1.
Point Arena Light
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Point Arena Light is a lighthouse in Mendocino County, California, United States, two miles north of Point Arena, California. It is located approximately 130 miles north of San Francisco in the Fort Point Group of lighthouses, the lighthouse features a small museum and giftshop. Guided tours of the station as well as self-guided tours of the grounds are available daily. The first European to record Point Arena was Spaniard Bartolomé Ferrer in 1543, later the point, and the small harbor town south of it, were called Barra de Arena and finally Point Arena. Point Arena is a peninsula jutting around 1/2 mile into the Pacific Ocean. This sandbar creates a hazard to navigation, and hence the need for a lighthouse. The lighthouse at this site was constructed in 1870, the brick-and-mortar tower included ornate iron balcony supports and a large keeper residence with enough space to house several families. In April 1906, a earthquake struck the light station. The keepers residence and lighthouse were damaged so severely they had to be demolished, the United States Lighthouse Service contracted with a San Francisco based company to build a new lighthouse on the site, and specified that it had to be able to withstand any future earthquakes. The company chosen, normally built factory smokestacks, which accounts for the design for the new Point Arena Lighthouse. This was the first lighthouse built this way, the new lighthouse began operation in 1908, nearly 18 months after the quake. It stands 115 feet tall, and featured a 1st Order Fresnel Lens, over six feet in diameter, the lens was made up of 666 hand-ground glass prisms all focused toward three sets of double bullseyes. It was these bullseyes that gave the Point Arena Lighthouse its unique light signature of two every six seconds. This incredible optic, that held a value of over $3.5 million, was set in solid brass framework. Prior to the introduction of electricity, the lens was rotated by a clockwork mechanism, the Keepers, or wickies as they were called, had to hand crank a 160-pound weight up the center shaft of the lighthouse every 75 minutes to keep the lens turning. Light was produced by a Funks hydraulic oil lamp, that needed to be refueled every four hours, later, two 1,000 watt electric lamps were installed to replace the oil lamp, and a 1⁄8 horsepower electric motor was installed to replace the clockworks. In 1978, the fog signal at the station was silenced. June 1977 brought the installation of an automated beacon on the balcony tower
2.
Mendocino County, California
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Mendocino County is a county located on the north coast of the U. S. state of California. As of the 2010 census, the population was 87,841, Mendocino County comprises the Ukiah, CA Micropolitan Statistical Area. It is located north of the San Francisco Bay Area and west of the Central Valley, the county is noted for its distinctive Pacific Ocean coastline, Redwood forests, wine production, microbrews, and liberal views about the use of cannabis and support for its legalization. It is estimated that roughly one-third of the economy is based on the cultivation of marijuana, the notable historic and recreational attraction of the Skunk Train connects Fort Bragg with Willits in Mendocino County via a steam-locomotive engine, along with other vehicles. Mendocino County was one of the counties of California, created in 1850 at the time of statehood. Due to an initially minor white American population, it did not have a government until 1859 and was under the administration of Sonoma County prior to that. Some of the land was given to Sonoma County between 1850 and 1860. Mendocino is the form of the family name of Mendoza. Establishment of the Round Valley Indian Reservation in March 30,1870, many of these tribes thrown together were not friends with the other tribes they were forced to live with on the reservation, resulting in tensions still evident today. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 3,878 square miles. The 2010 United States Census reported that Mendocino County had a population of 87,841. The racial makeup of Mendocino County was 67,218 White,622 African American,4,277 Native American,1,450 Asian,119 Pacific Islander,10,185 from other races, Hispanic or Latino of any race were 19,505 persons. As of the census of 2000, there were 86,265 people,33,266 households, the population density was 25 people per square mile. There were 36,937 housing units at a density of 10 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 80. 8% White,0. 6% Black or African American,4. 8% Native American,1. 2% Asian,0. 2% Pacific Islander,8. 6% from other races, and 3. 9% from two or more races. 16. 5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,12. 2% were of German,10. 8% English,8. 6% Irish,6. 1% Italian and 5. 6% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 84. 4% spoke English and 13. 2% Spanish as their first language,27. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the family size was 3.04
3.
Lens (optics)
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A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses. Lenses are made from such as glass or plastic, and are ground. A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible light are also called lenses, such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses, or explosive lenses. The word lens comes from the Latin name of the lentil, the genus of the lentil plant is Lens, and the most commonly eaten species is Lens culinaris. The lentil plant also gives its name to a geometric figure, the variant spelling lense is sometimes seen. While it is listed as a spelling in some dictionaries. The oldest lens artifact is the Nimrud lens, dating back 2700 years to ancient Assyria, david Brewster proposed that it may have been used as a magnifying glass, or as a burning-glass to start fires by concentrating sunlight. Another early reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 8th century BC, the earliest written records of lenses date to Ancient Greece, with Aristophanes play The Clouds mentioning a burning-glass. Some scholars argue that the evidence indicates that there was widespread use of lenses in antiquity. Such lenses were used by artisans for fine work, and for authenticating seal impressions, both Pliny and Seneca the Younger described the magnifying effect of a glass globe filled with water. The Viking lenses were capable of concentrating enough sunlight to ignite fires, between the 11th and 13th century reading stones were invented. Often used by monks to assist in illuminating manuscripts, these were primitive plano-convex lenses initially made by cutting a sphere in half. As the stones were experimented with, it was understood that shallower lenses magnified more effectively. Lenses came into use in Europe with the invention of spectacles. Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses. With the invention of the telescope and microscope there was a deal of experimentation with lens shapes in the 17th. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature, wrongly assuming errors arose from defects in the figure of their surfaces
4.
Augustin-Jean Fresnel
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Augustin-Jean Fresnel, was a French engineer and physicist who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally and he is perhaps best known as the inventor of the Fresnel lens, first adopted in lighthouses while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today. His Fresnel equations on waves and reflectivity also form the basis for many applications in computer graphics today — for instance, Fresnel was the son of an architect, born at Broglie. His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when he was eight years old, at thirteen he entered the École Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half the École Polytechnique, where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the École des Ponts et Chaussées and he received only scant public recognition during his lifetime for his labours in the cause of optical science. Some of his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences until many years after his death, but as he wrote to Young in 1824, in himself that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory had been blunted. Fresnel has been described as a man with interest in religious questions, as a form of consolation, he took religion very seriously especially during his illness. He spent much of his life in Paris, and died of tuberculosis at Ville-dAvray and his is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. The writer Prosper Mérimée was his first cousin and he served as an engineer successively in the departments of Vendée, Drôme and Ille-et-Vilaine, but having supported the Bourbons in 1814 he lost his appointment on Napoleons return to power. He appears to have begun his research in optics around 1814, in 1815, on the second restoration of the monarchy, he obtained a post as engineer in Paris. In 1818 he wrote a memoir on diffraction, for which he received the prize of the Académie des Sciences at Paris the following year and he was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a Fresnel lens, as a substitute for mirrors in lighthouses. In 1819, he was nominated to be a commissioner of lighthouses, in 1823 he was unanimously elected a member of the academy. In 1825 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, in 1827, the time of his last illness, the Royal Society of London awarded him the Rumford Medal. In 1818 he published his Memoir on the Diffraction of Light, in 1817, Young had proposed a small transverse component to light, while yet retaining a far larger longitudinal component. Fresnel, by the year 1821, was able to show by mathematical methods that polarization could be explained if light was entirely transverse. He proposed the aether drag hypothesis to explain a lack of variation in astronomical observations. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with other a angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi on interference. This allowed him to account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory
5.
Lighthouse
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Lighthouses mark dangerous coastlines, hazardous shoals, reefs, and safe entries to harbors, and can assist in aerial navigation. Once widely used, the number of operational lighthouses has declined due to the expense of maintenance, before the development of clearly defined ports, mariners were guided by fires built on hilltops. Since raising the fire would improve the visibility, placing the fire on a platform became a practice that led to the development of the lighthouse. In antiquity, the lighthouse functioned more as a marker to ports than as a warning signal for reefs and promontories. The most famous lighthouse structure from antiquity was the Pharos of Alexandria, coins from Alexandria, Ostia, and Laodicea in Syria also exist. The modern era of lighthouses began at the turn of the 18th century, advances in structural engineering and new and efficient lighting equipment allowed for the creation of larger and more powerful lighthouses, including ones exposed to the sea. The function of lighthouses shifted toward the provision of a warning against shipping hazards. The Eddystone Rocks were a major hazard for mariners sailing through the English Channel. The first lighthouse built there was a wooden structure, anchored by 12 iron stanchions secured in the rock. His lighthouse was the first tower in the world to have been exposed to the open sea. The civil engineer, John Smeaton, rebuilt the lighthouse from 1756–59, his tower marked a step forward in the design of lighthouses. He modelled the shape of his lighthouse on that of an oak tree and he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime, a form of concrete that will set under water, and developed a technique of securing the granite blocks together using dovetail joints and marble dowels. This profile had the advantage of allowing some of the energy of the waves to dissipate on impact with the walls. His lighthouse was the prototype for the lighthouse and influenced all subsequent engineers. One such influence was Robert Stevenson, himself a figure in the development of lighthouse design. His greatest achievement was the construction of the Bell Rock Lighthouse in 1810 and this structure was based upon Smeatons design, but with several improved features, such as the incorporation of rotating lights, alternating between red and white. Stevenson worked for the Northern Lighthouse Board for nearly fifty years during which time he designed and oversaw the construction and he also invented the movable jib and the balance crane as a necessary part for lighthouse construction. Alexander Mitchell designed the first screw-pile lighthouse – his lighthouse was built on piles that were screwed into the sandy or muddy seabed, construction of his design began in 1838 at the mouth of the Thames and was known as the Maplin Sands lighthouse, and first lit in 1841
6.
Aperture
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In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the aperture and focal length of a system determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that come to a focus in the image plane. The aperture determines how collimated the admitted rays are, which is of importance for the appearance at the image plane. If an aperture is narrow, then highly collimated rays are admitted, a wide aperture admits uncollimated rays, resulting in a sharp focus only for rays coming from a certain distance. This means that a wide aperture results in an image that is sharp for things at the correct distance, the aperture also determines how many of the incoming rays are actually admitted and thus how much light reaches the image plane. In the human eye, the pupil is the aperture, an optical system typically has many openings or structures that limit the ray bundles. In general, these structures are called stops, and the stop is the stop that primarily determines the ray cone angle. In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, aperture refers to the diameter of the aperture stop rather than the stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope, the stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror. One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a large stop to be the aperture stop for the system. In astrophotography, the aperture may be given as a measure or as the dimensionless ratio between that measure and the focal length. In other photography, it is given as a ratio. Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the stop of the system. The word aperture is used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy, for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually corresponds to a window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is assumed. The aperture stop is an important element in most optical designs and its most obvious feature is that it limits the amount of light that can reach the image/film plane. This can be unavoidable, as in a telescope where one wants to collect as much light as possible, or deliberate
7.
