1.
Staten Island
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Staten Island /ˌstætən ˈaɪlənd/ is one of the five boroughs of New York City in the U. S. state of New York. In the southwest of the city, Staten Island is the southernmost part of both the city and state of New York, with Conference House Park at the tip of the island. The borough is separated from New Jersey by the Arthur Kill and the Kill Van Kull, with a 2015 Census-estimated population of 474,558, Staten Island is the least populated of the boroughs but is the third-largest in area at 58 sq mi. Staten Island is the borough of New York with a non-Hispanic White majority. The borough is coextensive with Richmond County, and until 1975 was the Borough of Richmond and its flag was later changed to reflect this. Staten Island has been called the forgotten borough by inhabitants who feel neglected by the city government. The East Shore is home to the 2. 5-mile F. D. R, Boardwalk, the fourth-longest in the world. The South Shore, site of the 17th-century Dutch and French Huguenot settlement, the West Shore is the least populated and most industrial part of the island. Motor traffic can reach the borough from Brooklyn via the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge and from New Jersey via the Outerbridge Crossing, Goethals Bridge, and Bayonne Bridge. Staten Island has Metropolitan Transportation Authority bus lines and an MTA rapid transit line, the Staten Island Railway, Staten Island is the only borough that is not connected to the New York City Subway system. The free Staten Island Ferry connects the borough to Manhattan and is a popular tourist attraction, providing views of the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, and Lower Manhattan. The landfill is being redeveloped as Freshkills Park, a devoted to restoring habitat. As in much of North America, human habitation appeared in the island fairly rapidly after the retreat of the ice sheet, archaeologists have recovered tool evidence of Clovis culture activity dating from about 14,000 years ago. This evidence was first discovered in 1917 in the Charleston section of the island, various Clovis artifacts have been discovered since then, on property owned by Mobil Oil. The island was abandoned later, possibly because of the extirpation of large mammals on the island. Rossville points are a type of arrowhead that defines a Native American cultural period that runs from the Archaic period to the Early Woodland period. They are named for the Rossville section of Staten Island, where they were first found near the old Rossville Post Office building, at the time of European contact, the island was inhabited by the Raritan band of the Unami division of the Lenape. In Lenape, one of the Algonquian languages, Staten Island was called Aquehonga Manacknong, meaning as far as the place of the bad woods, or Eghquhous, the area was part of the Lenape homeland known as Lenapehoking
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Landfill
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A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and the oldest form of waste treatment. Historically, landfills have been the most common method of organized waste disposal, some landfills are also used for waste management purposes, such as the temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or processing of waste material. A landfill also may refer to ground that has filled in with rocks instead of waste materials, so that it can be used for a specific purpose. Unless they are stabilized, these areas may experience severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during a large earthquake, afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face, before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load, the weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers, the use of rail-haul permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips. Typically, in the face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other waste, several sprayed-on foam products, chemically fixed bio-solids. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill, factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities. Landfills are often the most cost-efficient way to dispose of waste, in addition, landfill gas can be upgraded to natural gas—landfill gas utilization—which is a potential revenue stream. Another advantage is having a location for disposal that can be monitored. Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues, infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and water courses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant, pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well. Extensive efforts are made to capture and treat leachate from landfills before it reaches groundwater aquifers, eventually, every landfill liner will leak, allowing the leachate to contaminate the groundwater. Installation of composite liners with flexible membrane and soil barrier is enforced by the EPA to ensure that leachate is withheld, rotting food and other decaying organic waste allows methane and carbon dioxide to seep out of the ground and up into the air
4.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
5.
Boroughs of New York City
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New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Fresh Kills
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Fresh Kills is a stream and freshwater estuary in the western portion of the New York City borough of Staten Island. It is the site of the Fresh Kills Landfill, formerly New York Citys principal landfill, the watershed of the Fresh Kills drains much of the wet lowlands of the western portion of the island and flows into the Arthur Kill around the Isle of Meadows. Its co-tributaries include the Rahway River, Morses Creek, Piles Creek, and, via Newark Bay, the Passaic River, the channel around the north end of the Isle of Meadows is sometimes called Little Fresh Kill and the southern channel is called Great Fresh Kill. The stream has two major branches, the north branch is Main Creek. The south branch is Richmond Creek, which much of the central part of the island, with its headwaters near Historic Richmond Town. The system of streams provides recreational kayaking and wildlife viewing in the preserved wetlands, in addition, the parks design, ecological restoration and cultural and educational programming will emphasize environmental sustainability and a renewed public concern for our human impact on earth. Renewable energy is planned both for use in projects and for large-scale demonstration and public benefit. Photovoltaic cells, wind turbines and geothermal heating and cooling are components of current capital projects. While the full build-out will continue in phases for the next 30 years, the first sections of parkland to be developed opened in early 2010, geography of New York Harbor List of New York rivers
8.
Estuary
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An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a zone between river environments and maritime environments. They are subject both to marine influences—such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water—and to riverine influences—such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflows of sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea began to rise about 10. Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns, the banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world, with about 60% of the worlds population living along estuaries and the coast. The word estuary is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, there have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. However, this definition excludes a number of water bodies such as coastal lagoons. This broad definition also includes fjords, lagoons, river mouths, an estuary is a dynamic ecosystem having a connection to the open sea through which the sea water enters with the rhythm of the tides. The sea water entering the estuary is diluted by the water flowing from rivers. The pattern of dilution varies between different estuaries and depends on the volume of water, the tidal range. Drowned river valleys are known as coastal plain estuaries. In places where the sea level is rising relative to the land, sea water progressively penetrates into river valleys and this is the most common type of estuary in temperate climates. Well-studied estuaries include the Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom and the Ems Dollard along the Dutch-German border, the width-to-depth ratio of these estuaries is typically large, appearing wedge-shaped in the inner part and broadening and deepening seaward. Water depths rarely exceed 30 m, examples of this type of estuary in the U. S. are the Hudson River, Chesapeake Bay, and Delaware Bay along the Mid-Atlantic coast, and Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay along the Gulf Coast. They are relatively common in tropical and subtropical locations and these estuaries are semi-isolated from ocean waters by barrier beaches. Formation of barrier beaches partially encloses the estuary, with only narrow inlets allowing contact with the ocean waters, bar-built estuaries typically develop on gently sloping plains located along tectonically stable edges of continents and marginal sea coasts. They are extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U. S. in areas with active coastal deposition of sediments, barrier beaches form in shallow water and are generally parallel to the shoreline, resulting in long, narrow estuaries
9.
Freshkills Park
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Freshkills Park is a public park being built atop a landfill reclamation project on Staten Island. About 2,200 acres, it will be the largest park developed in New York City since the 19th century and its construction began in October 2008 and is slated to continue in phases for at least 30 years. When fully developed by 2035-37, Freshkills Park will be the second-largest park in New York City and 2.7 times the size of Central Park in Manhattan. The park has been designed for five sections that accommodate a range of uses, including cultural, athletic. Sections of the park will be connected by a system for vehicles and a network of paths for bicyclists, pedestrians. The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation is running the project with the New York City Department of Sanitation, the landfill opened in 1947 in what was then a salt marsh in a rural agricultural area. The subsoil was made up of clay, with sand and silt as the top layer of soil, the land still contains large amounts of wildlife within the boundaries of the landfill. There were tidal wetlands, forests, and freshwater wetlands, the area, being in a swamp and wetlands, was prime for the landfill, being far removed from the rest of New York City at the time. The initial plan for a temporary landfill called for Fresh Kills to be used for 20 years, then developed as an area with residential, recreational. At the peak of its operation, the contents of twenty barges – each carrying 650 tons of garbage – were added to the every day. The landfill was by then the worlds largest man-made structure, in 2001 it was estimated that, if kept open, the landfill would have eventually become the highest point on the East Coast. Virtually all the wreckage and debris, including all remains of the dead that were not detected at the site, had to be sent to the temporarily reopened landfill for examination. Thousands of detectives and forensic evidence specialists worked for over 1.7 million hours at Fresh Kills Landfill to try to recover remnants of the 2,749 people killed in the attacks, a final count of 4,257 human remains were recovered. From those,300 people were identified, the Citys Chief Medical Examiner retains custody of all still-unidentified remains at a facility within the National 9/11 Memorial in Manhattan. A memorial is being built to honor those who were not able to be identified in all of the debris from the attack, the debris was then buried in a 40-acre portion of the landfill, it is highly likely that this debris still contains undetected, fragmentary human remains. Afterward, the facility was closed permanently, in anticipation of the park on the site. The competitions first round was open to all participants, and in August 2001 and these proposals came from the firms James Corner Field Operations, Hargreaves Associates, Mathur/da Cunha, Tom Leader Studio, and John McAslan + Partners, RIOS Associates, Inc. and Sasaki Associates. The plans proposed by all the finalists are from the Department of City Planning, in 2003, Field Operations was selected as the winner of the competition and was hired to produce a master plan to guide long-term development
10.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
11.
