1.
Marbach am Neckar
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Marbach am Neckar is a town on the river Neckar in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The nearest larger cities are Ludwigsburg and Stuttgart, Marbach is known as the birthplace of the classical poet and dramatist, Friedrich Schiller. Although Schiller moved away as a child, he is commemorated in Marbach by the Schiller-Nationalmuseum und Deutsches Literaturarchiv, in 2006, the Literaturmuseum der Moderne was opened for public just next to the existing museum. The iconic and modern building was planned by British architect David Chipperfield and it displays and archives 20th-century literature. Notable original manuscripts include The Trial by Franz Kafka and Berlin Alexanderplatz by Alfred Döblin, the town has a picturesque centre with several churches and many historical houses, including the house in which Schiller was born
Marbach am Neckar
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Schiller's birthplace
Marbach am Neckar
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Old town of Marbach
2.
Weimar
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Weimar is a city in the federal state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately 80 kilometres southwest of Leipzig,170 kilometres north of Nuremberg and 170 kilometres west of Dresden. Together with the neighbour-cities Erfurt and Jena it forms the metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants. Weimar is well known because of its cultural heritage and its importance in German history. The city was a point of the German Enlightenment and home of the leading characters of the literary genre of Weimar Classicism. Until 1948, Weimar was the capital of Thuringia, today, many places in the city centre have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage sites and tourism is one of the leading economic sectors of Weimar. Relevant institutions in Weimar are the Bauhaus University, the Liszt School of Music, in 1999, Weimar was the European Capital of Culture. Archaeological finds dating back to the Thuringii epoch show that the Weimar part of the Ilm valley was settled early, the oldest records regarding Weimar date to 899. Its name changed over the centuries from Wimares through Wimari to Wimar and finally Weimar, it is derived from Old High German wīh-, another theory derives the first element from OHG win. The place was the seat of the County of Weimar, first mentioned in 949, in 1062 it was united with the County of Orlamünde to the new County of Weimar-Orlamünde, which existed until the Thuringian Counts War in 1346 and fell to the Wettins afterwards. The Weimar settlement emerged around the wooden castle and two small churches dedicated to St Peter, and to St James. In 1240, the count founded the monastery in Oberweimar. Soon after, the counts of Weimar founded the town, which was an independent parish since 1249, from 1262 the citizens used their own seal. Nevertheless, the influence of the Weimar counts was declining as the influence of the Wettins in Thuringia increased. Hence, the new town was relatively marginal in a regional context. The settlement around St James Church developed into a suburb during the 13th century, after becoming part of the Wettins territory in 1346, urban development improved. The Wettins fostered Weimar by abolishing socage and granting privileges to the citizens, now Weimar became equal to other Wettinian cities like Weißensee and grew during the 15th century, with the establishment of a town hall and the current main church. Weimar acquired woad trade privileges in 1438, the castle and the walls were finished in the 16th century, making Weimar into a full city
Weimar
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Weimar
Weimar
Weimar
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Park an der Ilm
Weimar
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The Kasseturm is a relic of the former city wall at Goetheplatz
3.