Focal length
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The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimated rays are brought to a focus. A system with a focal length has greater optical power than one with a long focal length. For a thin lens in air, the length is the distance from the center of the lens to the principal foci of the lens. For a converging lens, the length is positive, and is the distance at which a beam of collimated light will be focused to a single spot. For a diverging lens, the length is negative, and is the distance to the point from which a collimated beam appears to be diverging after passing through the lens. The focal length of a lens can be easily measured by using it to form an image of a distant light source on a screen. The lens is moved until an image is formed on the screen. In this case 1/u is negligible, and the length is then given by f ≈ v. Back focal length or back focal distance is the distance from the vertex of the last optical surface of the system to the focal point. For an optical system in air, the focal length gives the distance from the front. If the surrounding medium is not air, then the distance is multiplied by the index of the medium. Some authors call these distances the front/rear focal lengths, distinguishing them from the front/rear focal distances, defined above. In general, the length or EFL is the value that describes the ability of the optical system to focus light. The other parameters are used in determining where an image will be formed for an object position. The quantity 1/f is also known as the power of the lens. The corresponding front focal distance is, FFD = f, in the sign convention used here, the value of R1 will be positive if the first lens surface is convex, and negative if it is concave. The value of R2 is negative if the surface is convex
8.
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
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Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon was a French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist, and encyclopédiste. His works influenced the two generations of naturalists, including Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Georges Cuvier. It has been said that Truly, Buffon was the father of all thought in natural history in the half of the 18th century. Buffon held the position of intendant at the Jardin du Roi, Georges was named after his mother’s uncle Georges Blaisot, the tax-farmer of the Duke of Savoy for all of Sicily. In 1714 Blaisot died childless, leaving a fortune to his seven-year-old godson. Benjamin Leclerc then purchased an estate containing the village of Buffon. Georges attended the Jesuit College of Godrans in Dijon from the age of ten onwards, from 1723–1726 he then studied law in Dijon, the prerequisite for continuing the family tradition in civil service. In 1728 Georges left Dijon to study mathematics and medicine at the University of Angers in France, in 1732 after the death of his mother and before the impending remarriage of his father, Georges left Kingston and returned to Dijon to secure his inheritance. Having added de Buffon to his name while traveling with the Duke, he repurchased the village of Buffon, with a fortune of about 80000 livres Buffon set himself up in Paris to pursue science, at first primarily mathematics and mechanics, and the increase of his fortune. In 1732 he moved to Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, in 1734 he was admitted to the French Academy of Sciences. During this period he corresponded with the Swiss mathematician Gabriel Cramer and his protector Maurepas had asked the Academy of Sciences to do research on wood for the construction of ships in 1733. Soon afterward, Buffon began a study, performing some of the most comprehensive tests to date on the mechanical properties of wood. Included were a series of tests to compare the properties of small specimens with those of large members, in 1739 he was appointed head of the Parisian Jardin du Roi with the help of Maurepas, he held this position to the end of his life. Buffon was instrumental in transforming the Jardin du Roi into a research center. He also enlarged it, arranging the purchase of adjoining plots of land, thanks to his talent as a writer, he was invited to join Pariss second great academy, the Académie française in 1753. In his Discours sur le style, pronounced before the Académie française, he said, Writing well consists of thinking, feeling and expressing well, of clarity of mind, soul, the style is the man himself. Unfortunately for him, Buffons reputation as a literary stylist also gave ammunition to his detractors, The mathematician Jean le Rond DAlembert, for example, called him the great phrase-monger. In 1752 Buffon married Marie-Françoise de Saint-Belin-Malain, the daughter of an noble family from Burgundy
9.
Marquis de Condorcet
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Unlike many of his contemporaries, he advocated a liberal economy, free and equal public instruction, constitutionalism, and equal rights for women and people of all races. His ideas and writings were said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment and rationalism and he died a mysterious death in prison after a period of flight from French Revolutionary authorities. Condorcet was born in Ribemont, and descended from the ancient family of Caritat, fatherless at a young age, he was raised by his devoutly religious mother. He was educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the Collège de Navarre in Paris, where he showed his intellectual ability. When he was sixteen, his analytical abilities gained the praise of Jean le Rond dAlembert and Alexis Clairaut, soon, from 1765 to 1774, he focused on science. In 1765, he published his first work on mathematics entitled Essai sur le calcul intégral and he would go on to publish more papers, and on 25 February 1769, he was elected to the Académie royale des Sciences. In 1772, he published another paper on integral calculus, soon after, he met Jacques Turgot, a French economist, and the two became friends. Turgot was to be an administrator under King Louis XV in 1772, Condorcet worked with Leonhard Euler and Benjamin Franklin. In 1774, Condorcet was appointed general of the Paris mint by Turgot. From this point on, Condorcet shifted his focus from the purely mathematical to philosophy, in the following years, he took up the defense of human rights in general, and of womens and Blacks rights in particular. He supported the ideals embodied by the newly formed United States, in 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Consequently, Condorcet submitted his resignation as Inspector General of the Monnaie, but the request was refused, Condorcet later wrote Vie de M. Turgot, a biography which spoke fondly of Turgot and advocated Turgots economic theories. In 1785, Condorcet wrote an essay on the application of analysis of the probability of decisions made on a majority vote, the paper also outlines a generic Condorcet method, designed to simulate pair-wise elections between all candidates in an election. He disagreed strongly with the method of aggregating preferences put forth by Jean-Charles de Borda. Condorcet was one of the first to apply mathematics in the social sciences. In 1781, Condorcet wrote a pamphlet, Reflections on Negro Slavery, in 1786, Condorcet worked on ideas for the differential and integral calculus, giving a new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which was never printed. In 1789, he published Vie de Voltaire, which agreed with Voltaire in his opposition to the Church, in 1791, Condorcet along with Sophie de Grouchy, Thomas Paine, Etienne Dumont, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, and Achilles Duchastellet published a brief journal titled Le Républicain. Its main goal being the promotion of republicanism and the rejection of establishing a constitutional monarchy, the theme being that any sort of monarchy is a threat to freedom no matter who is leading, which emphasized that liberty is freedom from domination
10.
Smithsonian (magazine)
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Smithsonian is the official journal published by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D. C. The first issue was published in 1970, Thompson would later recall that his philosophy for the new magazine was that it would stir curiosity in already receptive minds. It would deal with history as it is relevant to the present and it would present art, since true art is never dated, in the richest possible reproduction. It would peer into the future via coverage of social progress and of science, technical matters would be digested and made intelligible by skilled writers who would stimulate readers to reach upward while not turning them off with jargon. We would find the best writers and the best photographers—not unlike the best of the old Life, in 1973, the magazine turned a profit for the first time. By 1974, circulation had nearly quadrupled, to 635,000, in 1980, Thompson was replaced by Don Moser, who had also worked at Life, and circulation reached upwards of two million, in turn, by Carey Winfrey upon his retirement in 2001. Smithsonian magazine provides in-depth analysis of varied topics within a range of scientific areas. Every year since 2012, the Magazine has sponsored the American Ingenuity Awards, winners have included Elon Musk, Lin-Manuel Miranda, OK Go, Dave Eggers, Aziz Ansari, Rosanne Cash, Jeff Bezos, Fred Armisen, Bill Hader and David Lynch. Presenters have included Stephen Hawking, Stephen Colbert, David Byrne, Herbie Hancock, Erin Brockovich, Ruben Blades, Bill Nye, Art Spiegelman, the American Ingenuity Award itself was created by the artist Jeff Koons. Notable past and current contributors to Smithsonian have included, Official website
11.
Cordouan Lighthouse
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Cordouan lighthouse is an active lighthouse located 7 kilometres at sea, near the mouth of the Gironde estuary in France. At a height of 223 feet, it is the tenth-tallest traditional lighthouse in the world, the Tour de Cordouan, the Patriarch of Lighthouses, is by far the oldest lighthouse in France. It was designed by leading Paris architect Louis de Foix, and is something of a Renaissance masterpiece, started in 1584 and finished in 1611, it still stands today. Small beacon towers had existed on the islet since 880, but the first proper structure was implemented by Edward and it was 48 feet high, with a platform on top where a wood fire could be kept burning, and manned by a religious hermit. Passing ships paid two groats to pass - the first known instance of lighthouse dues, in addition to the tower, a small chapel was built on the islet. By the second half of the 16th century the tower had fallen into disrepair and this led to the construction of the current Tour de Cordouan. De Foix first built a round base 135 feet in diameter and 8 feet high to take the onslaught of the waves, within it was a 20-square-foot cavity for storing water and other supplies. Above it were constructed four storeys of diminishing size, the ground floor consisted of a circular tower 50 feet in diameter, with apartments for four keepers around its inner wall. In the centre was a decorated entrance hall 22 square feet and 20 feet high. The second storey was the Kings Apartment, consisting of a room, anteroom. The third storey was a chapel with a domed roof notable for the beauty of its mosaic, above this was secondary lantern, and above that the Lantern itself. This was 162 feet above the sea and visible 5–6 miles away, the first parabolic lamps were added in 1782, but the lighthouse was in very poor condition. Sailors also criticized the lack of height of the light, in 1790, after the lighthouse was raised 60 meters above the highest tides, Teulère devised the first turning lighting dish. It consisted of Argand lamps turned by a built by a watchmaker in Dieppe. The fuel was a mixture of whale, olive and rapeseed oil, the first Fresnel lens rotating system, the invention of Augustin-Jean Fresnel, was installed in Cordouan in 1823. Three concentric lamp wicks, supplied with rapeseed oil by means of a suction and it was restored in 1855 and made a historical monument in 1862, at the same time as Notre-Dame de Paris. The Fresnel lens was replaced by the present lens in 1854, the light was converted to petroleum gas in 1907 and to electricity in 1948, when a 6, 000W lamp was used. It was fully automated in 2006, although lighthousekeepers are still employed, the lamp was replaced by a 450W xenon lamp in 1984 but this was not successful and a halogen lamp was installed three years later
12.
Gironde estuary
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The Gironde is a navigable estuary, in southwest France and is formed from the meeting of the rivers Dordogne and Garonne just downstream of the centre of Bordeaux. Covering around 635 km2, it is the largest estuary in western Europe, the Gironde is approximately 80 km long and 3–11 km wide and the French département Gironde is named after it. The Gironde is subject to strong tidal currents and great care is needed when navigating the estuary by any size or type of boat. In December 1942, during the Second World War, Operation Frankton took place with the goal of destroying shipping moored at the docks in Bordeaux and these German blockade runners were causing havoc in the Western Approaches. The raid was carried out by a unit of Royal Marines known as the Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment, part of Combined Operations. Within the estuary between the Pointe de Grave at the end and the Bec dAmbès are a series of small islands. The Île de Patiras is 200 ha in size with a lighthouse to aid navigation in the estuary, vines and maize are grown there. The Île Sans-Pain and Île Bouchaud are now virtually joined due to silting and are referred to as the Ile Nouvelle. They total about 265 ha and are owned by the Conservatoire du Littoral, the Île Paté is about 13 ha and in 2006 was privately owned. The island has a fort built between 1685 and 1693 as part of the national fortification program masterminded by Vauban. The building is oval in shape, about 12 metres high and was equipped with about 30 cannon. Fort Paté, together with Fort Médoc and the ancient citadelle of Blaye, defended the estuary, during the French Revolution the fort was used as a prison for priests. In 2006, the Conseil General decided to make the island a ZPENS, ZPENS status protects the island from development. If the owner wishes to sell the then the Department has a pre-emptive right. After two months the Conservatoire National du Littoral has the next pre-emptive right and then after another 2 months the town of Blaye has a final right to acquire the island. The Île Verte, Île du Nord and Île Cazeau comprise about 800 ha, the Île Margaux is 25 ha and in 2005 had 14 ha devoted to vines and is part of the world famous Médoc wine region
13.