Robert Moses
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Robert Moses was a city planner who worked mainly in the New York metropolitan area. One of his contributions to urban planning was New York States large parkway network. Robert Moses simultaneously held twelve titles, but was never elected to any public office, nevertheless, he created and led numerous public authorities that gave him autonomy from the general public and elected officials. Moses projects were considered by many to be necessary for the development after the Great Depression. During the height of his powers, New York City built campuses to host two Worlds Fairs, one in 1939 and the other in 1964. Moses also helped persuade the United Nations to locate its headquarters in Manhattan, instead of Philadelphia, by helping the state secure the money, Moses was born in New Haven, Connecticut, to assimilated German Jewish parents, Bella and Emanuel Moses. He spent the first nine years of his living at 83 Dwight Street in New Haven. In 1897, the Moses family moved to New York City, Mosess father was a successful department store owner and real estate speculator in New Haven. In order for the family to move to New York City, he sold his estate holdings and store. Mosess mother was active in the settlement movement, with her own love of building, Robert Moses and his brother Paul attended several schools for their elementary and secondary education, including the Dwight School and the Mohegan Lake School, a military academy near Peekskill. After graduating from Yale University and Wadham College, Oxford, and earning a Ph. D. in political science from Columbia University, Moses became attracted to New York City reform politics. A committed idealist, he developed plans to rid New York of patronage hiring practices. None went very far, but Moses, due to his intelligence, caught the notice of Belle Moskowitz, when the state Secretary of States position became appointive rather than elective, Smith named Moses, Moses served from 1927 to 1929. Moses rose to power with Smith, who was elected as governor in 1922, during that period Moses began his first foray into large scale public work initiatives, while drawing on Smiths political power to enact legislation. This helped create the new Long Island State Park Commission and the State Council of Parks and this centralization allowed Smith to run a government later used as a model for Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal federal government. Moses also received numerous commissions that he carried out extraordinarily well, displaying a strong command of law as well as matters of engineering, Moses became known for his skill in drafting legislation, and was called the best bill drafter in Albany. At a time when the public was accustomed to Tammany Hall corruption and incompetence, shortly after President Franklin D. Roosevelts inauguration in 1933, the federal government found itself with millions of New Deal dollars to spend, yet states and cities had few projects ready. Moses was one of the few officials who had projects shovel ready
12.
Arthur Kill
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The Arthur Kill, also known as the Staten Island Sound, is a tidal strait and a kill between Staten Island, a borough of New York City, and Union and Middlesex counties in northern New Jersey. It is a major channel of the Port of New York. The channel is approximately 10 miles long and connects Raritan Bay on its end with Newark Bay on the north. Along the New Jersey side it is lined with industrial sites. Johns Cove is located near its northern end. The Staten Island side is lined with salt marshes. A heavily used channel, it provides access for ocean-going container ships to Port Newark. It also provides the primary access to the now-closed Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island and is the location of the Staten Island boat graveyard. The channel is dredged periodically to a depth of 35 to 37 feet, as part of its Harboring Deepening Project, the Kill is being deepened to a depth of 50 feet to accommodate larger ships and allow for their passage while carrying full loads. Because of the nature of the tides in New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary near the mouth of the Hudson River. In particular, the net flow of the channel is not well established and it was heavily polluted in the 1960s and 1970s, with few fish species able to live in it. Since the 1990s, crabs, baitfish, striped bass and bluefish have returned to this water. It is spanned by the Goethals Bridge and the Outerbridge Crossing, as well as by the Arthur Kill Vertical Lift Bridge, a railroad bridge, for many years the Kill was traversed by a ferry between Tottenville and the Perth Amboy Ferry Slip. Another ferry ran from the tip of Victory Boulevard in Travis to Carteret and it contains two small uninhabited islands, Pralls Island and the Isle of Meadows, both of which are part of the borough of Staten Island. The Arthur Kill is a river channel carved by an ancestral phase of the Hudson River resulting from the blockage of the main channel of the Hudson at the Narrows by moraine or an ice dam. The size of the Arthur Kill channel is large, suggesting that it was, for a time, however, it could not have been a primary drainage for long because the river did not have enough time to carve a broad flood plain. Placenaming by early explorers and settlers during the era referred to a location in reference to other places, its shape, its topography. Kill comes from the Middle Dutch word kille, meaning riverbed, water channel, the area around the Newark Bay was called Achter Kol. During the British colonial era the bay was known as Cull bay, the bay lies behind Bergen Hill, the emerging ridge of the Hudson Palisades which begins on Bergen Neck, the peninsula between it and the Upper New York Bay
13.
Ellsworth B. Buck
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Ellsworth Brewer Buck was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from New York during the 1940s. Buck was born in Chicago, Illinois and attended Morgan Park Academy and he graduated from Dartmouth College in 1914 and enlisted in the United States Naval Reserve in 1917. He became an instructor following his training at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was vice president of the New York City Board of Education from 1938 until 1942, Buck was elected to Congress in 1944 to fill the vacancy caused by the death of James A. OLeary. He served from June 6,1944 until January 3,1949, serving in the Seventy-eighth United States Congress, Seventy-ninth United States Congress and Eightieth United States Congress. While in Congress, Buck strongly backed the Taft-Hartley Act, opposed by organized labor, and voted in favor of a proposal to ban the poll tax and he did not run for reelection in 1948. On April 5,1949, months following his retirement from Congress, Buck was shot, following his recovery, Buck served as a delegate to the 1952 Republican National Convention. Buck died at his home in Stephenson, Wisconsin in 1970 and was cremated and his ashes were placed in Thunder Mountain Ranch Cemetery. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
14.
Victory Boulevard (Staten Island)
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In the late 1940s, the portion of Victory Boulevard between Richmond Avenue and Forest Avenue was designated as New York State Route 439A. The section between Forest Avenue and Bay Street became part of NY439 at the same time, both designations were removed in the late 1960s. The street follows a similar to the Staten Island Expressway. Both roadways intersect Clove Road, Slosson Avenue, Todt Hill Road, Bradley Avenue, the Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Expressway, Richmond Avenue and the West Shore Expressway, as well as each other. Forest Avenue, too, is intersected by both roads, however, Forest and the Staten Island Expressway are on the extremities of the island. Incidentally, the boulevard is the street on Staten Island that meets three different expressways by way of interchanges. It is exit 7 for the West Shore Expressway, exit 10 for the Staten Island Expressway westbound and exit 11 for the Dr. Martin Luther King, a number of prominent Staten Island sites and events are located along Victory Boulevard. Among these are the Travis Independence Day Parade, the Sylvan Grove Cemetery, the Bulls Head Tavern, a pub known for its Tory meetings during the American Revolution, also stood on Victory Boulevard, on the corner with Richmond Avenue. Victory Boulevard was established in 1816 by the Richmond Turnpike Company as the Richmond Turnpike, the toll road was owned by Daniel D. Tompkins, a prominent Staten Islander who, a year later, became Vice President of the United States. The route was promoted as the fastest. from New York to Philadelphia, ferries from Manhattan and Brooklyn would dock at the eastern end of the turnpike, at Bay Street. From the 1860s to 1930, Travis was known as Linoleumville, after World War I, the Richmond Turnpike was renamed Victory Boulevard in honor of the allied victory. The segment of Victory Boulevard from Richmond Avenue in Bulls Head to Forest Avenue in Silver Lake was designated as NY 439A in the late 1940s, east of Forest Avenue, Victory Boulevard was designated as part of NY439 down to Bay Street. Both designations were removed from Victory Boulevard c. 1968, the entire route is in Richmond County. New York Roads portal New York State Route 439A at New York Routes
15.
Crane (machine)
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A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places, the device uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the normal capability of a human. The first known construction cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by men or beasts of burden and these cranes were used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, in the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron, iron, for many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first mechanical power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms – each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, mini-cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, in order to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces. Finally, we can find larger floating cranes, generally used to oil rigs. Some lifting machines do not strictly fit the definition of a crane. The crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC, the archaeological record shows that no later than c.515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was abandoned in favour of using several column drums. The first unequivocal evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems attributed to Aristotle. The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire, the Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. We are relatively well informed about their techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by the engineers Vitruvius. There are also two surviving reliefs of Roman treadwheel cranes, with the Haterii tombstone from the late first century AD being particularly detailed, the simplest Roman crane, the trispastos, consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch, a rope, and a block containing three pulleys. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys or, in case of the largest one, the polyspastos, when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could readily lift 3,000 kg. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, for instance, the blocks weigh up to 60 tons each
16.
