airline identification codes and these codes are unique by airline, unlike the IATA airline designator codes. The designators are listed in ICAO Document 8585, Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies, ICAO codes have been issued since 1947. The ICAO codes originally based on a two-letter-system and were identical to the codes used by IATA. After an airline joined IATA its existing ICAO-two-letter-code was taken over as IATA code, so in the 1970s the abbreviation BA was the ICAO code and the IATA code of British Airways while non-IATA-airlines like Court Line used their 2-letter-abbreviation as ICAO code only. In the early 1980s ICAO introduced the current three-letter-system due to the number of airlines. It became the new standard system in November 1987. Other designators, particularly starting with Y and Z, are reserved for government organizations
39.
Oneworld
–
Oneworld is an airline alliance founded on 1 February 1999. The alliances stated objective is to be the airline alliance for the worlds frequent international travelers. Its central alliance office is based in New York City in the United States. As of August 2016, Oneworld is the third largest global alliance in terms of passengers more than 557.4 million passengers carried, behind Star Alliance. Its slogan is An alliance of the worlds leading airlines working as one, Oneworld announced the formation of a central alliance team, the Oneworld Management Company, in February 2000, to mark the alliances first anniversary. The oMC was established in May 2000 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and it acts as the alliances central secretariat, with responsibility for driving future growth and the launch of new customer services and benefits. Bruce Ashby, who previously held roles of CEO of Saudi Arabias SAMA Airlines, CEO of Indias IndiGo, rob Gurney succeeded Ashby as CEO in October,2016. Reporting to the CEO are Vice-Presidents for Commercial, Membership and Customer Experience, and Corporate Communications, a Chief Financial Officer, the CEO reports to the Oneworld Governing Board, which is made up of the chief executives of each of the member airlines. The Governing Board meets regularly to set strategic direction and review progress, chairmanship of the board rotates among the alliance members chief executives. Cathay Pacific CEO Ivan Chu currently has the role, Oneworld was unveiled by its founding members, American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines, Cathay Pacific, and Qantas at a press conference in London, United Kingdom, on 21 September 1998. Oneworld was officially launched and became operational on 1 February 1999, at its launch in 1999, Oneworlds member airlines and their affiliates served 648 destinations in 139 countries, and carried 181 million passengers with a fleet of 1,577 aircraft. Finnair, Finlands largest airline and flag carrier, was the alliances first new recruit on 9 December 1998, the alliance welcomed Iberia, Spains flag carrier, as its second recruit on 15 February 1999. Both airlines, together with Iberias franchisee, Iberia Regional Air Nostrum, joined the alliance on 1 September 1999, on 19 May 1999, LanChile became a member-elect, the alliances first representative from Latin America. LanChiles two subsidiaries, LAN Express and LAN Perú, would join the alliance. Irish carrier Aer Lingus was formally elected on board and confirmed as the member of the alliance on 2 December 1999. As LanChile and Aer Lingus joined on 1 June 2000, Canadian Airlines left the alliance, following the purchase by Air Canada. However, Swiss later decided not to proceed with key elements of its agreement with British Airways and was released from its commitment to join Oneworld. Swiss was later taken over by Lufthansa in 2005 and joined Star Alliance in 2006, the mid-2000s saw Oneworld undertake one of the biggest expansions in its history
40.
SkyTeam
–
Founded in June 2000, SkyTeam was the last of the three major airline alliances to be formed, the first two being Star Alliance and Oneworld. As of March 2014, SkyTeam consists of 20 carriers from five continents and it also operates a cargo alliance named SkyTeam Cargo, which partners ten carriers, all of them SkyTeam members. Its centralised management team, SkyTeam Central, is based at the World Trade Center Schiphol Airport on the grounds of Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in Haarlemmermeer, Netherlands. In terms of passengers, with 665.4 million carried passengers, SkyTeam has grown and is now the largest alliance in the world ahead of Star Alliance. In 2004, the alliance had its biggest expansion when Continental Airlines, Northwest Airlines, garuda Indonesia entered the alliance in March 2014. As of March 2014, SkyTeam flies to more than 1,000 destinations in 178 countries and operates some 15,700 daily flights with a fleet of over 4,400 aircraft. The alliance and its members have a workforce of 459,781, furthermore. On 22 June 2000, representatives of Aeroméxico, Air France, Delta Air Lines and these became the four founding carriers of SkyTeam. Upon its formation, SkyTeam would offer its customers a total of 6,402 daily flights to 451 destinations in 98 countries, in September 2000, the alliance established a cargo alliance, SkyTeam Cargo. The groups inaugural members were Aeromexpress, Air France Cargo, Delta Air Logistics, the following month, the newly established airline alliance announced its intentions to incorporate CSA Czech Airlines as the 5th member in April the following year. The alliance saw the joining of CSA Czech Airlines on 25 March 2001, Alitalia entered SkyTeam on 27 July the same year, on 30 September 2001, the alliance received KLMs application for membership, following the airlines plans to create a leading airline group with Air France. In 2003, Deltas subsidiary, Delta Express, was replaced by Song and that same year, SkyTeam also launched an improved website focused on providing passengers with more information, increased interactivity and other resources. On 24 May 2004, Aeroflot, the carrier and principal airline of Russia. The event took place in Kremlin following the airlines application earlier in the year for membership, SkyTeam expressed that Aeroflot has not met the consortiums standards, but that the airlines large hub networks made it ideal for the alliance, and made up for its deficiencies. On 28 August, China Southern Airlines, the largest carrier in the Peoples Republic of China, on 13 September, Continental Airlines, KLM and Northwest Airlines joined the alliance. Their simultaneous entry was the largest expansion event in airline alliance history, every associate adopted a frequent-flyer program of a full member, Copa Airlines already used Continentals OnePass, Kenya Airways and Air Europa used Air France–KLMs Flying Blue. Following a 23-month joining process since May 2004, Aeroflot joined on 14 April 2006 and it was the first Russian airline to be associated with any airline alliance. Aeroflot has increased its operational standards, passing International Air Transport Associations Operational Safety Audit, Deltas subsidiary Song continued to operate as Delta Air Lines