David Brewster
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Sir David Brewster KH PRSE FRS FSA FSSA MICE was a Scottish physicist, mathematician, astronomer, inventor, writer, historian of science and university principal. Most noted for his contributions to the field of optics, he studied the double refraction by compression and discovered the photoelastic effect, for his work, William Whewell dubbed him the Father of modern experimental optics and the Johannes Kepler of Optics. He is well-recognized for being the inventor of the kaleidoscope and a version of the stereoscope applied to photography. He called it the lenticular stereoscope, which was the first portable and he also invented the binocular camera, two types of polarimeters, the polyzonal lens and the lighthouse illuminator. A prominent figure in the popularization of science, he is considered one of the founders of the British Association, in addition, he became the public face of higher education in Scotland, acting as Principal of the University of St Andrews and then Edinburgh between 1837 and 1868. Brewster also edited the 18-volume Edinburgh Encyclopædia, David Brewster was born at the Canongate in Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, to Margaret Key and James Brewster, the rector of Jedburgh Grammar School and a teacher of high reputation. David was the third of six children, two daughters and four sons, James, minister at Craig, Ferryden, David, George, minister at Scoonie, Fife, and Patrick, minister at the abbey church, Paisley. At the age of 12, David was sent to the University of Edinburgh and he was licensed a minister of the Church of Scotland, but only preached from the pulpit on one occasion. Though Brewster duly finished his studies and was licensed to preach. In 1799 fellow-student Henry Brougham persuaded him to study the diffraction of light, the results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the Philosophical Transactions of London and other scientific journals. A lesser-known classmate of his, Thomas Dick, also went on to become a popular astronomical writer, as early as 1807 the degree of LL. D. In 1821, he was made a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. As a reflection of this fame, Brewster portrait was printed in some cigar boxes. Brewster chose renowned achromatic lens developer Philip Carpenter as the manufacturer of the kaleidoscope in 1817. Although Brewster patented the kaleidoscope in 1817, a copy of the prototype was shown to London opticians, as a consequence, the kaleidoscope became produced in large numbers, but yielded no direct financial benefits to Brewster. It proved to be a success with two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes sold in London and Paris in just three months. A much more valuable and practical result of Brewsters optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse system, although Brewsters own discoveries were important, they were not his only service to science. He began writing in 1799 as a contributor to the Edinburgh Magazine
14.
Collimated light
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Collimated light is light whose rays are parallel, and therefore will spread minimally as it propagates. A perfectly collimated beam, with no divergence, would not disperse with distance, such a beam cannot be created, due to diffraction. Light can be collimated by a number of processes, for instance by means of a collimator. Perfectly collimated light is said to be focused at infinity. Thus, as the distance from a point source increases, the spherical wavefronts become flatter and closer to plane waves, the word collimate comes from the Latin verb collimare, which originated in a misreading of collineare, to direct in a straight line. In practice, gas lasers can use concave mirrors, flat mirrors, the divergence of high-quality laser beams is commonly less than 1 milliradian, and can be much less for large-diameter beams. Laser diodes emit less-collimated light due to their short cavity, synchrotron light is very well collimated. It is produced by bending relativistic electrons around a circular track, when the electrons are at relativistic speeds, the resulting radiation is highly collimated, a result which does not occur at slower speeds. The light from stars can be considered collimated for almost any purpose, because they are so far away they have almost no angular size, light from the Sun is nearly collimated by the time it reaches Earth because of its distance from the Earth. A perfect parabolic mirror will bring parallel rays to a focus at a single point, conversely, a point source at the focus of a parabolic mirror will produce a beam of collimated light creating a Collimator. Since the source needs to be small, such a system cannot produce much optical power. Spherical mirrors are easier to make than parabolic mirrors and they are used to produce approximately collimated light. Many types of lenses can also produce collimated light from point-like sources and this principle is used in full flight simulators, that have specially designed systems for displaying imagery of the Out-The-Window scene to the pilots in the replica aircraft cabin. Collimation refers to all the elements in an instrument being on their designed optical axis. It also refers to the process of adjusting an optical instrument so that all its elements are on that designed axis. With regards to a telescope, the term refers to the fact that the axis of each optical component should be centered and parallel. Most amateur reflector telescopes need to be re-collimated every few years to maintain optimum performance, collimation can also be tested using a shearing interferometer, which is often used to test laser collimation. Decollimation is any mechanism or process which causes a beam with the minimum possible ray divergence to diverge or converge from parallelism, decollimation must be accounted for to fully treat many systems such as radio, radar, sonar, and optical communications
15.
Numerical control
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Computer numerical control is the automation of machine tools by means of computers executing pre-programmed sequences of machine control commands. This is in contrast to machines that are controlled by hand wheels or levers. In modern CNC systems, the design of a mechanical part, the parts mechanical dimensions are defined using computer-aided design software, and then translated into manufacturing directives by computer-aided manufacturing software. The resulting directives are transformed into the specific commands necessary for a machine to produce the component. Since any particular component might require the use of a number of different tools – drills, saws, in other installations, a number of different machines are used with an external controller and human or robotic operators that move the component from machine to machine. In either case, the series of steps needed to produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that closely matches the original CAD design. The first NC machines were built in the 1940s and 1950s and these early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers, creating the modern CNC machine tools that have revolutionized the machining processes. Motion is controlled along multiple axes, normally at least two, and a spindle that moves in the Z. The position of the tool is driven by direct-drive stepper motor or servo motors in order to provide highly accurate movements, or in older designs, open-loop control works as long as the forces are kept small enough and speeds are not too great. On commercial metalworking machines, closed loop controls are standard and required in order to provide the accuracy, speed, as the controller hardware evolved, the mills themselves also evolved. Most new CNC systems built today are 100% electronically controlled, cNC-like systems are now used for any process that can be described as a series of movements and operations. CNC mills use computer controls to cut different materials and they are able to translate programs consisting of specific numbers and letters to move the spindle to various locations and depths. Many use G-code, which is a programming language that many CNC machines understand. These proprietary languages, while often simpler than G-code, are not transferable to other machines, CNC mills have many functions including face milling, shoulder milling, tapping, drilling and some even offer turning. Standard linear CNC mills are limited to 3 axis, but others may also have one or more rotational axes, today, CNC mills can have 4 to 6 axes. Lathes are machines that cut workpieces while they are rotated, CNC lathes are able to make fast, precision cuts, generally using indexable tools and drills. They are particularly effective for complicated programs designed to make parts that would be infeasible to make on manual lathes, CNC lathes have similar control specifications to CNC mills and can often read G-code as well as the manufacturers proprietary programming language. CNC lathes generally have two axes, but newer models have more axes, allowing for more advanced jobs to be machined, plasma cutting involves cutting a material using a plasma torch
16.
Twin-lens reflex camera
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A twin-lens reflex camera is a type of camera with two objective lenses of the same focal length. One of the lenses is the objective or taking lens, while the other is used for the viewfinder system. In addition to the objective, the viewfinder consists of a 45-degree mirror, a focusing screen at the top of the camera. The two objectives are connected, so that the focus shown on the screen will be exactly the same as on the film. However, many inexpensive pseudo TLRs are fixed-focus models, most TLRs use leaf shutters with shutter speeds up to 1/500th sec with a B setting. For practical purposes, all TLRs are film cameras, most often using 120 film, although there are examples which used 620 film,127 film. No general-purpose digital TLR cameras exist, since the heyday of TLR cameras ended long before the era of digital cameras, in 2015, MiNT Camera released Instantflex TL70, a twin-lens reflex camera that uses Fuji instax mini film. This sort of approach was used as late as the 1960s. The TLR camera was thus an evolution, using a reflex mirror to allow viewing from above also enabled the camera to be held much more steadily than if it were to be held in the hand. When this process was automated, the movement of the mirror could cause shake in the camera, the London Stereoscopic Cos Carlton model is claimed to have been the first off-the-shelf TLR camera, dating from 1885. The major step forward to mass marketing of the TLR came with the Rolleicord and then Rolleiflex in 1929, the Rolleiflex was widely imitated and copied and most mass-market TLR cameras owe much to its design. TLRs are still manufactured in Germany by DHW Fototechnik, the successor of Franke & Heidecke in three versions, higher-end TLRs may have a pop-up magnifying glass to assist the user in focusing the camera. In addition, many have a sports finder consisting of a hole punched in the back of the pop-up hood. Photographers can sight through these instead of using the matte screen and this is especially useful in tracking moving subjects such as animals or race cars, since the image on the matte screen is reversed left-to-right. It is nearly impossible to accurately judge composition with such an arrangement, bayonet-mount TLRs, notably Rolleis & Yashicas, had both wide-angle and tele supplementary front add-ons, with Rolleis Zeiss Mutars being expensive but fairly sharp. The Mamiya TLRs also employ bellows focusing, making extreme closeups possible, many TLRs used front and back cut-outs in the hinged top hood to provide a quick-action finder for sports and action photography. Late model Rollei Rolleiflex TLRs introduced the widely copied additional feature of a sports finder. This permits precise focusing while using the sports finder feature, the magnified central image is reversed both top-to-bottom and left-to-right
17.
Single-lens reflex camera
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A single-lens reflex camera is a camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured. With twin lens reflex and rangefinder cameras, the image could be significantly different from the final image. When the shutter button is pressed on a mechanical SLR, the mirror out of the light path, allowing light to pass through to the light receptor. Prior to the development of SLR, all cameras with viewfinders had two light paths, one path through the lens to the film, and another path positioned above or to the side. Because the viewfinder and the lens cannot share the same optical path. This is not problematic for pictures taken at a middle or longer distance, moreover, focusing the lens of a fast reflex camera when it is opened to wider apertures is not easy. Most SLR cameras permit upright and laterally correct viewing through use of a roof pentaprism situated in the path between the reflex mirror and viewfinder. When the shutter is released, the mirror out of the light path. The Canon Pellix film camera was an exception to the mirror system. Focus can be adjusted manually by the photographer or automatically by an autofocus system, the viewfinder can include a matte focusing screen located just above the mirror system to diffuse the light. This permits accurate viewing, composing and focusing, especially useful with interchangeable lenses, nearly all inexpensive compact digital cameras now include an LCD preview screen allowing the photographer to see what the CCD is capturing. However, SLR is still popular in high-end and professional cameras because they are system cameras with interchangeable parts and they also have far less shutter lag, allowing photographs to be timed more precisely. Also the pixel resolution, contrast ratio, refresh rate, and color gamut of an LCD preview screen cannot compete with the clarity, large format SLR cameras were probably first marketed with the introduction of C. R. Smiths Monocular Duplex. SLRs for smaller exposure formats were launched in the 1920s by several camera makers, the first 35mm SLR available to the mass market, Leicas PLOOT reflex housing along with a 200mm f4.5 lens paired to a 35mm rangefinder camera body, debuted in 1935. The Soviet Спорт, also a 24mm by 36mm image size, was prototyped in 1934, K. Nüchterleins Kine Exakta was the first integrated 35mm SLR to enter the market. Additional Exakta models, all with waist-level finders, were produced up to, another ancestor of the modern SLR camera was the Swiss-made Alpa, which was innovative, and influenced the later Japanese cameras. The Duflex, which went into production in 1948, was also the worlds first SLR with an instant-return mirror. The first commercially produced SLR that employed a roof pentaprism was the Italian Rectaflex A, the Japanese adopted and further developed the SLR
18.