Bucket (machine part)
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A bucket is a specialized container attached to a machine, as compared to a bucket adapted for manual use by a human being. It is a material handling component. The bucket has a volume as compared to other types of machine attachments like blades or shovels. The name bucket may have been coined from buckets used in water wheels, buckets in mechanical engineering can have a distinct quality from the traditional bucket whose purpose is to contain things. Larger versions of type of bucket equip bucket trucks to contain human beings, buckets in water-hauling systems in mines or, for instance. Buckets exist in a variety of sizes or shapes and they can be quite large like those equipping Hulett cranes, used to discharge ore out of cargo ships in harbours or very small such as those used by deep-sea exploration vehicles. The shape of the bucket can vary from the conical shape of an actual bucket to more scoop-like or spoon-like shapes akin to water turbines. The cross section can be round or square and this is the same shape of a domestic form, the one-piece-standing single element, but often with an augmented size. In early developments of mining, a simple bucket allowed easy insertion of both miners and construction materials such as pit props, and later extraction of miners and ore. Common terms used in parts of the world include, Bowk, Kibble, Hoppit. Latterly they have been called sinking buckets, as they are now used when sinking new mine shafts before insertion of the cage. Concrete buckets help deliver concrete on a site of a building by the means of a tower crane. They have an opening to allow concrete to flow out of the bucket when in-place. They are placed at the end of an arm and have to be made from a material that provides isolation from electricity, like fiber glass. There may be a door on the side of the bucket, excavator buckets are made of solid steel and generally present teeth protruding from the cutting edge, to disrupt hard material and avoid wear-and-tear of the bucket. Subsets of the excavator bucket are, the bucket, trenching bucket, A ditching bucket is a wider bucket with no teeth, 5–6 feet used for excavating larger excavations. A trenching excavator bucket is normally 6 to 24 in wide, the design is used in bucket-wheel excavators. The buckets in the wheel have to be made of material to withstand the resistance of the material it cuts through
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Continuous track
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Continuous track, also called tank tread or caterpillar track, is a system of vehicle propulsion in which a continuous band of treads or track plates is driven by two or more wheels. The prominent treads of the plates are both hard-wearing and damage resistant, especially in comparison to rubber tyres. The aggressive treads of the tracks provide good traction in soft surfaces but can damage paved surfaces, in modern times, continuous track propulsion systems can be traced back to a crude continuous track system designed in the 1770s by Richard Lovell Edgeworth. Polish mathematician and inventor Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński conceived of the idea in the 1830s, the British polymath Sir George Cayley patented a continuous track, which he called a universal railway. Although not a track in the form encountered today, a dreadnaught wheel or endless railway wheel was patented by the British Engineer James Boydell in 1846. In Boydells design, a series of feet are attached to the periphery of the wheel. A letter of recommendation was signed by Sir William Codrington, the General commanding the troops at Sebastapol, a number of manufacturers including Richard Bach, Richard Garrett & Sons, Charles Burrell & Sons and Clayton & Shuttleworth applied the Boydell patent under licence. The British military were interested in Boydells invention from an early date, one of the objectives was to transport Mallets Mortar, a giant 36 weapon which was under development but, by the end of the Crimean war, the mortar was not ready for service. In those tests, a Garrett engine was put through its paces on Plumstead Common, the Garrett engine featured in the Lord Mayors show in London, and in the following month that engine was shipped to Australia. Nicholas works in 1856, again, after the close of the Crimean war, between late 1856 and 1862 Burrell manufactured not less than a score of engines fitted with dreadnaught wheels. Steam tractors fitted with wheels had a number of shortcomings and. In August 1858, more than two years after the end of the Crimean War, John Fowler filed British Patent No.1948 on another form of Endless Railway, comprising only eight sections, the track sections are essentially longitudinal, as in Boydells initial design. Further to Fowlers patent of 1858, in 1877, a Russian, Fyodor Blinov and it lacked self-propulsion and was pulled by horses. Blinov received a patent for his wagon in 1878, from 1881 to 1888 he developed a steam-powered caterpillar-tractor. This self-propelled crawler was successfully tested and featured at an exhibition in 1896. Steam traction engines were used at the end of the 19th Century in the Boer Wars, but neither dreadnaught wheels nor continuous tracks were used, rather roll-out wooden plank roads were thrown under the wheels as required. A little-known American inventor, Henery T. Stith, developed a continuous track prototype which was, in forms, patented in 1873,1880. The last was for the application of the track to a prototype off-road bicycle built for his son, the 1900 prototype is retained by his surviving family
18.
Oil well
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An oil well is a boring in the Earth that is designed to bring petroleum oil hydrocarbons to the surface. Usually some natural gas is produced along with the oil, a well that is designed to produce mainly or only gas may be termed a gas well. The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347 CE and these wells had depths of up to about 240 metres and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles. The oil was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt, by the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as Burning water in Japan in the 7th century, arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century, some sources claim that from the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha for the petroleum industry. These places were described by Marco Polo in the 13th century, when Marco Polo in 1264 visited Baku, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, he saw oil being collected from seeps. He wrote that on the confines toward Geirgine there is a fountain from which oil springs in great abundance, in 1846, Baku the first ever well was drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration. In 1848, the first modern oil well was drilled on the Aspheron Peninsula north-east of Baku, the earliest oil wells in modern times were drilled percussively, by repeatedly raising and dropping a cable tool into the earth. In the 20th century, cable tools were replaced with rotary drilling. The record-depth Kola Borehole used non-rotary mud motor drilling to achieve a depth of over 12,000 metres, until the 1970s, most oil wells were vertical, although lithological and mechanical imperfections cause most wells to deviate at least slightly from true vertical. However, modern directional drilling technologies allow for strongly deviated wells which can, given sufficient depth and with the proper tools, before a well is drilled, a geologic target is identified by a geologist or geophysicist to meet the objectives of the well. For a production well, the target is picked to optimize production from the well, for an exploration or appraisal well, the target is chosen to confirm the existence of a viable hydrocarbon reservoir or to ascertain its extent. The target will be matched with a location, and a trajectory between the two will be designed. When the well path is identified, a team of geoscientists and these properties include pore pressure, fracture gradient, wellbore stability, porosity, permeability, lithology, faults, and clay content. The well is created by drilling a hole 12 cm to 1 meter in diameter into the earth with a rig that rotates a drill string with a bit attached. After the hole is drilled, sections of pipe, slightly smaller in diameter than the borehole, are placed in the hole
19.
Caterpillar D7
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The Caterpillar D7 is a medium bulldozer manufactured by Caterpillar Inc. The first D7 appeared in 1938, the D7C came next in 1955. In March 2008, at Conexpo 2008 held every 3 years in Las Vegas and this 235 hp D7E comes with an electric drive system powered by a 537cid C9.3 diesel engine. The C9.3 powers a generator that turns out electricity that will power to a pair of AC drive motors. The D7R Series II at 240 hp power and a weight of 25 tons, is in the middle of Caterpillars track-type tractors. It is primarily used to move short distances or through challenging terrain. The vehicle is powerful, yet small and light 16 to 20 t depending on configuration) and this makes it ideal for working on very steep slopes, in forests, and for backfilling pipelines safely without risking damage to the pipe. An agricultural version without the blade and rippers is commonly used by farmers, specially modified D7Es fitted with Rome plows were used to clear forest in the Vietnam war. The US Army used armored D7G to clear fields and unarmored D7G. The armor was developed by the Israel Military Industries, later, the US Army developed a remote controlled version of the D7G for mine-clearing applications. The United States Marine Corps has replaced its fleet of D7Gs with John Deeres 850J MCT in 2009 The Egyptian Army operates an number of armored D7R II. The current model is the D7R Series 2 Track-Type Tractor and will be replaced by the D7E in early 2009. The dozer blade on front of the tractor usually comes in 4 varieties, A Straight Blade which is short and has no lateral curve, no side wings, an Angle Blade, A type of blade, typically only 4 in height, that attaches to the dozers C-frame. The C-frame has 3 holes on each side where the blade will be pinned into, thus the angle blade has 3 set positions, right angle, left angle. Most commonly found in construction, due to the fact that an experienced operator can move. A Universal Blade which is tall and very curved, and has side wings to carry more material. A S-U combination blade which is shorter, has less curvature, various other blade types are used including landfill U-Blades, woodchip U-blades, and two-way blades for work inside the holds of ships. A Caterpillar D7G makes an appearance in Maximum Overdrive which shows up along with an M274 Mule, a Caterpillar D7 is the main antagonist in the novelette Killdozer
20.
Caterpillar D8
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The Caterpillar D8 is a large track-type tractor designed and manufactured by Caterpillar. Though it comes in configurations, it is usually sold as a bulldozer equipped with a detachable large blade. 1937, The R prefix dropped, D8 debuts, 1940s, 2U Series D8 introduced, engine power of 132 hp improved to 148 hp. 1950, D8 new front-rounded grill that would last until D8K was replaced by D8L in 1982,1955, 1H Series D8 ends production,191 hp D8E and D8D introduced with new 1,246 cubic inch displacement D342 diesel engine. D8D had a torque converter and D8E had a direct drive transmission,1965, Power increased to 270 hp 1970, D8 46a 48a power increased 280 hp 1974,300 hp D8K replaced the D8H. 1982,335 hp D8L replaced D8K, the D8L was the first D8 with the elevated drive sprocket undercarriage. 1984, D8L SA for farming applications premiers, available with a Three point hitch, for mounted implements. 1987, D8N at 285 hp which was unveiled at CONEXPO87 in Las Vegas and it also had a differential steer transmission — the first track-type Caterpillar tractor to have one. 1996,305 hp D8R replaced D8N,2000, D8R Series 2 replaced the D8R. 2004,310 hp D8T ACERT replaced D8R Series 2, several types of bulldozer blade can be used on the front of the tractor, straight blade, A short blade with no lateral curve and no side wings. It can be used for fine grading angle blade, held by an U shape frame that has three holes on each side, to set the blade to 3 positions, right, center, and left. Heavy equipment G-numbers U. S. Army Cats Caterpillar D9 Caterpillar D7 List of Caterpillar Inc
21.
Caterpillar D9
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The Caterpillar D9 is a large track-type tractor designed and manufactured by Caterpillar Inc. It is usually sold as an equipped with a detachable large blade. The size, durability, reliability, and low operating costs have made the D9 one of the most popular large track-type tractors in the world, the Komatsu D275A is one of its most direct competitors. The D9 is a series of heavy tracked-type tractors, propelled by Caterpillar tracks, the series began in 1954 with a prototype tractor called the D9X. Ten D9X prototype models were built in 1954, in 1955, the 286 hp D9 was introduced to compete against the more powerful Euclid TC-12. The D9 came equipped with a 1,473 cid D353 which powered the D9 right up until the 1980 introduction of the D9L, in 1956 the D9 had its engine power raised to 320 hp. The new 335 hp D9E replaced that model in 1959, two years later, in 1961, the legendary 385 hp D9G was introduced, that remained in production for 13 years. Over its 13-year life the D9G became the main crawler on many job sites, testifying to its sturdiness, in 1965, West Coast businessman Buster Peterson hooked up a pair of D9Gs to pushload the largest wheel tractor scrapers built. In 1986 Caterpillar bought the rights to this concept and thus the 770 hp DD9G was created, Peterson also built the first SxS D9G which has two D9Gs side-by-side, pushing a 24-foot wide bulldozer blade. In 1969, Caterpillar introduced this new SxS D9G, in 1974, the improved 410 hp D9H was introduced to replace the D9G. The D9H is still the most powerful conventional track-type tractor in company history, the DD9H and the SxsD9H would soon follow. In 1980, the 460 hp D9L was introduced, the unit featured the same new type of elevated-sprocket undercarriage as was used in the larger D10. The new undercarriage design reduced strain and shock loads on the final drives, the elevated-drive-sprocket undercarriage is a modular design. To repair the machines one breaks down the tracks and pulls the drive sprockets out, as a result, one can pull the powershift transmission out the rear. The 370 hp D9N replaced the D8L in 1987, in 1988, Caterpillar produced their 25, 000th elevated-drive-sprocket track-type tractor, a D9N. The 405 hp D9R replaced the D9N in 1996, the 410 hp D9T replaced the D9R in 2004. The D9T has a low-emissions ACERT diesel engine, the current model is the D9T, however, older models such as the D9R, D9N, and D9L are still commonly used. The L, N, R and T models of the D9 are visually very similar, the D9L was replaced by the 520 hp D10N in 1987
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Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
23.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
24.