Saxe-Weimar
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Saxe-Weimar was one of the Saxon duchies held by the Ernestine branch of the Wettin dynasty in present-day Thuringia. The chief town and capital was Weimar, the Weimar branch was the most genealogically senior extant branch of the House of Wettin. In the late 15th century much of what is now Thuringia, nevertheless, according to the 1552 Peace of Passau he was pardoned and allowed to retain his lands in Thuringia. Upon his death in 1554, his son John Frederick II succeeded him as Duke of Saxony, residing at Gotha. John Frederick II was succeeded by his younger brother John William at Weimar, in 1572 Maximilian II enforced the Division of Erfurt, whereby the Ernestine lands were divided among Duke John William and the two surviving sons of imprisoned John Frederick II. John William retained the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, while his minor nephews received the southern and western territories around Coburg, as a result, the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar shrank and grew more than once. The Thuringian states throughout this period consisted of several non-contiguous parcels of territory of various sizes. Facing their lack of power, the rulers of these petty states built up splendid monarchical households at their residences. Duke John William, chafing under the loss, died in 1573, upon his death in 1602 Saxe-Weimar was again divided among his younger brother John II and Frederick Williams minor son John Philipp, who received the territory of Saxe-Altenburg. Johns son Duke Johann Ernst I of Saxe-Weimar on occasion of the burial of his mother Dorothea Maria of Anhalt in 1617 established the literary Fruitbearing Society. Stripped of his title by Emperor Ferdinand II, he remained an opponent of the Catholic Habsburg dynasty. His younger brother Wilhelm, regent since 1620, assumed the dignities upon his death, nevertheless, like many German estates, the Weimar lands were devastated by combat actions as well as by plague epidemics. When in 1638 the Ernestine Saxe-Eisenach and Saxe-Coburg branch became extinct upon the death of Duke John Ernest, upon the death of John Georges descendant Wilhelm Heinrich in 1741, Duke Ernest Augustus I of Saxe-Weimar also inherited the Duchy of Saxe-Eisenach. He then ruled both duchies in personal union and decisively forwarded the development of his estates by the implementation of the primogeniture principle. The regency of energetic Anna Amalia and the reign of Charles Augustus, in 1804 Duke Charles Augustus entered into European politics by marrying his son and heir Charles Frederick to Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, sister of Emperor Alexander I of Russia. In 1809 Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach, which had been united only in the person of the duke, were merged into the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Saxe-Weimar, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press, accessed December 22,2005 German genealogies Genealogy of Dukes of Saxe-Weimar
Saxe-Weimar
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Flag
Saxe-Weimar
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Saxe-Weimar, shown within the other
Ernestine duchies and
Saxe-Jena, joined to Saxe-Weimar in 1690
Saxe-Weimar
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The
Schloss in Weimar, the ducal residence
Saxe-Weimar
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Theobald von Oer: The Weimar Court of the Muses (1860); Schiller reads at
Schloss Tiefurt, Wieland, Herder and Goethe among the listeners
4.
Sturm und Drang
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The period is named for Friedrich Maximilian Klingers play Sturm und Drang, which was first performed by Abel Seylers famed theatrical company in 1777. The philosopher Johann Georg Hamann is considered to be the ideologue of Sturm und Drang, with Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, H. L. Wagner and Friedrich Maximilian Klinger also significant figures. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was also a proponent of the movement, though he. French neoclassicism, a movement beginning in the early Baroque, with its emphasis on the rational, was the target of rebellion for adherents of the Sturm und Drang movement. The term Sturm und Drang first appeared as the title of a play by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, written for Abel Seylers Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft and this seemingly spontaneous movement became associated with a wide array of German authors and composers of the mid-to-late Classical period. Sturm und Drang came to be associated with literature or music aimed at shocking the audience or imbuing them with extremes of emotion, there is much debate regarding whose work should or should not be included in the canon of Sturm und Drang. Nevertheless, the originators of the movement came to view it as a time of premature exuberance that was abandoned in favor of often conflicting artistic pursuits. The literary topos of the Kraftmensch existed as a precursor to Sturm und Drang among dramatists beginning with F. M, Klinger, the expression of which is seen in the radical degree to which individuality need appeal to no outside authority save the self nor be tempered by rationalism. The most important contemporary document was the 1773 volume Von deutscher Art und Kunst, einige fliegende Blätter, a collection of essays that included commentaries by Herder on Ossian and Shakespeare, along with contributions by Goethe, Paolo Frisi, and Justus Möser. The protagonist