Total internal reflection
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Total internal reflection is the phenomenon which occurs when a propagated wave strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with respect to the normal to the surface. If the refractive index is lower on the side of the boundary and the incident angle is greater than the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the internal reflection occurs. This is particularly common as a phenomenon, where light waves are involved. When a wave reaches a boundary between different materials with different refractive indices, the wave will in general be partially refracted at the boundary surface, and partially reflected. This can only occur when the wave in a medium with a refractive index reaches a boundary with a medium of lower refractive index. For example, it will occur with light reaching air from glass, Total internal reflection of light can be demonstrated using a semi-circular block of glass or plastic. A ray box shines a beam of light onto the glass medium. At the glass/air boundary of the surface, what happens will depend on the angle. If θc is the angle, then the following scenarios depict what will happen according to the size of the incident angle. If θ ≤ θc, the ray will split, some of the ray will reflect off the boundary and this is not total internal reflection. If θ > θc, the ray reflects from the boundary. This is called total internal reflection and this physical property makes optical fibers useful and prismatic binoculars possible. It is also what gives diamonds their distinctive sparkle, as diamond has a high refractive index. The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90°, the angle of incidence is measured with respect to the normal at the refractive boundary. Consider a light ray passing from glass into air, the light emanating from the interface is bent towards the glass. When the incident angle is increased sufficiently, the transmitted angle reaches 90 degrees and it is at this point no light is transmitted into air. The critical angle θ c is given by Snells law, n 1 sin θ i = n 2 sin θ t, rearranging Snells Law, we get incidence sin θ i = n 2 n 1 sin θ t
19.
Cape Meares Light
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The Cape Meares Light is an inactive lighthouse on the coast of Oregon. It is located on Cape Meares just south of Tillamook Bay and it is open to the public. Built in 1890, Cape Meares Light served as the station for Tillamook Bay. When it was built, the complex included two keepers houses, two oil houses, and two cisterns, and was connected to the light by a 1, 000-foot boardwalk. Later additions included an attached workroom in 1895 and a garage in 1934, the light itself was iron-plated, and due to its exposure to the elements, it required frequent repainting over the years. No foghorn was installed at Cape Meares. In 1934, the light received electricity, now unnecessary, the oil houses were removed. In 1963, the lighthouse was deactivated and replaced by a newer tower, the following year, the Coast Guard made plans to demolish the light. However, due to public outcry, the plans fell through, the light remained vacant until 1968, when the site was turned over to the Oregon State Parks Department. During this time, vandalism became a problem for the light. Eventually, the vandalism took its toll on the keepers quarters, among the damage, four of the bulls-eyes in the Fresnel lens were stolen. That same year, the light was opened up to the public, since then, three of the four missing bulls-eyes have been recovered. The bull’s-eye of Cape Meares Light produced light visible for 21 miles, four sides of the 8-sided lens were covered with red glass, which produced an alternating red and white beam as the light turned. In 1980, the tower itself was opened to the public, the structure was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993. The U. S. Coast Guard permanently switched off Cape Meares Light on Wednesday, June 25,2014, between the afternoon of January 9 and noon on January 10,2010, an unknown vehicle reportedly drove down a blocked maintenance road to the lighthouse viewing area. A number of rounds were fired, breaking 15 of the lighthouses windows, additional rounds were fired into a nearby active Coast Guard light and surrounding equipment. While driving off the road the suspect vehicle also caused significant damage to a grassy area. Damages were initially estimated to be over $50,000, a park ranger stated that the lens was created in Paris in 1888 and had been shipped around the tip of South America to Oregon
20.
Hyperradiant Fresnel lens
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Hyper-radial or hyperradiant Fresnel lenses are Fresnel lenses used in lighthouses. They are larger than first order lenses, having a length of 1330 mm. The idea was mentioned by Thomas Stevenson in 1869 and first proposed by John Richardson Wigham in 1872, a quadriform system was used at Galley Head lighthouse, Co. Cork, which at over 1 million candlepower was the most powerful light in the world when installed in 1879. The hyper-radial lens was made in 1885, by the F. Barbier Company in Paris as a test lens for the lighthouse illumination trials then going on at the South Foreland Lighthouse in the UK, Chance Brothers Glass Company made their first hyper-radial lens in 1887 in the UK. These lenses were originally named biform, and later triform and quadriform lenses, Thomas Stevenson used the term hyperradiant lens, and later they were renamed the hyper-radial lens by James Kenward of the Chance Brothers Glass Company. The hyper-radial Fresnel lenses were the largest ever actually put into use and were installed in two dozen major landfall beacons around the world. By the 1920s, high-intensity lamp technology had rendered lenses of this size obsolete
21.
Makapuu Point Light
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The Makapuu Point Light on the island of Oahu has the largest lens of any lighthouse in the United States. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, before this light was constructed, the location was considered to be of vital importance to maritime commerce, and greatly in need of a navigational aid. Makapuu Point is the southeastern most point of Oahu and the landfall for all traffic from the American west coast to Honolulu. With the 1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii, which began definite steps towards annexation, shipping interests began to clamor for a lighthouse at the point, beginning with an 1888 petition. In 1890 Lorrin A. Thurston, minister of the interior for the kingdom, directed that inquiries be made with a British firm for a lens, in the interim, the size of the planned optic grew considerably. Thurstons original request was met with a specification for a third-order Fresnel lens, but as time passed plans were upgraded to use a second-order, at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the United States Lighthouse Board prominently displayed its state of the art wares and engineering achievements. Prominently featured was the marvel of Spectacle Reef Light and a 111-foot-tall skeletal cast iron lighthouse tower. Also displayed were a number of Fresnel lenses, including a stunning third-order Fresnel lens that had been awarded first prize at a Paris glass exhibition, the lens featured alternating red and white panels, and had been ordered for installation in the Point Loma lighthouse in California. The coincidental conclusion of construction of the new Chicago Harbor Light, the lens was installed in the lantern room of the new tower in Chicago, where it remained for nearly 100 years. Also displayed at the fair was a hyperradiant Fresnel lens — the largest size ever made and this lens was on hand when it was decided to build and outfit the Makapuu Point Light. Rather than order a new lens, the huge optic construction — twelve feet tall and with over a thousand prisms — would be used at the new Makapuu Point Light. Makapuu Point Light thereby became the only U. S. light with such a lens, and ever since its activation in 1909, it has had the distinction of having the largest lens in U. S. service. In addition to being the largest lens in the United States at the time of its construction, this was the second highest focal plane, after Cape Mendocino Light in California, which is at 422 feet. It is now the third highest light in the U. S. behind the 462-foot Old Point Loma lighthouse and it is still an active aid to navigation. Originally, the light was provided with an oil vapor lamp. To start the lamp, a supplementary alcohol burner was required, the first and second assistant keepers were changing watches in the wee hours of April 25 when the former suggested to the latter that the alcohol reservoir be filled. This was accomplished, but some of the alcohol spilled, the first assistant lit a match, triggering an explosion. The second assistant was standing in the doorway and escaped serious injury and his pregnant wife gave birth to a daughter shortly thereafter, and three months later she, too, died
22.
St. Simons Island Light
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The St. Simons Island Light is a lighthouse on the southern tip of St. Simons Island, Georgia, United States. It guides ships into St. Simons Sound and warns of the sandbars in the area. The original St. Simons Island lighthouse, which was built in 1810, was a 75-foot-tall early federal octagonal lighthouse topped by a 10-foot oil-burning lamp, during the American Civil War, U. S. military forces employed a Naval blockade of the coast. An invasion by Union troops in 1862 forced Confederate soldiers to abandon the area, the retreating troops destroyed the lighthouse to prevent it from being an aid to the navigation of Union warships. The U. S. government constructed a new lighthouse to replace the original and it is a 104-foot brick structure completed in 1872 and was outfitted with a third-order, biconvex Fresnel lens. The lens is one of 70 such lenses that remain operational in the United States, sixteen of those are in use on the Great Lakes, of which eight are in Michigan. The rotating lens projects four beams of light, with one flash every 60 seconds. A cast iron spiral stairway with 129 steps leads to the galley, in 1876, the lighthouse was overhauled. The Lighthouse is reputed to be haunted by the ghost of lightkeeper Frederick Osborne, one account had Osborne, apparently a chronic faultfinder, making an inappropriate remark to Stephenss wife, the other had Stephens making unwanted advances on Osbornes wife. At any rate, standing 98 feet apart, Osborne had a pistol, Stephen fatally wounded Osborne and was later acquitted of any charges. Stephens later reported hearing footsteps ascending and descending the tower steps, theres an account of keeper Svendsens family dog Jinx being constantly harassed by the ghost. Multiple witnesses have reporting hearing the sounds on the steps, including Coast Guardsmen while doing routine maintenance of the light mechanism, the belief is the fastidious Fred Osborne is coming back to check and make sure that the light is properly cared for. The Video was posted December 3,2013 and also indicates evidence about Lisa Register who allegedly committed suicide August 19,1999 by jumping from the top of the lighthouse. On July 1,1939, the United States Lighthouse Service was placed under the jurisdiction of the US Coast Guard, in 1953 the lighthouse was fully automated. Head Keepers, James Gould, Lachlan McIntosh, Alexander D. McIntosh, John F. Carmon, brunt, Frederick Osborne, George W. Ashbell, Isaac L. Peckham, Joseph Champagne, Carl O. Svendsen, Arthur F. Hodge, David O’Hagan. In 1972, the Coast Guard placed rear range lights on two towers at the entrance to the Frederica River off of St. Simons Sound. Entering the entrance channel at sea and proceeding inward, by keeping the lighthouse centered between the two range lights, keeps one in the center of the entrance channel. The lighthouse is still an active navigational aid
23.
Nobska Light
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It overlooks Marthas Vineyard and Nonamesset Island. The light station was established in 1826, with the tower protruding above the keepers house, the light station was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Nobska Point Light Station in 1987. Nobska Light is set at the southwestern tip of Cape Cod. The light station includes four buildings, the tower, the house, a radio beacon house. The tower has an interior and a metal exterior, formed out of four rings of iron paneling. The first three panels each have a sash window with an Italianate surround, while the fourth level sports four porthole windows. The tower is topped by a lantern house with an iron balcony. A wood frame entry vestibule with gable roof projects toward the keepers house, the oil house is a small brick structure with a gable roof, while the radio beacon house is a larger brick structure, also with a gable roof. The light station was established in 1828, with the original light mounted on top of the keepers house, in 1876 the present tower was built, along with one portion of the keepers house and the oil house. The keepers house was built in two stages, and was built to both a keeper and an assistant. It is a 1-1/2 story Cape style wood frame house, whose older section was built in 1876, a central single-story cross-gable wing extends toward the tower, with enclosed porches on either side. In 1937, a 125-foot steel radiobeacon tower was installed and the reed horn fog signal replaced with a diaphragm over the next decade, before Joseph Hindley retired, he may have been the last civilian light keeper in New England. In 1985 the lighthouse was automated and the last keeper retired and his house was converted into the residence for the Commanding Officer of United States Coast Guard Sector Southeastern New England. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1987, in 2012, the house was deemed in need of serious maintenance and was discontinued as a residence. Over the years, the following were the light keepers. Peter Daggett William Davis William Ferguson Jr. Frederick Ray Oliver A. Nickerson George I, the Town of Falmouths application was accepted by the Coast Guard in September 2015 and the parties entered into a licensing process that is anticipated to be completed early in 2016. The Friends of Nobska Light hope to offer tours of the keepers house by 2020. The tower may be open for tours in the summer of 2017, in the meantime, the site can be visited but not toured, a small parking lot is available
24.