Barge
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A barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal transport of heavy goods. Some barges are not self-propelled and must be towed or pushed by towboats, Barge is attested from 1300, from Old French barge, from Vulgar Latin barga. The word originally could refer to any small boat, the modern meaning arose around 1480, bark small ship is attested from 1420, from Old French barque, from Vulgar Latin barca. The more precise meaning three-masted ship arose in the 17th century, both are probably derived from the Latin barica, from Greek, βάρις, translit. Egyptian boat, from Coptic, ⲃⲁⲁⲣⲉ bāri small boat, hieroglyphic Egyptian, by extension, the term embark literally means to board the kind of boat called a barque. The long pole used to maneuver or propel a barge has given rise to the saying I wouldnt touch that with a barge pole. On the British canal system, the barge is used to describe a boat wider than a narrowboat. In the United States, deckhands perform the labor and are supervised by a leadman or the mate, the captain and pilot steer the towboat, which pushes one or more barges held together with rigging, collectively called the tow. The crew live aboard the towboat as it travels along the river system or the intracoastal waterways. These towboats travel between ports and are also called line-haul boats, poles are used on barges to fend off the barge as it nears other vessels or a wharf. These are often called pike poles, barges are used today for low-value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods by barge is very low. Barges are also used for heavy or bulky items, a typical American barge measures 195 by 35 feet. The most common European barge measures 76.5 by 11.4 metres, as an example, on June 26,2006, a 565-short-ton catalytic cracking unit reactor was shipped by barge from the Tulsa Port of Catoosa in Oklahoma to a refinery in Pascagoula, Mississippi. Extremely large objects are normally shipped in sections and assembled onsite, of the reactors 700-mile journey, only about 40 miles were traveled overland, from the final port to the refinery. Canal barges are made for the particular canal in which they will operate. Many barges, primarily Dutch barges, which were designed for carrying cargo along the canals of Europe, are no longer large enough to compete in this industry with larger newer vessels. Many of these barges have been renovated and are now used as hotel barges carrying holidaymakers along the same canals on which they once carried grain or coal. This holds true today, for areas of the world
25.
Trestle bridge
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A trestle is a rigid frame used as a support, historically a tripod used both as stools and to support tables at banquets. A trestle bridge is a composed of a number of short spans supported by such frames. Since this type of bridge is called a trestle for short. Timber and iron trestles were used in the 19th century. In the 21st century, steel and sometimes concrete trestles are commonly used to bridge particularly deep valleys while timber trestles remain common in certain areas, many timber trestles were built in the 19th and early 20th centuries with the expectation that they would be temporary. Timber trestles were used to get the railroad to its destination, in the later 20th century, tools such as the earthmover made it cheaper to construct a high fill directly instead of first constructing a trestle from which to dump the fill. Timber trestles remain common in applications, most notably for bridge approaches crossing floodways. For the purposes of discharging material below, a coal trestle carried a dead-end track, one of the longest trestle spans created was for railroad traffic crossing the Great Salt Lake on the Lucin Cutoff in Utah. It was replaced by a causeway in the 1960s, and is now being salvaged for its timber. Many wooden roller coasters are built using design details similar to trestle bridges because it is so easy to make the roller coaster very high, since loads are well distributed through large portions of the structure it is also resilient to the stresses imposed. The structure also naturally leads to a certain redundancy, such wooden coasters, while limited in their path, possess a certain ride character that is appreciated by fans of the type. The Camas Prairie Railroad in northern Idaho utilized many timber trestles across the rolling Camas Prairie and in the major grade, the 1, 490-foot viaduct across Lawyers Canyon was the exception, constructed of steel and 287 feet in height. The floodway of the Bonnet Carré Spillway in St. Charles Parish, the trestles are owned by the Canadian National Railway and the Kansas City Southern Railroad. The trestles were completed in 1936, after construction of the Spillway, the trestles may be the longest wooden railroad trestles remaining in regular use in North America. These were all replaced by masonry viaducts, few timber trestles survived into the 20th century. Two that did, and which are still in use, cross the Afon Mawddach on the coast of Wales only a few miles apart, at Barmouth. The former, built in 1867, carries trains on the heavy rail Cambrian Coast Line travelling from England via Shrewsbury to the small towns on Cardigan Bay. It also carries a toll-path for pedestrians, trestles in cast- or wrought-iron were used during the 19th Century on the developing railway network in the United Kingdom
26.
New York State Route 440
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New York State Route 440 is a state highway located entirely on Staten Island in New York City. The route acts as a connector between the two segments of New Jersey Route 440, running from the Staten Island community of Richmond Valley to the south to Port Richmond to the north. NY440 is connected to the two New Jersey segments by the Outerbridge Crossing to the south and the Bayonne Bridge to the north, much of NY440 is a limited-access highway. From the Korean War Veterans Parkway to Interstate 278, it is known as the West Shore Expressway, north of I-278, it is named the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway. NY440 is the southernmost state route in the state of New York, NY440 begins at the New York–New Jersey state line, mid-span on the Outerbridge Crossing over the Arthur Kill in the Richmond Valley neighborhood of Staten Island. The four-lane bridge crosses east through Richmond Valley and over Arthur Kill Road, after landing in Staten Island, NY440 enters a toll barrier for eastbound traffic entering the city. Immediately following the toll barrier is a ramp to Page Avenue, in the westbound direction, the ramp to Arthur Kill Road is exit 1. After Page Avenue, NY440 enters a cloverleaf interchange with the Korean War Veterans Parkway. At exit 2 in Pleasant Plains, NY440 exits the right-of-way it entered on, the West Shore Expressway continues north as a four-lane expressway, entering exit 3, a ramp to Woodrow Road going northbound. Crossing into Rossville, the expressway enters exit 3 southbound, connecting to Bloomingdale Road, Crossing north of South Shore Golf Course, the West Shore enters exit 4, an interchange with Huguenot Avenue. Entering the community of Fresh Kills, NY440 crosses through the site of the former Fresh Kills Landfill near exit 5, bending northward once again, the expressway crosses over Fresh Kills Main Creek and enters the William T. Davis Wildlife Refuge. Here, the West Shore enters exit 7, a road interchange with Victory Boulevard. Running along the end of Travis, the West Shore Expressway parallels nearby railroad tracks before entering exit 8. Just a bit further north, the expressway enters exit 9 northbound, just north of Glen Street, the West Shore Expressway enters a semi-directional T interchange with the Staten Island Expressway. At this interchange, NY440 and I-278 become concurrent for a distance on the Staten Island Expressway. Along this stretch, NY440 and I-278 meet Richmond Avenue at exit 7, just to the east, the expressway enters exit 9, which serves as a junction with the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway. NY440 turns off I-278 onto the Dr. Martin Luther King Expressway just north of a junction with Victory Boulevard, the expressway crosses north through Staten Island, entering exit 12, a junction with Forest Avenue. Crossing through Graniteville, NY440 enters exit 13, which connects to Walker Street in Port Richmond, just north of exit 13, NY440 crosses onto the abutments of the Bayonne Bridge, condensing to four lanes
27.