in a typical Sturm und Drang stage work, poem, or novel is driven to action—often violent action—not by pursuit of noble means nor by true motives, goethes unfinished Prometheus exemplifies this along with the common ambiguity provided by juxtaposing humanistic platitudes with outbursts of irrationality. The literature of Sturm und Drang features an anti-aristocratic slant while seeking to elevate all things humble, natural, Friedrich Schillers drama, Die Räuber, provided the groundwork for melodrama to become a recognized dramatic form. The plot portrays a conflict between two brothers, Franz and Karl Moor. Franz is cast as a villain attempting to cheat Karl out of his inheritance, though the motives for his action are complex and initiate an investigation of good. Both of these works are examples of Sturm und Drang in German literature. The principal themes tend to be angular, with large leaps, tempos and dynamics change rapidly and unpredictably in order to reflect strong changes of emotion. Pulsing rhythms and syncopation are common, as are racing lines in the soprano or alto registers, writing for string instruments features tremolo and sudden, dramatic dynamic changes and accents. Musical theater became the place of the literary and musical strands of Sturm und Drang. The obligato recitative is a prime example, here, orchestral accompaniment provides an intense underlay of vivid tone-painting to the solo recitative
Sturm und Drang
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Johann Georg Hamann
Sturm und Drang
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The theatre director
Abel Seyler
Sturm und Drang
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Johann Anton Leisewitz
5.
Weimar Classicism
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Weimar Classicism is a German literary and cultural movement, whose practitioners established a new humanism, from the synthesis of ideas from Romanticism, Classicism, and the Age of Enlightenment. The German Enlightenment, called “neo-classical”, burgeoned in the synthesis of Empiricism and Rationalism as developed by Christian Thomasius and this philosophy, circulated widely in many magazines and journals, profoundly directed the subsequent expansion of German-speaking and European culture. The inability of this common-sense outlook convincingly to bridge “feeling” and “thought”, “body” and “mind”, another, though not as abstract, approach to this problem was a governing concern with the problems of aesthetics. It was no inquiry into taste — into positive or negative appeals — nor sensations as such, therefore, the Weimar Classicism could also be started with the arrival of Wieland and extended beyond Schillers death until the death of Wieland or even of Goethe himself. In Italy Goethe aimed to rediscover himself as a writer and to become an artist, through training in Rome. While he failed as an artist, Italy appeared to have him a better writer. Schillers evolution as a writer was following a path to Goethes. He had begun as a writer of wild, violent, emotion-driven plays, in the late 1780s he turned to a more classical style. In 1794 Schiller and Goethe became friends and allies in a project to establish new standards for literature, by contrast the contemporaneous and efflorescing literary movement of German Romanticism was in opposition to Weimar and German Classicism, especially to Schiller. On this Goethe remarked, The Weimar movement was notable for its inclusion of female writers, die Horen included works by several women, including a serially published novel, Agnes von Lilien, by Schillers sister-in-law Caroline von Wolzogen. Other women published by Schiller included Sophie Mereau, Friederike Brun, Amalie von Imhoff, Elisa von der Recke, between 1786 and Schillers death in 1805 he and Goethe worked to recruit a network of writers, philosophers, scholars and artists to their cause. A work’s Gehalt is not reducible to its Inhalt, Stoff, Schiller and Goethe reserve this for the forms taken from the world or that are created. In a work of art, Stoff is to be “indifferent”, christoph Martin Wieland was the first writer to arrive in Weimar. In 1772 he was called by the widowed Anna Amalia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, then regent of the Duchy Sachsen-Weimar, Weimar remained Wielands home until his death. Here, in 1773, he founded Der teutsche Merkur, which under his editorship became the most influential literary review in Germany,1776, one year after his arrival, Goethe arranged that Herder was called to Weimar, whom he had admired already in his Strasbourg years. The vast array of writings themselves, other than being solely literary pursuances or distichs, include scientific, philosophic, Schiller was remarkably prolific during this period, writing his plays Wallenstein, Mary Stuart, The Maid of Orleans, The Bride of Messina and William Tell. Ein Schauspiel für Liebende Iphigenie auf Tauris Torquato Tasso Römische Elegien Venezianische Epigramme Faust, ein Fragment Beiträge zur Optik Der Bürgergeneral Reineke Fuchs Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten Das Märchen, Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre Faust. Musicians were inspired to compose for the works of writers, Ludwig van Beethoven, Paul Dukas, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Weimar Classicism
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Weimar’s Courtyard of the Muses (1860) by Theobald Freiherr von Oer. Schiller reads in the gardens of
Tiefurt Castle,
Weimar. Amongst the audience, seated at the far left, are Wieland and Herder, while Goethe stands before the pillar, at right.