Cylindrical lens
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A cylindrical lens is a lens which focuses light into a line instead of a point, as a spherical lens would. The lens compresses the image in the perpendicular to this line. In a light microscope, a cylindrical lens is placed in front of the illumination objective to create the light sheet used for imaging. Lenticular lens Jacobs, Donald H. Fundamentals of Optical Engineering
25.
Nonimaging optics
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Nonimaging optics is the branch of optics concerned with the optimal transfer of light radiation between a source and a target. These variables on the side of the optical system often must be optimized while simultaneously considering the collection efficiency of the optical system at the source. That, however, is noticeable when the optics are aiming perfectly towards the sun. Examples of nonimaging optical devices include optical light guides, nonimaging reflectors, common applications of nonimaging optics include many areas of illumination engineering. Collecting radiation emitted by high-energy particle collisions using the fewest number of photomultiplier tubes, some of the design methods for nonimaging optics are also finding application in imaging devices, for example some with ultra-high numerical aperture. Early academic research in nonimaging optical mathematics seeking closed form solutions was first published in form in a 1978 book. A modern textbook illustrating the depth and breadth of research and engineering in this area was published in 2004, a thorough introduction to this field was published in 2008. Imaging optics can concentrate sunlight to, at most, the same flux found at the surface of the sun, the simplest way to design nonimaging optics is called the method of strings, based on the edge ray principle. Other more advanced methods were developed starting in the early 1990s that can better handle extended light sources than the edge-ray method and these were developed primarily to solve the design problems related to solid state automobile headlamps and complex illumination systems. One of these advanced design methods is the Simultaneous Multiple Surface design method, the 2D SMS design method is described in detail in the aforementioned textbooks. The 3D SMS design method was developed in 2003 by a team of scientists at Light Prescriptions Innovators. There is no condition on image formation, the goal is to transfer the light from the source to the target. Figure edge ray principle on the right illustrates this principle, a lens collects light from a source S1S2 and redirects it towards a receiver R1R2. By symmetry, the coming from edge S2 of the source are redirected towards edge R2 of the receiver. The rays coming from an inner point S in the source are redirected towards the target, actually, if we consider a point P on the top surface of the lens, a ray coming from S1 through P will be redirected towards R1. Also a ray coming from S2 through P will be redirected towards R2, a ray coming through P from an inner point S in the source will be redirected towards an inner point of the receiver. This lens then guarantees that all light from the source crossing it will be redirected towards the receiver, however, no image of the source is formed on the target. Imposing the condition of formation on the receiver would imply using more optical surfaces, making the optic more complicated
26.
Magnifying glass
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A magnifying glass is a convex lens that is used to produce a magnified image of an object. The lens is mounted in a frame with a handle. A sheet magnifier consists of very narrow concentric ring-shaped lenses. This arrangement is known as a Fresnel lens, a magnifying glass can also be used to focus light, such as to concentrate the suns radiation to create a hot spot at the focus for fire starting. The magnifying glass is an icon of detective fiction, particularly that of Sherlock Holmes, roger Bacon described the properties of a magnifying glass in 13th-century England. Eyeglasses were developed in 13th-century Italy, the magnification of a magnifying glass depends upon where it is placed between the users eye and the object being viewed, and the total distance between them. The magnifying power is equivalent to angular magnification, the magnifying power is the ratio of the sizes of the images formed on the users retina with and without the lens. For the without case, it is assumed that the user would bring the object as close to one eye as possible without it becoming blurry. This point, known as the point, varies with age. In a young child, it can be as close as 5 cm, while, magnifiers are typically characterized using a standard value of 0.25 m. The highest magnifying power is obtained by putting the lens very close to one eye and moving the eye, the object will then typically also be close to the lens. The magnifying power obtained in this condition is MP0 = Φ +1, where Φ is the power in dioptres. This value of the power is the one normally used to characterize magnifiers. It is typically denoted m×, where m = MP0 and this is sometimes called the total power of the magnifier. However, magnifiers are not always used as described above because it is comfortable to put the magnifier close to the object. The eye can then be a distance away, and a good image can be obtained very easily. The magnifying power in case is roughly MP = Φ. A typical magnifying glass might have a length of 25 cm
27.
Cathode ray tube
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The cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube that contains one or more electron guns and a phosphorescent screen, and is used to display images. It modulates, accelerates, and deflects electron beam onto the screen to create the images, the images may represent electrical waveforms, pictures, radar targets, or others. CRTs have also used as memory devices, in which case the visible light emitted from the fluorescent material is not intended to have significant meaning to a visual observer. In television sets and computer monitors, the front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three beams, one for each additive primary color with a video signal as a reference. A CRT is constructed from an envelope which is large, deep, fairly heavy. The interior of a CRT is evacuated to approximately 0.01 Pa to 133 nPa. evacuation being necessary to facilitate the flight of electrons from the gun to the tubes face. That it is evacuated makes handling an intact CRT potentially dangerous due to the risk of breaking the tube and causing a violent implosion that can hurl shards of glass at great velocity. As a matter of safety, the face is made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions. Flat panel displays can also be made in large sizes, whereas 38 to 40 was about the largest size of a CRT television, flat panels are available in 60. Cathode rays were discovered by Johann Hittorf in 1869 in primitive Crookes tubes and he observed that some unknown rays were emitted from the cathode which could cast shadows on the glowing wall of the tube, indicating the rays were traveling in straight lines. In 1890, Arthur Schuster demonstrated cathode rays could be deflected by electric fields, the earliest version of the CRT was known as the Braun tube, invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897. It was a diode, a modification of the Crookes tube with a phosphor-coated screen. In 1907, Russian scientist Boris Rosing used a CRT in the end of an experimental video signal to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen, which marked the first time that CRT technology was used for what is now known as television. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric and it was named by inventor Vladimir K. Zworykin in 1929. RCA was granted a trademark for the term in 1932, it released the term to the public domain in 1950. The first commercially made electronic television sets with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, in oscilloscope CRTs, electrostatic deflection is used, rather than the magnetic deflection commonly used with television and other large CRTs
28.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
29.
Sinclair Research
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Sinclair Research Ltd is a British consumer electronics company founded by Clive Sinclair in Cambridge. In 1980, Clive Sinclair entered the computer market with the ZX80 at £99.95. In 1982 the ZX Spectrum was released, becoming the UKs best selling computer, Sinclair Research Ltd still exists as a one-man company, continuing to market Clive Sinclairs inventions. On 25 July 1961, Clive Sinclair founded his first company, the company developed hi-fi products, radios, calculators and scientific instruments. When it became clear that Radionics was failing, Sinclair took steps to ensure that he would be able to continue to pursue his commercial goals, in February 1975, he changed the name of Ablesdeal Ltd to Westminster Mail Order Ltd. The name was changed to Sinclair Instrument Ltd in August 1975, the companys first product was a watch-like Wrist Calculator. In July 1977, Sinclair Instrument Ltd was renamed Science of Cambridge Ltd, around the same time, Ian Williamson showed Chris Curry a prototype microcomputer based on a National Semiconductor SC/MP microprocessor and parts from a Sinclair calculator. Curry was impressed and encouraged Sinclair to adopt it as a product, in June 1978, Science of Cambridge launched its MK14 microcomputer in kit form. In May 1979, Jim Westwood, Sinclairs chief engineer, designed a new microcomputer based on the Zilog Z80 microprocessor, Sinclair Instrument Ltd introduced the computer as the ZX80 in February 1980, as both a kit and ready-built. In November 1979, Science of Cambridge Ltd was renamed Sinclair Computers Ltd, in March 1981, Sinclair Computers was renamed Sinclair Research Ltd and the Sinclair ZX81 was launched. In February 1982, Timex Corporation obtained a license to manufacture, in April the ZX Spectrum was launched. In July Timex launched the TS1000 in the United States, in March 1982 Sinclair Research Ltd made an £8. 55m profit on turnover of £27. 17m, including a £383,000 government grant to develop a flat screen. In 1982 Clive Sinclair converted the Barker & Wadsworth mineral water bottling factory at 25 Willis Road, Cambridge, in January 1983 the ZX Spectrum personal computer was presented at the Las Vegas Consumer Electronics Show. In September the Sinclair TV80 pocket television was launched, but was a commercial failure, in 1983 the company bought Milton Hall in the village of Milton, Cambridgeshire, for £2m, establishing its MetaLab research and development facility there. In late 1983 Timex decided to out of the Timex Sinclair venture which. However, Timex computers continued to be produced for years in other countries. Timex Portugal launched improved versions, the TS2048 and 2068, that also developed and launched the FDD3000. The Sinclair QL was announced on 12 January 1984, shortly before the Apple Macintosh went on sale, the QL was nowhere near as successful as Sinclairs earlier computers
30.
Traffic light
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The worlds first, manually operated gas-lit traffic signal was short lived. Installed in London in December 1868, it exploded less than a month later, Traffic control started to seem necessary in the late 1890s and Earnest Sirrine from Chicago patented the first automated traffic control system in 1910. It used the words STOP and PROCEED, although neither word lit up, Traffic lights alternate the right of way accorded to users by displaying lights of a standard colour following a universal colour code. In the typical sequence of phases, The green light allows traffic to proceed in the direction denoted, if it is safe to do so. The amber light warns that the signal is about to change to red, in a number of countries – among them the United Kingdom – a phase during which red and yellow are displayed together indicates that the signal is about to change to green. A flashing amber indication is a warning signal, in the United Kingdom, a flashing amber light is used only at pelican crossings, in place of the combined red–amber signal, and indicates that drivers may pass if no pedestrians are on the crossing. The red signal prohibits any traffic from proceeding, a flashing red indication is treated as a stop sign. In some countries traffic signals will go into a flashing mode if the Conflict Monitor detects a problem, the signal may display flashing yellow to the main road and flashing red to the side road, or flashing red in all directions. Flashing operation can also be used during times of day when traffic is light, before traffic lights traffic police controlled the flow of traffic, a well-documented example being that on London Bridge in 1722. Three men were given the task of directing traffic coming in, each officer would help direct traffic coming out of Southwark into London and he made sure all traffic stayed on the west end of the bridge. A second officer would direct traffic on the east end of the bridge to control the flow of people leaving London and going into Southwark. The main reason for the light was that there was an overflow of horse-drawn traffic over Westminster Bridge which forced thousands of pedestrians to walk next to the Houses of Parliament. The design combined three semaphore arms with red and green gas lamps for use, on a pillar. The gas lantern was manually turned by a police officer. The signal was 22 feet high, at night a red light would command Stop and a green light would mean use Caution. Although it was said to be successful at controlling traffic, its life was brief. It exploded on 2 January 1869, as a result of a leak in one of the gas lines underneath the pavement, injuring or killing the policeman who was operating it. In the first two decades of the 20th century semaphore traffic signals, like the one in London, were in use all over the United States with each state having its own design of the device, One good example was from Toledo, Ohio in 1908
31.