Floodgate
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Floodgates, also called stop gates, are adjustable gates used to control water flow in flood barriers, reservoir, river, stream, or levee systems. They may be designed to set spillway crest heights in dams, to adjust flow rates in sluices and canals, since most of these devices operate by controlling the water surface elevation being stored or routed, they are also known as crest gates. Valves used in applications have a variety of design requirements and are usually located at the base of dams. Often, the most important requirement is energy dissipation, since water is very heavy, it exits the base of a dam with the enormous force of water pushing from above. Unless this energy is dissipated, the flow can erode nearby rock and soil, other design requirements include taking into account pressure head operation, the flow rate, whether the valve operates above or below water, and the regulation of precision and cost. Fixed cone valves are designed to dissipate the energy from a water flow during reservoir discharge and they are a round pipe section with an adjustable sleeve gate and cone at the discharge end. Flow is varied by moving the sleeve away or towards its cone seat, the design allows high pressure water from the base of a dam to be released without causing erosion to the surrounding environment. Fixed cone valves are able to handle heads up to 300 m, hollow jet valves are a type of needle valve used for floodgate discharge. A cone and seat are inside a pipe, water flows through an annular gap between the pipe and cone when it is moved downstream, away from the seat. Ribs support the assembly and supply air for water jet stabilization. Ring jet valves are similar to fixed cone valves, but have a collar that discharges water in a narrow stream. They are suitable for heads up to 50 m, jet flow gate, similar to a gate valve but with a conical restriction prior to the gate leaf that focuses the water into a jet. They were developed in the 1940s by the United States Bureau of Reclamation to allow control of discharge flow without the cavitation seen in regular gate valves. Jet flow gates are able to handle heads up to 150 m, tidal barrage Canal lock Thames Barrier Delta Works Oosterscheldekering US Army Corps of Engineers. Engineering manual 1110-2-2607, Planning and Design of Navigation Dams, Chapter 5, deltaWorks. Org – project in the Netherlands on floodgates
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Salt marsh
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It is dominated by dense stands of salt-tolerant plants such as herbs, grasses, or low shrubs. These plants are terrestrial in origin and are essential to the stability of the marsh in trapping and binding sediments. Salt marshes play a role in the aquatic food web. They also support terrestrial animals and provide coastal protection, salt marshes occur on low-energy shorelines in temperate and high-latitudes which can be stable or emerging, or submerging if the sedimentation rate exceeds the subsidence rate. Commonly these shorelines consist of mud or sand flats which are nourished with sediment from inflowing rivers and these typically include sheltered environments such as embankments, estuaries and the leeward side of barrier islands and spits. In the tropics and sub-tropics they are replaced by mangroves, an area that differs from a marsh in that instead of herbaceous plants. Most salt marshes have a low topography with low elevations but a vast wide area, salt marshes are located among different landforms based on their physical and geomorphological settings. Such marsh landforms include deltaic marshes, estuarine, back-barrier, open coast, embayments, deltaic marshes are associated with large rivers where many occur in Southern Europe such as the Camargue, France in the Rhone delta or the Ebro delta in Spain. They are also extensive within the rivers of the Mississippi Delta in the United States, in New Zealand, most salt marshes occur at the head of estuaries in areas where there is little wave action and high sedimentation. Such marshes are located in Awhitu Regional Park in Auckland, the Manawatu Estuary, back-barrier marshes are sensitive to the reshaping of barriers in the landward side of which they have been formed. They are common along much of the eastern coast of the United States, large, shallow coastal embayments can hold salt marshes with examples including Morecambe Bay and Portsmouth in Britain and the Bay of Fundy in North America. They have a big impact on the biodiversity of the area, salt marsh ecology involves complex food webs which include primary producers, primary consumers, and secondary consumers. The low physical energy and high grasses provide a refuge for animals, many marine fish use salt marshes as nursery grounds for their young before they move to open waters. Saltmarshes across 99 countries were mapped by Mcowen et al, a total of 5,495,089 hectares of mapped saltmarsh across 43 countries and territories are represented in a Geographic Information Systems polygon shapefile. This estimate is at the low end of previous estimates. Mats of filamentous blue-green algae can fix silt and clay sized sediment particles to their sticky sheaths on contact which can increase the erosion resistance of the sediments. This assists the process of sediment accretion to allow colonising species to grow, as a result, competitive species that prefer higher elevations relative to sea level can inhabit the area and often a succession of plant communities develops. Coastal salt marshes can be distinguished from terrestrial habitats by the tidal flow that occurs
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Mudflat
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Mudflats or mud flats, also known as tidal flats, are coastal wetlands that form when mud is deposited by tides or rivers. They are found in sheltered areas such as bays, bayous, lagoons, mudflats may be viewed geologically as exposed layers of bay mud, resulting from deposition of estuarine silts, clays and marine animal detritus. Most of the sediment within a mudflat is within the intertidal zone, in the past tidal flats were considered unhealthy, economically unimportant areas and were often dredged and developed into agricultural land. Several especially shallow mudflat areas, such as the Wadden Sea, are now popular among those practising the sport of mudflat hiking. On the Baltic Sea coast of Germany in places, mudflats are exposed not by tidal action and these wind-affected mudflats are called windwatts in German. Tidal flats, along with salt marshes and mangrove forests, are important ecosystems. They are often of importance to migratory birds, as well as certain species of crabs, mollusks. In the United Kingdom mudflats have been classified as a Biodiversity Action Plan priority habitat, the maintenance of mudflats is important in preventing coastal erosion. However, mudflats worldwide are under threat from predicted sea level rises, land claims for development, dredging due to shipping purposes, in some parts of the world, such as East and South-East Asia, mudflats have been reclaimed for aquaculture, agriculture, and industrial development. For example, around the Yellow Sea region of East Asia, mudflat sediment deposits are focused into the intertidal zone which is composed of a barren zone, marsh and salt pan. Within these areas are various ratios of sand and mud that make up the sedimentary layers, the associated growth of coastal sediment deposits can be attributed to rates of subsidence along with rates of deposition and changes in sea level. Barren zones extend from the lowest portion of the zone to the marsh areas. Beginning in close proximity to the bars, sand dominated layers are prominent. Common bedding types include laminated sand, ripple bedding, and bay mud, bioturbation also has a strong presence in barren zones. Marshes contain an abundance of plants while the sediment layers consist of thin sand. Mudcracks are a common as well as wavy bedding planes, marshes are also the origins of coal/peat layers because of the abundant decaying plant life. Salt pans can be distinguished in that they contain thinly laminated layers of clayey silt, the main source of the silt comes from rivers. Dried up mud along with wind erosion forms silt dunes, when flooding, rain or tides come in, the dried sediment is then re-distributed
30.
Wetland
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A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, carbon sink, Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica, the largest including the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian Plain, the water found in wetlands can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater. The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens, and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin, the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth. International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to people about wetland issues. Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff and they may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design. A patch of land that develops pools of water after a storm would not be considered a wetland. Wetlands have unique characteristics, they are distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants. A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil, Wetlands have also been described as ecotones, providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic processes, There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog and fen. Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types, the largest wetlands in the world include the swamp forests of the Amazon and the peatlands of Siberia. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as follows, Article 2.1, may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands. Although the general definition given above applies around the world, each county, Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas. This definition has been used in the enforcement of the Clean Water Act, some US states, such as Massachusetts and New York, have separate definitions that may differ from the federal governments. It is not uncommon for a wetland to be dry for long portions of the growing season, the most important factor producing wetlands is flooding
31.
Phragmites
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Phragmites is a genus of four species of large perennial grasses found in wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world. The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, maintained by Kew Garden in London, – Japan, Korea, Ryukyu Islands, Russian Far East Phragmites karka Trin. About 130 other synonyms have been proposed, and some have been widely used, arundo phragmites L. and Phragmites vulgaris Crép. Recent studies have characterised morphological distinctions between the introduced and native stands of Phragmites australis in North America, americanus – the North American genotype has been described as a distinct subspecies, subsp. Americanus, and Phragmites australis – the Eurasian genotype is sometimes referred to as subsp, altissimus Clayton is an accepted subspecies of P. australis. Phragmites australis var. marsillyanus Kerguélen is a variety of Phragmites australis. In North America, the status of Phragmites australis was a source of confusion and it was commonly considered an exotic species and often invasive species, introduced from Europe. However, there is evidence of the existence of Phragmites as a plant in North America long before European colonization of the continent. It is now known that the North American native forms of P. a. subsp, americanus are markedly less vigorous than European forms. The recent marked expansion of Phragmites in North America may be due to the more vigorous, Phragmites outcompetes native vegetation and lowers the local plant biodiversity. Phragmites forms dense thickets of vegetation that is unsuitable habitat for native fauna, Phragmites displaces native plants species such as wild rice, cattails, and native wetland orchids. Phragmites has a high ground biomass that blocks light to other plants allowing areas to turn into Phragmites monoculture very quickly. Decomposing Phragmites increases the rate of marsh accretion more rapidly than would occur with native marsh vegetation, australis is causing serious problems for many other North American hydrophyte wetland plants, including the native Phragmites australis subsp. Gallic acid released by Phragmites is degraded by ultraviolet light to produce acid, effectively hitting susceptible plants. Phragmites are so difficult to control one of the most effective methods of eradicating the plant is to burn it over 2-3 seasons. The roots grow so deep and strong that one burn is not enough, ongoing research suggests that goats could be effectively used to control the species. Phragmites australis, common reed, commonly forms extensive stands, which may be as much as 1 square kilometre or more in extent, where conditions are suitable it can also spread at 5 metres or more per year by horizontal runners, which put down roots at regular intervals. It can grow in damp ground, in standing water up to 1 metre or so deep, the erect stems grow to 2–6 metres tall, with the tallest plants growing in areas with hot summers and fertile growing conditions
32.
John Lindsay
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John Vliet Lindsay was an American politician, lawyer, and broadcaster who was a U. S. congressman, mayor of New York City, candidate for U. S. president, and regular guest host of Good Morning America. During his political career, he served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from January 1959 to December 1965 and he died from Parkinsons disease and pneumonia in Hilton Head Island, South Carolina on December 19,2000. Lindsay was born in New York City on West End Avenue, to George Nelson Lindsay and he grew up in an upper-middle-class family of English and Dutch descent. Lindsays paternal grandfather migrated to the United States in the 1880s from the Isle of Wight, Lindsays father was a successful lawyer and investment banker. Lindsay attended the Buckley School, St. Pauls School and Yale, with the outbreak of World War II, Lindsay completed his studies early and in 1943 joined the United States Navy as a gunnery officer. He obtained the rank of lieutenant, earning five battle stars through action in the invasion of Sicily, in 1949, he began his legal career at the law firm of Webster, Sheffield, Fleischmann, Hitchcock & Chrystie. Back in New York City, Lindsay met his wife, Mary Anne Harrison, at the wedding of Nancy Bush. A native of Richmond, Virginia and a resident of Greenwich, Connecticut, Harrison was a distant relative of William Henry Harrison and Benjamin Harrison. That same year Lindsay was admitted to the bar, and rose to become a partner in his law firm four years later. Like Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, who redecorated the White House, Mary Lindsay, an educator, renovated Gracie Mansion. She died of cancer at the age of seventy-seven, four years after the passing of her husband, Lindsay began gravitating toward politics as one of the founders of the Youth for Eisenhower club in 1951 and as president of the New York Young Republican club in 1952. He went on to join the United States Department of Justice in 1955 as executive assistant to Attorney General Herbert Brownell, There he worked on civil liberties cases as well as the 1957 Civil Rights Act. While in Congress, Lindsay established a voting record increasingly at odds with his party. He was a member of a group of liberal and moderate Republicans in the House who voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1965, Lindsay was elected Mayor of New York City as a Republican with the support of the Liberal Party of New York in a three-way race. He defeated Democratic mayoral candidate Abraham D. Beame, then City Comptroller, as well as National Review magazine founder William F. Buckley, the unofficial motto of the campaign, taken from a Murray Kempton column, was He is fresh and everyone else is tired. On his first day as mayor, January 1,1966, as New Yorkers endured the transit strike, Lindsay remarked, I still think its a fun city, and walked four miles from his hotel room to City Hall in a gesture to show it. Dick Schaap, then a columnist for the New York Herald Tribune, in the article, Schaap sardonically pointed out that it wasnt
33.