6.
The Robbers
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The Robbers is the first drama by German playwright Friedrich Schiller. The play was published in 1781 and premiered on 13 January 1782 in Mannheim, Germany and it was written towards the end of the German Sturm und Drang movement, and many critics, such as Peter Brooks, consider it very influential in the development of European melodrama. The play astounded its Mannheim audience and made Schiller an overnight sensation and it later became the basis for Verdis opera of the same name, I masnadieri. The plot revolves around the conflict between two brothers, Karl and Franz Moor. The charismatic but rebellious student Karl is deeply loved by his father, the younger brother, Franz, who appears as a cold, calculating villain, plots to wrest away Karls inheritance. As the play unfolds, both Franzs motives and Karls innocence and heroism are revealed to be complex, Schillers highly emotional language and his depiction of physical violence mark the play as a quintessential Sturm und Drang work. At the same time, the play utilizes a traditional five-act structure, the play uses alternating scenes to pit the brothers against each other, as one quests for money and power, while the other attempts to create a revolutionary anarchy in the Bohemian Forest. Schiller raises many disturbing issues in the play, for instance, he questions the dividing lines between personal liberty and the law and probes the psychology of power, the nature of masculinity and the essential differences between good and evil. He strongly criticizes both the hypocrisies of class and religion and the inequities of German society. He also conducts an inquiry into the nature of evil. Schiller was inspired by the play Julius of Tarent by Johann Anton Leisewitz, maximilian, Count von Moor is the beloved father of Karl and Franz. He is a person at heart, but also weak. He bears responsibility for the perversion of the Moor family, which has caused the values to become invalidated. The Moor family acts as an analogy of state, a political criticism of Schillers. The count as a father of the nation is particularly condemned, Karl Moor, his older son, is a self-confident idealist. He is good-looking and well liked by all and he holds feelings of deep love for Amalia. After his father, misled by brother Franz, curses Karl and banishes him from his home, Karl becomes a disgraceful criminal and his despair leads him to express and discover new goals and directions, and to realize his ideals and dreams of heroism. He does not shrink from breaking the law, for, as he says and he develops a close connection with his robbers, especially Roller and Schweizer, but he recognizes the unscrupulousness and dishonor of Spiegelberg and his other associates
The Robbers
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First edition, 1781
7.
Don Carlos (play)
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Don Carlos is a tragedy in five acts by Friedrich Schiller, it was written between 1783 and 1787 and first produced in Hamburg in 1787. The title character is Carlos, Prince of Asturias and the play as a whole is loosely modeled on events in the 16th century under the reign of King Philip II of Spain. Poultons adaptation was directed by Michael Grandage in a well-reviewed staging, Schiller, Volume Two, Don Carlos, Mary Stuart. MacDonalds adaptation was first staged in Edinburgh in 1995, cultural depictions of Philip II of Spain Carlos, Prince of Asturias Stevens, Robert. Schillers Don Carlos, the light and warmth of a timeless play, review of a 2004 production in Sheffield, England of Mike Poultons adaptation from the German, along with an extended discussion of plays history. University of Oxford production of Don Carlos at the Oxford Playhouse, 18-21 Feb.2009
Don Carlos (play)
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Don Karlos,
Leipzig, 1787
8.