Truck
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A truck is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, smaller varieties may be similar to some automobiles. Commercial trucks can be large and powerful, and may be configured to mount specialized equipment, such as in the case of fire trucks and concrete mixers. Modern trucks are powered by diesel engines, although small to medium size trucks with gasoline engines exist in the US. In the European Union, vehicles with a gross mass of up to 3.5 t are known as light commercial vehicles. Trucks and cars have an ancestor, the steam-powered fardier Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built in 1769. However, steam wagons were not common until the mid-1800s, the roads of the time, built for horse and carriages, limited these vehicles to very short hauls, usually from a factory to the nearest railway station. The first semi-trailer appeared in 1881, towed by a tractor manufactured by De Dion-Bouton. In 1895 Karl Benz designed and built the first truck in history using the internal combustion engine, later that year some of Benzs trucks were modified to become the first bus by the Netphener, the first motorbus company in history. A year later, in 1896, another internal combustion engine truck was built by Gottlieb Daimler, other companies, such as Peugeot, Renault and Büssing, also built their own versions. The first truck in the United States was built by Autocar in 1899 and was available with optional 5 or 8 horsepower motors, trucks of the era mostly used two-cylinder engines and had a carrying capacity of 3,300 to 4,400 lb. In 1904,700 heavy trucks were built in the United States,1000 in 1907,6000 in 1910, after World War I, several advances were made, pneumatic tires replaced the previously common full rubber versions. Electric starters, power brakes,4,6, and 8 cylinder engines, closed cabs, the first modern semi-trailer trucks also appeared. Touring car builders such as Ford and Renault entered the heavy truck market, although it had been invented in 1890, the diesel engine was not common in trucks in Europe until the 1930s. In the United States, it took longer for diesel engines to be accepted. The word truck might come from a back-formation of truckle, meaning small wheel or pulley, from Middle English trokell, another possible source is the Latin trochus, meaning iron hoop. In turn, both sources emanate from the Greek trokhos, meaning wheel, from trekhein, the first known usage of truck was in 1611, when it referred to the small strong wheels on ships cannon carriages. In its extended usage it came to refer to carts for carrying heavy loads and its expanded application to motor-powered load carrier has been in usage since 1930, shortened from motor truck, which dates back to 1901
32.
Wide-angle lens
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In photography and cinematography, a wide-angle lens refers to a lens whose focal length is substantially smaller than the focal length of a normal lens for a given film plane. This exaggeration of size can be used to make foreground objects more prominent and striking. A wide angle lens is one that projects a substantially larger image circle than would be typical for a standard design lens of the same focal length. This large image circle enables either large tilt & shift movements with a view camera, by convention, in still photography, the normal lens for a particular format has a focal length approximately equal to the length of the diagonal of the image frame or digital photosensor. In cinematography, a lens of twice the diagonal is considered normal. A lens is considered wide-angle when it covers the angle of view between 64° and 84° which in return translates to 35–24mm lens in 35mm film format, longer lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses tend to distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field. For a full-frame 35 mm camera with a 36 mm by 24 mm format, the diagonal measures 43.3 mm and by custom, also by custom, a lens of focal length 35 mm or less is considered wide-angle. Ultra wide angle lenses have a length shorter than the short side of the film or sensor. In 35 mm, an ultra wide-angle lens has a length shorter than 24 mm. Common wide-angle for a full-frame 35 mm camera are 35,28,24,21,20,18 and 14 mm, the latter four being ultra-wide. Many of the lenses in this range will produce a more or less rectilinear image at the film plane, Ultra wide-angle lenses that do not produce a rectilinear image are called fisheye lenses. Common focal lengths for these in a 35 mm camera are 6 to 8 mm. Lenses with focal lengths of 8 to 16 mm may be either rectilinear or fisheye designs, Wide-angle lenses come in both fixed-focal-length and zoom varieties. For 35 mm cameras, lenses producing rectilinear images can be found at lengths as short as 8 mm. As of 2015, many digital cameras have image sensors that are smaller than the film format of full-frame 35 mm cameras. The camera manufacturers provide a crop factor to show how much smaller the sensor is than a full 35 mm film frame, for example, one common factor is 1.5, although many cameras have crop factors of 1.6,1.7 and 2. As example, a 28 mm lens on the DSLR would produce the angle of view of a 42 mm lens on a full-frame camera. For example, to get the equivalent angle of view of a 30 mm lens on a full-frame 35 mm camera, from a camera with a 1.5 crop factor
33.
Rear-view mirror
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A rear-view mirror is a mirror in automobiles and other vehicles, designed to allow the driver to see rearward through the vehicles rear window. The rear-view mirror is augmented by one or more side-view mirrors, the Argus Dash Mirror, adjustable to any position to see the road behind, appeared in 1908. Earliest known rear-view mirror mounted on a racing vehicle appeared on Ray Harrouns Marmon race car at the inaugural Indianapolis 500 race in 1911, harroun himself claimed he got the idea from seeing a mirror used for a similar purpose on a horse-drawn vehicle in 1904. Harroun also claimed that the mirror vibrated constantly due to the brick surface. As many as 50 small children are killed by SUVs every year in the USA because the driver cannot see them in their rear-view mirrors, camera systems are usually mounted to the rear bumper or lower parts of the car, allowing for better rear visibility. Aftermarket secondary rear-view mirrors are available and they attach to the main rear-view mirror and are independently adjustable to view the back seat. This is useful to enable adults to children in the back seat. This type of mirror is made of a piece of glass that is wedge-shaped in cross section—its front, on manual tilt versions, a tab is used to adjust the mirror between day and night positions. In the day view position, the front surface is tilted, when the mirror is moved to the night view position, its reflecting rear surface is tilted out of line with the drivers view. This view is actually a reflection off the front surface. Manual tilt day/night mirrors first began appearing in the 1930s and became standard equipment on most passenger cars, in the 1950s, American inventor Jacob Rabinow developed a light-sensitive automatic mechanism for the wedge-type day/night mirror. Several automakers began offering rear-view mirrors with automatic dimming again in 1983, current systems usually use photosensors mounted in the rear-view mirror to detect light and dim the mirror by means of electrochromism. This electrochromic feature has also incorporated into side-view mirrors allowing them to dim. On trucks and buses the load often blocks rearward vision out the backlight. In the U. S. virtually all trucks and buses have a side mirror on each side, often mounted on the doors and viewed out the side windows. These mirrors leave a large area behind the vehicle, which tapers down as the distance increases. This is a safety issue which the driver must compensate for, often with a person guiding the truck back in congested areas, or by backing in a curve. “Spot mirrors”, a mirror which provides a distorted image of the entire side of the vehicle, are commonly mounted on at least the right side of a vehicle
34.
Retinal scan
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A retinal scan is a biometric technique that uses the unique patterns on a persons retina blood vessels. It is not to be confused with another ocular-based technology, iris recognition, the human retina is a thin tissue composed of neural cells that is located in the posterior portion of the eye. Because of the structure of the capillaries that supply the retina with blood. The network of vessels in the retina is not entirely genetically determined. Although retinal patterns may be altered in cases of diabetes, glaucoma or retinal degenerative disorders, due to its unique and unchanging nature, the retina appears to be the most precise and reliable biometric, aside from DNA. The National Center for State Courts estimate that retinal scanning has a rate of one in ten million. A retinal scan is performed by casting a beam of low-energy infrared light into a person’s eye as they look through the scanners eyepiece. This beam of light traces a path on the retina. Because retinal blood vessels absorb light more readily than the surrounding tissue, the pattern of variations is digitized and stored in a database. The idea for retinal identification was first conceived by Dr Carleton Simon, the idea was ahead of its time, but once technology caught up, the concept for a retinal scanning device emerged in 1975. In 1976, Robert Buzz Hill formed a corporation named EyeDentify, Inc. and made an effort to research. In 1978, specific means for a retinal scanner was patented, followed by a model in 1981. The relative obscurity and high tech nature of retinal scans means that they are a frequent device in fiction to suggest that an area has been particularly strongly secured against intrusion. Some notable examples include, In the movie Star Trek II, The Wrath of Khan, in the Half-Life series, the Scientists of Black Mesa are frequently shown operating Retinal Scanners to access locked doors or hidden devices. Characters in the films GoldenEye, Mission, Impossible, Barb Wire, Entrapment, Minority Report and Paycheck, in the Splinter Cell series, retinal scanners are used to identify agents within Third Echelon and guards within military/business complexes. Retinal scanners are used for authentication and identification purposes. Retinal scanning has been utilized by government agencies including the FBI, CIA. However, in recent years, retinal scanning has become commercially popular
35.
Peter Gabriel
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After leaving Genesis in 1975, Gabriel launched a solo career with Solsbury Hill as his first single. His 1986 album, So, is his release and is certified triple platinum in the UK. The albums most successful single, Sledgehammer, won a record nine MTV Awards at the 1987 MTV Video Music Awards, Gabriel has been a champion of world music for much of his career. He co-founded the WOMAD festival in 1982 and he has continued to focus on producing and promoting world music through his Real World Records label. He has also pioneered digital distribution methods for music, co-founding OD2, Gabriel has also been involved in numerous humanitarian efforts. In 1980, he released the anti-apartheid single Biko and he has participated in several human rights benefit concerts, including Amnesty Internationals Human Rights Now. Tour in 1988, and co-founded the Witness human rights organisation in 1992, Gabriel developed The Elders with Richard Branson, which was launched by Nelson Mandela in 2007. He was made a BMI Icon at the 57th annual BMI London Awards for his influence on generations of music makers, AllMusic has described Gabriel as one of rocks most ambitious, innovative musicians, as well as one of its most political. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Genesis in 2010, in March 2015 he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of South Australia in recognition of his achievements in music. Peter Brian Gabriel was born in Chobham, Surrey and his father, Ralph Parton Gabriel, was an electrical engineer, and his mother, Edith Irene, who was from a musical family, taught him to play the piano at an early age. His great-great-great-uncle, Sir Thomas Gabriel, 1st Baronet, served as Lord Mayor of London from 1866 to 1877, Gabriel attended Cable House, a private primary school in Woking, St. Andrews Prep School in Horsell, and Charterhouse School in Godalming from 1963. He played drums in his first rock bands, and Mike Rutherford commented in 1985 that Pete was—and still is, Gabriel founded Genesis in 1967 with fellow Charterhouse School pupils Tony Banks, Anthony Phillips, Mike Rutherford, and drummer Chris Stewart. The name of the band was suggested by fellow Charterhouse alumnus, the pop music impresario Jonathan King, Gabriel has said to be influenced by many different sources in his way of singing, such as Family lead singer Roger Chapman. In 1970, he played the flute on Cat Stevenss album, the concerts made extensive use of black light with the normal stage lighting subdued or off. Early Genesis concerts were hampered by a bad public address system made it difficult for audiences to understand what Gabriel was singing. According to Mike Rutherford, this drove Gabriel to find ways to impress his personality on the audience. In an episode of the 2007 British documentary series Seven Ages of Rock and it was the dress-wearing, fox-headed entity immortalised on the cover of Foxtrot. Hackett and the rest of the band had no inkling that Gabriel was going to do this and it was a success, encouraging Gabriel to continue wearing stage clothes while singing
36.