Jamaica Bay
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Jamaica Bay is located on the southern side of Long Island, in the U. S. state of New York, near the islands western end. The bay connects with Lower New York Bay to the west through Rockaway Inlet and is the westernmost of the lagoons on the south shore of Long Island. Politically, it is divided between the boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens in New York City, with a small part touching Nassau County, the bay contains numerous marshy islands. It was known as Grassy Bay as late as the 1940s, the y sound in English is spelled with a j in Dutch, the first Europeans to write about the area. This resulted in the eventual English pronunciation of Jamaica when read, the location of Jamaica Bay combined with the rich food resources found there make it a regionally important fish, wildlife, and plant habitat complex. This geographic location acts to concentrate marine and estuarine species migrating between the New York Bight portion of the North Atlantic, and the Hudson River and Raritan River estuary. Shorebirds, raptors, waterfowl, land birds, and various migratory insects are concentrated by the coastlines in both directions and these migratory species are further concentrated by the surrounding urban development into the remaining open space and open water of Jamaica Bay. Jamaica Bay and nearby Breezy Point support seasonal or year-round populations of over 330 species of special emphasis and listed species, incorporating 48 species of fish and 120 species of birds. Jamaica Bay is a saline to brackish, eutrophic estuary covering about 25,000 acres, with a depth of 13 feet, a semidiurnal tidal range averaging 4.9 ft. The bay itself has been disturbed by dredging, filling, and development, including the construction of John F. Kennedy International Airport and, earlier, the historic Floyd Bennett Field. About 49 square kilometres of the original 65 square kilometres of wetlands in the bay have been filled in, extensive areas of the bay have been dredged for navigation channels and to provide fill for the airports and other construction projects. The center of the bay is dominated by open water and extensive low-lying islands with areas of salt marsh, intertidal flats. The average mean low tide exposes 350 acres of mudflat,940 acres of low salt marsh dominated by low marsh cordgrass, the extensive intertidal areas are rich in food resources, including a variety of benthic invertebrates and macroalgae dominated by sea lettuce. These rich food resources attract a variety of fish, shorebirds, species introduced in the refuge to attract wildlife include autumn olive, Japanese black pine, and Japanese barberry. The salt marshes of Jamaica Bay offer prime habitat for migratory birds, most of the waters and marshes have been protected since 1972 as part of the Gateway National Recreation Area. The marshlands are also fast diminishing, as of Spring 2003, marshland is being lost at the rate of approximately 40 acres per year. The reasons for loss are still unclear, but one hypothesis is that the loss is the result of rising sea levels. To test this, in the hope of preventing further losses, opponents are concerned that the dredging may be harmful, perhaps leading to greater loss of marshland than the area saved
34.
Rats in New York City
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Rats in New York City are prevalent, as in many densely populated areas. For a long time, the number of rats in New York City was unknown. The citys rat population is dominated by the brown rat, the average adult body weight averages 350 grams in males and about 250 grams in females. Each litter has up to a dozen kittens, Rats can mate at the age of two or three months and produce a new litter every two months. New York City rats carry pathogens that can cause diarrhea, vomiting, the pathogens they carry include bacteria such as Clostridium difficile, Salmonella, E. coli, and Leptospira. Bartonella bacteria cause cat scratch disease, trench fever, and Carron disease and these bacteria may be spread through contact with rat feces, saliva, or urine. Rats can carry disease-causing viruses such as sapoviruses, cardioviruses, kobuviruses, parechoviruses, rotaviruses, hepaciviruses, Rats carry fleas that are vectors of diseases such as bubonic plague, typhus, and spotted fever. In addition, some people have a reaction to the presence of rodent feces, hair. Property owners that fail inspections receive a Commissioners Order and have five days to correct the problem, if after five days the property fails a second inspection, the owner receives a Notice of Violation and can be fined. The property owner is billed for any clean-up or extermination carried out by the Health Department, rarely seen in daylight, rats have been reported in New York City since early colonial days. As recently as 1944, two species were prevalent, the brown rat and the black rat. Over the next few decades, the more aggressive brown variety displaced the black rats, typically by attacking and killing them, by 2014, the citys rat population was dominated by the brown rat. The brown rat is 16 to 20 inches long and weighs 1 to 2 pounds and it is brown or gray in color, with a lighter-colored belly. It is nocturnal, and sleeps approximately 10 hours a day, Rats are elusive by nature, and public health officials have not developed any reliable way to estimate their numbers. However, a 2014 study by Jonathan Auerbach, reported in the Royal Statistical Societys Significance magazine, estimated that there were closer to 2 million rats in the city. In 2014, the television channel Animal Planet named New York City the Worst Rat City in the World, experts consider that the actual population varies, depending on climate, sanitation practices, efforts to control the population, and season. Rats only require an ounce of food and water a day to live, Rats primarily find food and shelter at human habitations and therefore interact with humans in various ways. In particular, the rats adapt to practices and habits among New Yorkers for disposing of food waste
35.
Animal sanctuary
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An animal sanctuary is a facility where animals are brought to live and be protected for the rest of their lives. Unlike animal shelters, sanctuaries do not seek to place animals with individuals or groups, the mission of sanctuaries is generally to be safe havens, where the animals receive the best care that the sanctuaries can provide. Animals are not bought, sold, or traded, nor are they used for animal testing, the resident animals are given the opportunity to behave as natural as possible in a protective environment. What distinguishes a sanctuary from other institutions is the philosophy that the residents come first, in a sanctuary, every action is scrutinized for any trace of human benefit at the expense of non-human residents. Sanctuaries act on behalf of the animals, and the work under the notion that all animals in the sanctuary. A sanctuary is not open to the public in the sense of a zoo, that is, a sanctuary tries not to allow any activity that would place the animals in an unduly stressful situation. One of the most important missions of sanctuaries, beyond caring for the animals, is educating the public, the ultimate goal of many sanctuaries is to change the way that humans think of, and treat, non-human animals
36.