Wallenstein (trilogy of plays)
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Wallenstein is the popular designation for a trilogy of dramas by German author Friedrich Schiller. It consists of the plays Wallensteins Camp, a prologue, The Piccolomini. Schiller himself also structured the trilogy into two parts, with Wallenstein I including Wallensteins Camp and The Piccolomini, and Wallenstein II consisting of Wallensteins Death and he completed the trilogy in 1799. In this drama Schiller addresses the decline of the famous general Albrecht von Wallenstein, Wallenstein fails at the height of his power as successful commander-in-chief of the imperial army when he begins to rebel against his emperor, Ferdinand II. The action is set some 16 years after the start of the war, in the winter of 1633/1634 and begins in the Bohemian city of Pilsen, where Wallenstein is based with his troops. For the second and third acts of the play the action moves to Eger, where Wallenstein has fled. Introducing the second and third parts, Wallensteins Camp is by far the shortest of the three, whilst the main action takes place among the higher ranks of the troops and nobility, Wallensteins Camp reflects popular opinion, particularly that of the soldiers in Wallensteins camp. They are enthusiastic about their commander, who to all appearances has managed to bring together mercenaries from a variety of locations. They also praise the war for improving their own lives despite its toll on the civilian population, still, we hear a peasant complain that the troops steal from him, and a monk criticize their wicked life. At the end of part, the soldiers find out that the emperor intends to place a section of the army under the command of Spanish Habsburgs. Unhappy, they agree to ask Max Piccolomini, one of their commanders, the Capuchins sermon in Wallensteins Camp is based on the Discalced Augustinian Abraham a Sancta Claras 1683 book, Auf, auf, ihr Christen. The main action of the trilogy begins with the second play, the viewpoint changes from that of the ordinary soldiers to that of the commanders who, awaiting orders, meet in an encampment near Pilsen. Most of them prefer Prince Wallenstein to the emperor, the former has repeatedly ignored the latters orders, which is why he has ordered the prince to cede part of his huge army. Unwilling, Wallenstein considers resignation and, to pressure the emperor into making peace, is negotiating with the Swedish enemy. Spurring him on are his closest comrades, his brother-in-law Terzky and Illo, Wallenstein lets his comrades in on his plans but – unknown to him – one of them, Octavio Piccolomini, remains loyal to the emperor, for whom he is spying. The emperor has authorised Piccolomini to replace Wallenstein as commander-in-chief, imperial informers having managed to capture one of Wallensteins negotiators en route to the Swedes, his removal becomes imminent. The situation comes to a head because Octavios son Max Piccolomini, a devotee of Wallenstein, who treats him well, Max cant believe his fathers claim that Wallenstein intends to betray the emperor. Piccolomini ends with Maxs decision to challenge Wallenstein directly about his plans, in the last part of the Wallenstein trilogy the conflict anticipated in the second play erupts and leads to a tragic conclusion
Wallenstein (trilogy of plays)
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Charlotte von Hagn as Thekla, 1828
Wallenstein (trilogy of plays)
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Wolfgang Heinz as Wallenstein, 1962, at the Deutsches Theater Berlin, directed by Karl Paryla
9.