Terry Gilliam
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Terrence Vance Terry Gilliam is an American-born British screenwriter, film director, animator, actor, comedian and member of the Monty Python comedy troupe. Gilliam has directed 12 feature films, including Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Time Bandits, Brazil, The Fisher King,12 Monkeys, the only Python not born in Britain, he became a naturalised British citizen in 1968 and formally renounced his American citizenship in 2006. Gilliam was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Beatrice and his father was a travelling salesman for Folgers before becoming a carpenter. Soon after, they moved to nearby Medicine Lake, Minnesota, the family moved to the Los Angeles neighbourhood of Panorama City in 1952. Gilliam attended Birmingham High School, where he was the president of his class and he was voted Most Likely to Succeed and achieved straight As. During high school, he began to avidly read Mad magazine, then edited by Harvey Kurtzman, Gilliam graduated from Occidental College in 1962 with a Bachelor of Arts in political science. It was 66–67, it was the first police riot in Los Angeles, in college my major was political science, so my brain worked that way. And I drove around this little English Hillman Minx—top down—and every night Id be hauled over by the cops, up against the wall, and all this stuff. They had this monologue with me, it was never a dialogue and it was that I was a long-haired drug addict living off some rich guys foolish daughter. And I said, No, I work in advertising, I make twice as much as you do. Which is a thing to say to a cop. And it was like an epiphany, I suddenly felt what it was like to be a black or Mexican kid living in L. A. Before that, I thought I knew what the world was like, I thought I knew what people were. And I got more and more angry and I just felt, Thats why so much of the U. S. is still standing. Gilliam began his career as an animator and strip cartoonist, one of his early photographic strips for Help. Featured future Python cast member John Cleese, folded, Gilliam went to Europe, jokingly announcing in the very last issue that he was being transferred to the European branch of the magazine, which, of course, did not exist. Moving to England, he animated sequences for the childrens series Do Not Adjust Your Set, which also featured Eric Idle, Terry Jones, Gilliam was a part of Monty Pythons Flying Circus from its outset, credited at first as an animator and later as a full member. His cartoons linked the shows together and defined the groups visual language in other media
37.
Brazil (1985 film)
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Brazil is a 1985 dystopian science fiction film directed by Terry Gilliam and written by Gilliam, Charles McKeown, and Tom Stoppard. The film stars Jonathan Pryce and features Robert De Niro, Kim Greist, Michael Palin, Katherine Helmond, Bob Hoskins, though a success in Europe, the film was unsuccessful in its initial North America release. It has since become a cult film, the film is named after the recurrent theme song, Ary Barrosos Aquarela do Brasil, as performed by Geoff Muldaur. Sam Lowry is a government employee who frequently daydreams of saving a damsel in distress. Visiting Buttles widow, Sam encounters their neighbour Jill Layton, and is astonished to see that she resembles the woman from his recurring dreams, Jill is trying to help Mrs. Buttle determine what happened to her husband, but her efforts are obstructed by bureaucracy. Sam approaches Jill, but she avoids giving him full details, during this time, Sam comes in contact with Tuttle, who once worked for Central Services but left due to his dislike of the tedious and repetitive paperwork. Tuttle helps Sam deal with two Central Services workers, Spoor and Dowser, who return to demolish Sams ducts. Sam discovers that the way to learn about Jill is to get transferred to Information Retrieval. He had previously turned down a promotion arranged by his mother, Ida, Sam retracts his refusal by speaking with Deputy Minister Mr. Helpmann at a party hosted by Ida. Obtaining Jills records, Sam tracks her down before she can be arrested, then falsifies the records to fake her death, the two share a romantic night together, but are soon apprehended by the government at gunpoint. Charged with treason for abusing his new position, Sam is restrained to a chair in a large, empty room, to be tortured by his old friend. Sam learns that Jill was killed resisting arrest. When Jack is about to start the torturing, Tuttle and other members of the break into the Ministry, shooting Jack, rescuing Sam. Sam and Tuttle flee together, but Tuttle disappears amid a mass of scraps of paperwork from the destroyed building and he lands in a street from his daydreams, and attempts to escape police and monsters by climbing a pile of flex-ducts. Opening a door, he passes through it and is surprised to find himself in a driven by Jill. The two leave the city together, however, this happy ending is a product of Sams delusions, he is still strapped to the chair. Realising that Sam has descended into insanity, Jack and Mr. Helpmann declare him a lost cause. Sam remains in the chair, smiling and singing Brazil, Pryce has described the role as the highlight of his career, along with that of Lytton Strachey in Carrington
38.
Pixar
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Pixar, also referred to as Pixar Animation Studios, is an American computer animation film studio based in Emeryville, California that is a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company. Disney purchased Pixar in 2006 at a valuation of $7.4 billion, Pixar has produced seventeen feature films, beginning with Toy Story, which was the first-ever computer-animated feature film, and its most recent being Finding Dory. All 17 of its films have debuted with CinemaScore ratings of at least an A−, the studio has also produced several short films. As of October 2016, its films have earned approximately $10.8 billion at the box office worldwide. Fourteen of Pixars films are also among the 50 highest-grossing animated films of all time, the studio has earned sixteen Academy Awards, seven Golden Globe Awards, and eleven Grammy Awards, among many other awards and acknowledgments. Monsters, Inc. and Cars are the two films that were nominated for the award without winning it, while Cars 2, Monsters University, The Good Dinosaur. Up and Toy Story 3 were also the second and third animated films to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, the first being Walt Disney Animation Studios Beauty. Luxo Jr. a character from the studios 1986 short film of the name, is the studios mascot. The award was presented by Lucasfilms founder George Lucas, Schure kept pouring money into the computer graphics lab, an estimated $15 million, giving the group everything they desired and drove NYIT into serious financial troubles. During the following months, they resigned from CGL, found temporary jobs for about a year to avoid making Schure suspicious. He was then reunited with Alvy Ray Smith, who made the journey from NYIT to Lucasfilm. At NYIT, the researchers pioneered many of the CG foundation techniques—in particular the invention of the alpha channel, Years later, the CGL produced a few frames of an experimental film called The Works. In 1982, the team working on special effects film sequences with Industrial Light & Magic. In 1983, Nolan Bushnell founded a new computer-guided animation studio called Kadabrascope as a subsidiary of his Chuck E. Cheeses Pizza Time Theatres company, only one major project was made out of the new studio, an animated Christmas movie for NBC starring Chuck E. The animation movement would be made using Tweening instead of cel animation. After the North American Video Game Crash of 1983, Bushnell started selling some subsidiaries of PTT to keep the business afloat, sente Technologies would be sold to Bally Games and Kadabrascope would be sold to LucasFilm. The Kadabrascope assets s would be combined with the Computer Division of LucasFilm, PTT would later be sold to ShowBiz Pizza Place, a competitor, in 1985. Amongst the 38 remaining employees, there were also Malcolm Blanchard, David DiFrancesco, Ralph Guggenheim and Bill Reeves, Tom Duff, also an NYIT member, would later join Pixar after its formation
39.
WALL-E
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WALL-E is a 2008 American computer-animated dystopian comic science fiction comedy film directed and co-written by Andrew Stanton, produced by Jim Morris, and co-written by Jim Reardon. It stars the voices of Ben Burtt, Elissa Knight, Jeff Garlin, Fred Willard, John Ratzenberger, Kathy Najimy, Sigourney Weaver and it was produced by Pixar Animation Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Pictures, and was the overall ninth feature film produced by the company. After directing Finding Nemo, Stanton felt Pixar had created believable simulations of underwater physics and was willing to direct a film set largely in space. WALL-E has minimal dialogue in its early sequences, many of the characters do not have voices, the film criticizes consumerism, corporatism, nostalgia, waste management, human environmental impact and concerns, obesity, and global catastrophic risk. It is also Pixars first animated film with segments featuring live-action characters, following Pixar tradition, WALL-E was paired with a short film titled Presto for its theatrical release. WALL-E was released in the United States and Canada on June 27,2008 and it was an instant blockbuster, grossing $533. The film also topped Times Best Movies of the Decade, in 2805, Earth is abandoned and largely contaminated with garbage, with its people evacuated by megacorporation Buy-N-Large on giant starliners. One day, WALL-E discovers a healthy seedling, which he returns to his home, later, an unmanned spaceship lands and deploys an EVE probe to scan the planet. WALL-E is infatuated with EVE, who is hostile but gradually befriends him. When WALL-E brings EVE to his trailer and shows her the plant, however, she takes the plant. WALL-E, confused, unsuccessfully tries to reactivate her, the ship then returns to collect EVE, and with WALL-E clinging on, returns to its mothership, the starliner Axiom. EVE is taken to the bridge, with WALL-E tagging along, however, AUTO orders his robotic assistant GO-4 to steal the plant to prevent this from happening. With the plant missing, EVE is deemed faulty and taken to Diagnostics, WALL-E mistakes the procedure as torture, and in intervening accidentally frees a group of malfunctioning robots and causes both EVE and himself to be designated as rogue. WALL-E escapes, saving the plant, and he and EVE reconcile, EVE brings the plant back to McCrea, who watches EVEs recordings of Earth and concludes that they must return. However, AUTO refuses, revealing his own secret no-return directive A113 and he mutinies, electrocuting WALL-E and deactivating EVE and throwing them both down the garbage chute, then detaining the captain. Having arrived back on Earth, EVE repairs and reactivates WALL-E, heartbroken, EVE gives WALL-E a farewell kiss, which sparks his memory back to life. WALL-E and EVE reunite as the humans and robots of the Axiom begin to restore Earth, Ben Burtt as WALL-E, the title character. WALL-E, a robot who has developed sentience, is the robot of his kind shown to be still functioning on Earth
40.
Hello, Dolly! (film)
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Hello, Dolly. is a 1969 American romantic comedy musical film based on the Broadway production of the same name. The film follows the story of Dolly Levi, as she travels to Yonkers, New York, in doing so she convinces his niece, his nieces intended, and Horaces two clerks to travel to New York City. The film won three Oscars for Best Art Direction, Best Score of a Musical Picture, and Best Sound Mixing and was nominated for a further four Academy Awards, although the film eventually broke even, it was not a commercial success. In 1890, all of New York City is excited because widowed, Dolly makes a living through matchmaking and numerous sidelines. She is currently seeking a wife for grumpy Horace Vandergelder, the well-known half-a-millionaire, Dolly travels to Yonkers, New York to visit Horace. Ambrose Kemper, a young artist, wants to marry Horaces weepy niece, Ermengarde and he plans to travel to New York City to propose to Irene Molloy, who owns a hat shop there. Dolly arrives in Yonkers and sends Horace ahead to the city, before leaving he tells Cornelius and Barnaby to mind the store. Cornelius decides that he and Barnaby need to get out of Yonkers, Dolly knows two ladies in New York they should call on, Irene Molloy and her shop assistant, Minnie Fay. Cornelius, Barnaby, Ambrose, Ermengarde and Dolly take the train to New York, Irene and Minnie open their hat shop for the afternoon. Irene does not love Horace Vandergelder and declares that she wear a elaborate hat to impress a gentleman. Cornelius and Barnaby arrive at the shop and pretend to be rich, Horace and Dolly arrive and Cornelius and Barnaby hide. Minnie screams when she finds Cornelius hiding in an armoire, Horace is about to open the armoire himself, but Dolly searches it and pronounces it empty. After hearing Cornelius sneeze, Horace storms out upon realizing there are men hiding in the shop, Dolly arranges for Cornelius and Barnaby, who are still pretending to be rich, to take the ladies out to dinner to the Harmonia Gardens to make up for their humiliation. She teaches Cornelius and Barnaby how to dance since they always have dancing at such establishments, the clerks and the ladies go to watch the Fourteenth Street Association Parade together. Alone, Dolly asks her first husband Ephrams permission to marry Horace and she resolves to move on with life. After meeting an old friend, Gussie Granger, on a float in the parade and she tells him the heiress Ernestina Semple would be perfect for him and asks him to meet her at the Harmonia Gardens that evening. Cornelius is determined to get a kiss before the night is over, since the clerks have no money to hire a carriage, they tell the girls that walking to the restaurant shows that theyve got Elegance. In a quiet flat, Dolly prepares for the evening, at the Harmonia Gardens Restaurant, Rudolph, the head waiter, whips his crew into shape for Dolly Levis return
41.