Birdwatching
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Birdwatching, or birding, is a form of wildlife observation in which the observation of birds is a recreational activity. It can be done with the eye, through a visual enhancement device like binoculars and telescopes, by listening for bird sounds. Birdwatching often involves a significant auditory component, as bird species are more easily detected and identified by ear than by eye. Most birdwatchers pursue this activity for recreational or social reasons, unlike ornithologists, the first recorded use of the term birdwatcher was in 1891, bird was introduced as a verb in 1918. The term birding was also used for the practice of fowling or hunting with firearms as in Shakespeares The Merry Wives of Windsor and her husband goes this morning a-birding. The terms birding and birdwatching are today used by some interchangeably, although some participants prefer birding, in North America, many birders differentiate themselves from birdwatchers, and the term birder is unfamiliar to most lay people. At the most basic level, the distinction is perceived as one of dedication or intensity, generally, self-described birders perceive themselves to be more versed in minutiae like identification, molt, distribution, migration timing, and habitat usage. Indeed, in 1969 a Birding Glossary appeared in Birding magazine which gave the following definitions, the acceptable term used to describe the person who seriously pursues the hobby of birding. A hobby in which individuals enjoy the challenge of bird study, listing, a rather ambiguous term used to describe the person who watches birds for any reason at all, and should not be used to refer to the serious birder. Twitching is a British term used to mean the pursuit of a previously located rare bird, in North America it is more often called chasing, though the British usage is starting to catch on there, especially among younger birders. The term twitcher, sometimes misapplied as a synonym for birder, is reserved for those who travel long distances to see a bird that would then be ticked. The term originated in the 1950s, when it was used for the behaviour of Howard Medhurst. Prior terms for those who chased rarities were pot-hunter, tally-hunter, the main goal of twitching is often to accumulate species on ones lists. Some birders engage in competition to accumulate the longest species list, the act of the pursuit itself is referred to as a twitch or a chase. A rare bird that stays put long enough for people to see it is twitchable or chaseable, twitching is highly developed in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, Finland and Sweden. The size of these makes it possible to travel throughout them quickly. The most popular twitches in the UK have drawn large crowds, for example, approximately 2,500 people travelled to Kent, England, to view a golden-winged warbler, twitchers have developed their own vocabulary. For example, a twitcher who fails to see a bird has dipped out, if other twitchers do see the bird
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Predatory birds
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Bird of prey or predatory bird, also known as raptors, refers to several species of birds that hunt and feed on rodents and other small animals. The term raptor is derived from the Latin word rapere, meaning to seize or take by force and these birds are characterized by keen vision that allows them to detect their prey during flight and powerful talons and beaks. Taken literally, the bird of prey has a wide meaning that includes many birds that hunt and feed on animals. In ornithology, the definition for bird of prey has a meaning, birds that have very good eyesight for finding food, strong feet for holding food. Most birds of prey also have strong curved talons for catching or killing prey, Birds of prey generally prey on vertebrates, which are usually quite large relative to the size of the bird. Most also eat carrion, at least occasionally, and vultures, the order Accipitriformes is believed to have originated 44 million years ago when it split from the common ancestor of the secretarybird and the accipitrid species. The phylogeny of Accipitriformes is complex and difficult to unravel, widespread paraphylies were observed in many phylogenetic studies. More recent and detailed studies show similar results, however, according to the findings of a 2014 study, the sister relationship between larger clades of Accipitriformes was well supported. The diurnal birds of prey are formally classified into five families of two orders, the Cathartidae are sometimes placed separately in an enlarged stork family, Ciconiiformes, and may be raised to an order of their own, Cathartiiformes. The secretary bird and/or osprey are sometimes listed as subfamilies of Acciptridae, Sagittariinae and Pandioninae, australias letter-winged kite is a member of the family Accipitridae, although it is a nocturnal bird. He placed all birds of prey into an order, Accipitres, subdividing this into four genera, Vultur, Falco, Strix. This approach was followed by subsequent authors such as Gmelin, Latham, louis Pierre Veillot used additional ranks, order, tribe, family, genus, species. Birds of prey were divided into diurnal and nocturnal tribes, the owls remained monogeneric, thus Veillots families were similar to the Linnaean genera, with the difference that shrikes were no longer included amongst the birds of prey. In addition to the original Vultur and Falco, Veillot adopted four genera from Savigny, Phene, Haliæetus, Pandion and he also introduced five new genera of vultures and eleven new genera of accipitrines. The common names for birds of prey are based on structure. Eagles tend to be large birds with long, broad wings, booted eagles have legs and feet feathered to the toes and build very large stick nests. Ospreys, a species found worldwide that specializes in catching fish. Kites have long wings and relatively weak legs and they spend much of their time soaring
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Environmental disaster
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An environmental disaster is a disaster to the natural environment due to human activity, which distinguishes it from the concept of a natural disaster. It is also distinct from intentional acts of war such as nuclear bombings, in this case, the impact of humans alteration of the ecosystem has led to widespread and/or long-lasting consequences. It can include the deaths of animals and plants, or severe disruption of human life, Environmental disasters can have an effect on agriculture, biodiversity, the economy and human health. The causes include pollution, depletion of resources, custom industrial activity or agriculture. Seveso disaster,1976 - Release of dioxin, amoco Cadiz oil spill,1978 - the vessel broke in two, releasing its entire cargo of 1.6 million barrels of oil. As of 2006, mine operators have discharged about two tons of tailings, overburden and mine-induced erosion into the Ok Tedi river system. About 1,588 square kilometres of forest has died or is under stress, bhopal disaster,1984 - Release of methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals Some estimate 8,000 people died within two weeks. A government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478 temporary partial, chernobyl disaster,1986 - The official Soviet count of 31 deaths has been disputed. An UNSCEAR report places the total confirmed deaths from radiation at 64 as of 2008, the eventual death toll could reach 4,000. Some 50 emergency workers died of acute radiation syndrome, nine died of thyroid cancer. Radioactive waste was released into the air and flowed into the Columbia River. Exxon Valdez oil spill,1989 - spilled 260–750 thousand barrels of crude oil, prestige oil spill,2002 - spilled over 20 million US gallons of two different grades of heavy fuel oil. Prudhoe Bay oil spill,2006 - spilled up to 267,000 US gallons, volume spilled was over 7 times as much as the volume of oil spilled in the Deepwater Horizon disaster. Deepwater Horizon oil spill,2010 - An explosion killed 11 men working on the platform, the gushing wellhead was capped, after it had released about 4.9 million barrels of crude oil. A2013 report examined the relationship between disasters and poverty, list of environmental issues Environmental hazard Emergency management Environmental emergency Ecocide Malthusian catastrophe Davis, Lee. New York, Facts On File, Inc
39.
Biomedical waste
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Biomedical waste is any kind of waste containing infectious materials. Biomedical waste is a type of biowaste, Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Waste sharps include potentially contaminated used needles, scalpels, lancets, Biomedical waste is generated from biological and medical sources and activities, such as the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. In healthcare facilities, waste with these characteristics may alternatively be called medical or clinical waste, Biomedical waste is distinct from normal trash or general waste, and differs from other types of hazardous waste, such as chemical, radioactive, universal or industrial waste. Medical facilities generate waste hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials, while such wastes are normally not infectious, they require proper disposal. Some wastes are considered multihazardous, such as tissue samples preserved in formalin, disposal of this waste is an environmental concern, as many medical wastes are classified as infectious or biohazardous and could potentially lead to the spread of infectious disease. The most common danger for humans is the infection also affects other living organisms in the region. Daily exposure to the leads to accumulation of harmful substances or microbes in the persons body. A1990 report by the U. S, agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry concluded that the general public is not likely to be adversely affected by biomedical waste generated in the traditional healthcare setting. Steps in the management of biomedical waste include generation, accumulation, handling, storage, treatment, transport, disposal occurs off-site, at a location that is different from the site of generation. Treatment may occur on-site or off-site, Biomedical waste should be collected in containers that are leak-proof and sufficiently strong to prevent breakage during handling. Containers of biomedical waste are marked with a biohazard symbol, the container, marking, and labels are often red. Discarded sharps are usually collected in specialized boxes, often called needle boxes, specialized equipment is required to meet OSHA29 CFR1910.1450 and EPA40 CFR264.173. Minimal recommended equipment include a hood and primary and secondary waste containers to capture potential overflow. Even beneath the hood, containers containing chemical contaminants should remain closed when not in use. S. should be utilized in any department which deals with chemical waste. It is to be dumped after treatment, handling refers to the act of manually moving biomedical waste between the point of generation, accumulation areas, storage locations and on-site treatment facilities. Workers who handle biomedical waste should observe standard precautions, the goals of biomedical waste treatment are to reduce or eliminate the wastes hazards, and usually to make the waste unrecognizable. Treatment should render the waste safe for subsequent handling and disposal, there are several treatment methods that can accomplish these goals
40.
Syringe
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A syringe is a simple reciprocating pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly within a cylindrical tube. The plunger can be pulled and pushed along the inside of the tube, allowing the syringe to take in. The open end of the syringe may be fitted with a hypodermic needle, syringes are frequently used in clinical medicine to administer injections, infuse intravenous drugs into the bloodstream, apply compounds such as glue or lubricant, and draw/measure liquids. The word syringe is derived from the Greek σύριγξ via back-formation of a new singular from its Greek-type plural syringes, sectors in the syringe and needle market include disposable and safety syringes, injection pens, needleless injectors, insulin pumps, and specialty needles. Hypodermic syringes are used with hypodermic needles to inject liquid or gases into body tissues, the barrel of a syringe is made of plastic or glass, usually has graduated marks indicating the volume of fluid in the syringe, and is nearly always transparent. Glass syringes may be sterilized in an autoclave, reuse of needles and syringes has caused spread of diseases, especially HIV and hepatitis, among intravenous drug users. Syringes are, however, commonly reused by diabetics, and this is if the syringe is only used by one person. In medical settings, single-use needles and syringes effectively reduce the risk of cross-contamination, syringes come with a number of designs for the area in which the blade locks to the syringe body. Perhaps the most well known of these is the Luer lock, bodies featuring a small, plain connection are known as slip tips and are useful for when the syringe is being connected to something not featuring a screw lock mechanism. Similar to this is the tip, which is essentially a slip tip but longer and tapered. These can also be used for rinsing out wounds or large abscesses in veterinary use, there is also an eccentric tip, where the nozzle at the end of the syringe is not in the centre of the syringe but at the side. This causes the blade attached to the syringe to lie almost in line with the walls of the syringe itself, syringes for insulin users are designed for standard U-100 insulin. The dilution of insulin is such that 1 mL of insulin fluid has 100 standard units of insulin, since insulin vials are typically 10 mL, each vial has 1000 units. Low dead space to reduce complications caused by improper drawing order of different insulin strengths, there are needle syringes designed to reload from a built-in tank after each injection, so they can make several or many injections on a filling. These are not used much in human medicine because of the risk of cross-infection via the needle, an exception is the personal insulin autoinjector used by diabetic patients. Venom extraction syringes are different from standard syringes, because they usually do not puncture the wound. The most common types have a nozzle which is placed over the affected area. Attempts to treat snakebites in this way are specifically advised against, as they are ineffective, syringes of this type are sometimes used for extracting human botfly larvae from the skin
41.
Jersey Shore
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The Jersey Shore is the coastal region of the state of New Jersey. Geographically, the term encompasses about 141 miles of oceanfront from Perth Amboy in the north to Cape May Point in the south, the Jersey Shore area includes Middlesex, Monmouth, Atlantic County, Cape May, and Ocean counties. Many New Jersey residents refer to it as The Shore, a common phrase within New Jersey is to go down the shore, or to have done something down the shore. Certain communities are popular with visitors from the nearby Canadian provinces of Quebec. The Jersey Shore is lined with over 40 communities, each with a different character, some cater to summer tourists and visitors, others are completely full-year residential communities, others still are a mix of both. Below are some of the most notable shore points, the two towns that make up The Amboys are Perth Amboy and South Amboy. Perth Amboys history dates back to 1651 when August Herman bought a point of land from the Lenni Lenape Native Americans, the land, which was called Ompoge by the Indians, gradually changed its name to Emboyle, then Amboyle. When the city was incorporated in 1683, settlers began to call the land Ambo or Amboy Point, the name means place resembling a bowl. In 1686, when the settlement became the capital of East Jersey, Perth was added to the name in honor of one of the Proprietors under the Royal grant, the James Drummond, 1st Duke of Perth. Keansburg is one of the most tourism-oriented towns along the Raritan Bayshore region, Keansburg is home to the Keansburg Amusement Park, Keansburg is also home to a small boardwalk that runs along the Raritan Bay, sometimes offering views of the New York City skyline. Many boaters utilize Keyports marinas that give access to fishing, crabbing. The New York City skyline can be seen from the boroughs ridges, pleasure, fishing and commuter boats sail from its harbor. The municipal harbor was built from 1938 through 1940 with municipal, state and it is the largest on the East Coast, home to 715 craft, including high-speed ferry service to New York City, which was introduced in 1986. In 1966, the Central Railroad of New Jersey pier was destroyed by fire and its rail route is now used by the Henry Hudson Trail. Sandy Hook is a long, narrow peninsula managed by the National Park Service as the a unit of the Gateway National Recreation Area, the eastern shoreline consists of various public and fishing beaches, including North Beach and Gunnison Beach. The peninsulas ocean-facing beaches are considered among the finest in New Jersey and are a destination for recreation in summer when seasonal ferries bring beachgoers. Gunnison Beach is one of the largest clothing optional beaches on the East Coast, the northern end of the island is home to the Sandy Hook Lighthouse, the Marine Academy of Science and Technology, and restored buildings of the former Fort Hancock Coast Guard Station. Spread across the peninsula are former military installations, including four ammunitions bunkers, Red Bank, overlooking the Navesink River, is a noted social and commercial destination, filled with boutiques, designer clothing and home stores, parks, and restaurants
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Long Island
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Long Island is an island located just off the northeast coast of the United States and a region within the U. S. state of New York. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, more generally, Long Island may also refer collectively both to the main Island as well as its nearby, surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is the Long Island Sound, across from which lie the states of Connecticut, across the Sound, to the northwest, lies Westchester County on mainland New York. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from the New York City borough of Staten Island and the U. S. state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, to the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands. Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile, Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse. Some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere are located on Long Island, nine bridges and 13 tunnels connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut, the Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24/7. At the time of European contact, the Lenape people inhabited the western end of Long Island, giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor, adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands. Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka, sewan was one of the terms for wampum, and is also translated as loose or scattered, which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, later, the English referred to the land as Nassau Island, after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. It is unclear when the name Nassau Island was discontinued, the very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island, the first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21,1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first and he is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year, Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, and Brookhaven in 1655. While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645 and these included, Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick
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Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
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Todt Hill
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Todt Hill is a 401-foot-tall hill formed of serpentine rock on Staten Island, New York. It is the highest natural point in the five boroughs of New York City, the summit of the ridge is largely covered in woodlands as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt, although much of the surrounding area is developed and residential. It is considered one of the most exclusive and most expensive areas of Staten Island. The name Todt comes from the Dutch language word for dead, an alternate explanation is that the name was given by early Dutch settlers because of treeless rocky exposures on the hilltop. At the beginning of the 20th century, many designed by the architect Ernest Flagg were built in the area. A significant part of Todt Hill is now included in the Staten Island Greenbelt, two small, natural ponds are found on Todt Hill, and a Roman Catholic priory is located near the summit. Staten Island Academy, a school, moved its campus to Todt Hill in the 1960s. There is a golf course adjoining the Moravian Cemetery, each of which has a man-made pond, otherwise the hill is either parkland or private homes. There is no public transit available on Todt Hill, and most of the streets, including Todt Hill Road, Todt Hill consists of the two census tracts 177 and 181. According to the 2010 census, the demographics of Todt Hill were 80% non Hispanic White, 1% Black, 11% Asian, hispanics of any race made up 7% of the population. The median household income of the area is roughly $120,000, Todt Hill is one of Staten Islands most affluent areas. As of 2011, the population of the district is about 11,000 inhabitants, the population density was approximately 1,400 people per square kilometer. The late Gambino crime family boss Paul Castellano lived there, in a noted for its intended resemblance to the White House. His family continued to live on Todt Hill after his death, mob Wives reality television star, Drita D’avanzo, grew up in the Todt Hill Houses. Former New York Mets relief pitcher John Franco currently lives on the hill, the Corleone family compound from The Godfather was filmed on Todt Hill. Frank Matthews, a drug kingpin in the 1970s, lived on Todt Hill. As of December 2014, bus routes S74, S76, S84, S86, the Encyclopedia of New York City, New Haven, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-11465-2
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Mount Desert Island
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Mount Desert Island, in Hancock County, Maine, is the largest island off the coast of Maine. With an area of 108 square miles it is the 6th largest island in the contiguous United States and it is the second-largest island on the Eastern seaboard, behind Long Island and ahead of Marthas Vineyard. According to the 2010 census, the island has a population of 10,615. The island is home to numerous summer colonies such as Northeast Harbor. Current notable summer residents include George Mitchell, Tim Robbins, David Rockefeller, Susan Sarandon, some natives stress the second syllable, in the French fashion, although many others pronounce it in a fashion similar to the English name of a landscape devoid of vegetation. Deep shell heaps indicate American Indian encampments dating back 6,000 years in Acadia National Park, the Wabanaki Indians knew Mount Desert Island as Pemetic, the sloping land. They built bark-covered conical shelters, and traveled in exquisitely designed birch bark canoes, historical notes record that the Wabanaki wintered in interior forests and spent their summers near the coast. Archeological evidence suggests the opposite pattern, in order to avoid harsh inland winters and to take advantage of salmon runs upstream, American Indians wintered on the coast, the first meeting between the people of Pemetic and the Europeans is a matter of conjecture. But it was a Frenchman, Samuel de Champlain, who made the first important contribution to the record of Mount Desert Island. Champlain led an expedition from the St. Croix Settlement and he was tasked with exploring the coast in a patache with twelve sailors and two American Indian guides. They were in search of a walled and wealthy American Indian city named Norumbega. On September 6,1604 the expedition crossed Frenchman Bay and sailed towards Otter Creek, during high tide the ship hit a ledge off Otter Cliff and while repairing a hole two American Indians boarded the ship as guides. Je l’ay nommée l’Isle des Monts-déserts, which translates to The mountain summits are all bare, I name it Isles des Monts Desert. In 1613, French Jesuits, welcomed by Indians, established the first French mission in America—Saint Sauveur Mission—on what is now Fernald Point, Saint Sauveur Mountain, overlooking the point, still bears the name of the mission. The French missionaries began to build a fort, plant their corn, two months later, on 2 July 1613, Captain Samuel Argall of the Colony of Virginia arrived on board the Treasurer and destroyed their mission. Three of the missionaries were killed and three were wounded, the rest of the company, some twenty in all, were taken prisoner. Argall took many of the prisoners to Jamestown and he eventually returned to Saint-Sauveur and cut down the cross the Jesuits had planted, replacing it with a Protestant version. He then set fire to the few buildings that were there and he then went on to burn the remaining French buildings on Saint Croix Island and Port Royal, Nova Scotia
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Rudy Giuliani
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Rudolph William Louis Rudy Giuliani is an American lawyer, businessman, public speaker, former mayor of New York City, and an informal adviser on cybersecurity to the White House. Politically a Democrat, then an Independent in the 1970s, Giuliani prosecuted pivotal cases against the American Mafia, and against corrupt corporate financiers. Within several years, Giuliani was widely credited for major improvements in the quality of life. While still Mayor, Giuliani ran for the U. S. Senate in 2000, however, in 2002, Giuliani founded Giuliani Partners, acquired and later sold Giuliani Capital Advisors, and joined a Texas firm while opening a Manhattan office for the firm renamed Bracewell & Giuliani. Giuliani was considered a candidate for New York Governor in 2010. Giuliani declined all races, and instead remained in the business sector, on January 12,2017, then President-elect Trump named Giuliani his informal cybersecurity adviser. He was raised a Roman Catholic, Harold Giuliani, a plumber and a bartender, had trouble holding a job, and was convicted of felony assault and robbery, serving time in Sing Sing. After his release he worked as an enforcer for his brother-in-law Leo DAvanzo, the family lived in East Flatbush, Brooklyn until Harold died of prostate cancer in 1981, after which time Helen moved to Manhattans Upper East Side. Helen was featured in a commercial to promote her son in the 1993 Mayoral Election. In 1951, when Giuliani was seven, his family moved from Brooklyn to Garden City South, later, he commuted back to Brooklyn to attend Bishop Loughlin Memorial High School, graduating in 1961 with an 85 percent average. Giuliani attended Manhattan College in Riverdale, Bronx, where he majored in science with a minor in philosophy. There he considered becoming a priest, Giuliani was elected president of his class in his sophomore year, but was not re-elected in his junior year. He joined the Phi Rho Pi fraternity, Giuliani started his political life as a Democrat. He volunteered for Robert F. Kennedys presidential campaign in 1968 and he also worked as a Democratic Party committeeman on Long Island in the mid-1960s, and voted for George McGovern for president in 1972. Upon graduation, Giuliani clerked for Judge Lloyd Francis MacMahon, United States District Judge for the Southern District of New York, Giuliani did not serve in the military during the Vietnam War. His conscription was deferred while he was enrolled at Manhattan College, upon graduation from the latter in 1968, he was classified by the Selective Service System as 1-A, available for military service. He applied for a deferment but was rejected, in 1970, Giuliani received a high draft lottery number, he was not called up for service although by then he had been reclassified 1-A. In 1970, Giuliani joined the United States Attorneys Office for the Southern District of New York, in 1973, he was named Chief of the Narcotics Unit and became executive U. S. attorney