IPod
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The iPod is a line of portable media players and multi-purpose pocket computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The first version was released on October 23,2001, about 8½ months after iTunes was released, the most recent iPod redesigns were announced on July 15,2015. There are three current versions of the iPod, the ultra-compact iPod Shuffle, the compact iPod Nano, like other digital music players, iPods can serve as external data storage devices. Storage capacity varies by model, ranging from 2 GB for the iPod Shuffle to 128 GB for the iPod Touch. Before the release of iOS5, the branding was used for the media player included with the iPhone and iPad. As of iOS5, separate apps named Music and Videos are standardized across all iOS-powered products, while the iPhone and iPad have essentially the same media player capabilities as the iPod line, they are generally treated as separate products. During the middle of 2010, iPhone sales overtook those of the iPod, in mid-2015, a new model of the iPod Touch was announced by Apple, and was officially released on the Apple store on July 15,2015. The sixth generation iPod Touch includes a variety of spec improvements such as the upgraded A8 processor. The core is over 5 times faster than models and is built to be roughly on par with the iPhone 5S. It is available in 5 different colors, Space grey, pink, gold, silver, though the iPod was released in 2001, its price and Mac-only compatibility caused sales to be relatively slow until 2004. The iPod line came from Apples digital hub category, when the company began creating software for the market of personal digital devices. The aesthetic was inspired by the 1958 Braun T3 transistor radio designed by Dieter Rams, the product was developed in less than one year and unveiled on October 23,2001. Jobs announced it as a Mac-compatible product with a 5 GB hard drive that put 1,000 songs in your pocket, Apple did not develop the iPod software entirely in-house, instead using PortalPlayers reference platform based on two ARM cores. The platform had rudimentary software running on a commercial microkernel embedded operating system, portalPlayer had previously been working on an IBM-branded MP3 player with Bluetooth headphones. Apple contracted another company, Pixo, to design and implement the user interface under the direct supervision of Steve Jobs. As development progressed, Apple continued to refine the softwares look, starting with the iPod Mini, the Chicago font was replaced with Espy Sans. Later iPods switched fonts again to Podium Sans—a font similar to Apples corporate font, color display iPods then adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars, and brushed metal meant to evoke a combination lock. In 2006 Apple presented an edition for iPod 5G of Irish rock band U2
42.
Canon Inc.
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It is headquartered in Ōta, Tokyo, Japan. Canon has a listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the TOPIX index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. At the beginning of 2015, Canon was the tenth largest public company in Japan when measured by market capitalization, the company was originally named Seikikōgaku kenkyūsho. In 1934 it produced the Kwanon, a prototype for Japan’s first-ever 35 mm camera with a plane based shutter. In 1947 the company name was changed to Canon Camera Co. Inc. shortened to Canon Inc. in 1969, the name Canon comes from Buddhist bodhisattva Guan Yin, previously transliterated as Kuanyin, Kwannon, or Kwanon in English. The origins of Canon date back to the founding of Precision Optical Instruments Laboratory in Japan in 1937 by Takeshi Mitarai, Goro Yoshida, Saburo Uchida and Takeo Maeda. During its early years the company did not have any facilities to produce its own optical glass, between 1933 and 1936 ‘The Kwanon’, a copy of the Leica design, Japan’s first 35 mm focal plane-shutter camera, was developed in prototype form. In 1940 Canon developed Japans first indirect X-ray camera, Canon introduced a field zoom lens for television broadcasting in 1958 and in 1959 introduced the Reflex Zoom 8, the world’s first movie camera with a zoom lens, and the Canonflex. In 1961 Canon introduced the Rangefinder camera, Canon 7, in 1965 Canon introduced the Canon Pellix, a single lens reflex camera with a semi-transparent stationary mirror which enabled the taking of pictures through the mirror. In 1971 Canon introduced the F-1, a high-end SLR camera, in 1976 Canon launched the AE-1, the world’s first camera with an embedded micro-computer. In 1982 Wildlife as Canon Sees It print ads first appeared in National Geographic magazine, Canon introduced the world’s first Inkjet printer using bubble jet technology in 1985. Canon introduced Canon Electro-Optical System in 1987, named after the goddess of the dawn, EOS650 autofocus SLR camera is introduced. Also in 1987 the Canon Foundation was established, in 1988 Canon introduced Kyosei philosophy. The EOS1 Flagship Professional SLR line was launched in 1989, in the same year the EOS RT, the worlds first AF SLR with a fixed, semi-transparent pellicle mirror, was unveiled. In 1992 Canon launched the EOS5, the camera with eye-controlled AF. In 1995 Canon introduced the first commercially available SLR lens with image stabilization. EOS-1N RS, the worlds fastest AF SLR camera with a shooting speed of 10 frame/s at the time
43.
Nikon
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Nikon Corporation, also known just as Nikon, is a Japanese multinational corporation headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, specializing in optics and imaging products. The companies held by Nikon form the Nikon Group, Nikons main competitors in camera and lens manufacturing include Canon, Sony, Fujifilm, Panasonic, Pentax, and Olympus. Founded on July 25,1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, Nikon is a member of the Mitsubishi group of companies. Nikon Corporation was established on 25 July 1917 when three leading optical manufacturers merged to form a comprehensive, fully integrated optical company known as Nippon Kōgaku Tōkyō K. K. Over the next sixty years, this company became a manufacturer of optical lenses and equipment used in cameras, binoculars, microscopes. During World War II the company operated thirty factories with 2,000 employees, manufacturing binoculars, lenses, bomb sights, after the war Nippon Kōgaku reverted to producing its civilian product range in a single factory. In 1948, the first Nikon-branded camera was released, the Nikon I, Nikon lenses were popularised by the American photojournalist David Douglas Duncan. Duncan was working in Tokyo when the Korean War began, Duncan had met a young Japanese photographer, Jun Miki, who introduced Duncan to Nikon lenses. From July 1950 to January 1951, Duncan covered the Korean War, fitting Nikon optics to his Leica rangefinder cameras produced high contrast negatives with very sharp resolution at the centre field. Founded in 1917 as Nippon Kōgaku Kōgyō Kabushikigaisha, the company was renamed Nikon Corporation, after its cameras, the name Nikon, which dates from 1946, is a merging of Nippon Kōgaku and Zeisss brand Ikon. This would cause some problems in Germany as Zeiss complained that Nikon violated its trademarked camera. From 1963 to 1968 the Nikon F in particular was therefore labeled Nikkor, the Nikkor brand was introduced in 1932, a westernised rendering of an earlier version Nikkō, an abbreviation of the companys original full name. Nikkor is the Nikon brand name for its lenses, another early brand used on microscopes was Joico, an abbreviation of Japan Optical Industries Co. Expeed is the brand Nikon uses for its processors since 2007. The Nikon SP and other 1950s and 1960s rangefinder cameras competed directly with models from Leica, however, the company quickly ceased developing its rangefinder line to focus its efforts on the Nikon F single-lens reflex line of cameras, which was successful upon its introduction in 1959. For nearly 30 years, Nikons F-series SLRs were the most widely used small-format cameras among professional photographers, however, as autofocus SLRs became available from Minolta and others in the mid-1980s, Nikons line of manual-focus cameras began to seem out of date. Canon introduced a new type of lens-camera interface with its entirely electronic Canon EOS cameras, the much faster lens performance permitted by Canons electronic focusing and aperture control prompted many professional photographers to switch to the Canon system through the 1990s. Nikon created some of the first digital SLRs for NASA, used in the Space Shuttle since 1991, after a 1990s partnership with Kodak to produce digital SLR cameras based on existing Nikon film bodies, Nikon released the Nikon D1 SLR under its own name in 1999
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Polaroid SX-70
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The SX-70 is a folding single lens reflex Land camera which was produced by the Polaroid Corporation from 1972 to 1981. In 1947, Polaroid introduced its first consumer camera, the Land Camera Model 95 was the first camera to use instant film to quickly produce photographs without developing them in a laboratory. The popular Model 95 and subsequent Land Cameras required complex procedures to take, photographic paper had to be manually removed from cameras, peeled open after 60 seconds, needed several minutes to dry, and often left developing chemicals on hands. The instructions for the Model 20 Swinger, introduced in 1965, warned that, if not followed, pictures from the SX-70, by contrast, ejected automatically and developed quickly without chemical residue. Land announced the SX-70 at an annual meeting in April 1972. On stage, he took out a folded SX-70 from his coat pocket and in ten seconds took five pictures. The company first sold the SX-70 in Miami, Florida in late 1972, although the high cost of $180 for the camera and $6.90 for each film pack of ten pictures limited demand, Polaroid sold 700,000 by mid-1974. In 1973–4, the Skylab 3 and 4 astronauts used an SX-70 to photograph a video screen to be able to compare the Suns features from one orbit to the next. There were a variety of models beginning in 1972 with the original SX-70, the first model had a plain focusing screen because Dr. Land wanted to encourage photographers to think they were looking at the subject, rather than through a viewfinder. When many users complained that focusing was difficult, especially in dim light and this feature is standard on all later manual focus models. The later Sonar OneStep and SLR680 models were equipped with a sonar autofocus system and this sonar autofocus system greatly helped the users ability to focus the camera, especially in dark environments, and could be turned off if manual focus was needed. The Sonar OneStep models were the first autofocus SLRs available to consumers, today they are the most evolved forms of the SX-70, and are highly sought after by Polaroid enthusiasts. Though expensive, the SX-70 was popular in the 1970s and retains a following today. Eminent photographers such as Ansel Adams, Andy Warhol, Helmut Newton, not until the $40 Model 1000 OneStep using SX-70 film became the best-selling camera of the 1977 Christmas shopping season, however, did its technology become truly popular. The SX-70 included many sophisticated design elements, many mechanical parts were precision plastic moldings. The body was made of glass-filled polysulfone, a rigid plastic which was plated with a layer of copper-nickel-chromium alloy to give a metallic appearance. Models 2 &3 used ABS in either Ebony or Ivory color, the film pack contained a flat, 6-volt PolaPulse battery to power the camera electronics, drive motor and flash. The original flash system, a disposable Flash Bar of 10 bulbs from General Electric, used logic circuits to detect, although a variety of models were offered, all share the same basic design
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