Mary Stuart (play)
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Mary Stuart is a verse play by Friedrich Schiller that depicts the last days of Mary, Queen of Scots. The play consists of five acts, each divided into several scenes, the play had its première in Weimar, Germany on 14 June 1800. The play formed the basis for Donizettis opera Maria Stuarda, Mary Stuart is imprisoned in England — nominally for the murder of her husband Darnley, but actually due to her claim to the throne of England held by Queen Elizabeth I. While Marys cousin, Elizabeth, hesitates over signing Marys death sentence, after Mary finds out that Mortimer, the nephew of her custodian, is on her side, she entrusts her life to him. Mortimer is supposed to give Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester and this is a delicate situation, for Leicester seems to support Queen Elizabeth. After numerous requests, Mary finally gains the opportunity to meet Queen Elizabeth and this meeting ends in an acrimonious argument, caused by Marys unwillingness to submit entirely to Elizabeths wish. The argument leads to the suspicion that the cause of reprieve will not succeed. To complicate matters further, Mortimer plans to free Mary from the prison by force, a version of the unsuccessful Babington Plot. Queen Elizabeth eventually persuades herself to sign Marys death warrant, Elizabeth insists that her only reason for signing is the pressure from her own people to do so. The signed warrant is handed to Queen Elizabeths undersecretary Davison without any instructions on what to do with it. In the process, Elizabeth transfers the burden of responsibility to him, fully aware that he in turn will hand over the warrant to Lord Burleigh, Burleigh demands the signed document from Davison, who — despite his uncertainty — eventually hands it to him. As a result, Burleigh has Mary executed, the play ends with Elizabeth blaming both Burleigh and Davison for Marys death, Lord Shrewsbury resigning his honors and Leicester leaving England for France. Elizabeth is left alone as the curtain falls. Using Peter Oswalds new translation, it was directed by Phyllida Lloyd and starred Janet McTeer as Mary, Queen of Scots, the production transferred to the Apollo Theatre in Londons West End, where it also played a sold-out engagement from late 2005 into January 2006. The production opened on Broadway on 30 March 2009, officially 19 April and it earned seven Tony Award nominations including Best Revival of a Play. The L. A. Morgan Sheppard as Talbot, Christopher Neame as Davison, Shellagh Cullen as Hanna Kennedy, the Faction Theatre Company, as part of a repertory season, staged an adaptation of Mary Stuart at the New Diorama Theatre in London in early 2012. The production was the third Schiller play translated and adapted by Daniel Millar and Mark Leipacher, on 23 September 2012, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a production translated by David Harrower, adapted for radio by Robin Brooks and produced/directed by Gaynor Macfarlane. The cast included Meg Fraser as Mary, Alexandra Mathie as Elizabeth, Matthew Pidgeon as Mortimer, Robin Laing as Leicester, Richard Greenwood as Burleigh, mortimers on-stage suicide has had its dangers
Mary Stuart (play)
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Mary Stuart (drawing by
Arthur von Ramberg (1859))
Mary Stuart (play)
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Queen Elisabeth in the Mary Stuart-play (drawing by
Arthur von Ramberg (1859))
10.
William Tell (play)
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William Tell is a drama written by Friedrich Schiller in 1804. The story focuses on the legendary Swiss marksman William Tell as part of the greater Swiss struggle for independence from the Habsburg Empire in the early 14th century, gioachino Rossinis four-act opera Guillaume Tell was written to a French adaptation of Schillers play. The play was written by Friedrich Schiller between 1803 and 1804, and published that year in a first edition of 7000 copies, since its publication, Schiller’s William Tell has been translated into many languages. Friedrich Schiller was inspired to write a play about the legendary Swiss marksman William Tell by his wife Lotte, after his friend, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, had returned from his second journey to the Lake of Lucerne in 1779, Schiller started collecting sources. The lake may take pity on him, but the Governor, never, public anger is fanned into rebellion when Gessler blinds an aged man for a trifling misdemeanor. Tell, the individualist, holds aloof from the rebels councils, the Baron warns Ulrich that Bertha is being used only to bait him, and that the freedom-loving people will prevail in the end, but the youth goes to join Gessler. While they are hunting, however, Bertha reveals that she will love him only if he joins in the fight to liberate his own people from Gesslers grip. Tell prepares to pay a visit to his father-in-law, a leader of the rebels. Tell insists that he has nothing to fear, and sets off with his crossbow, accompanied by Walter and they pass the prison where Tell, failing to salute the Governors cap, is seized by a guardsman. Several peasants are trying to rescue him when the Governors hunting party rides up, Tell declares his failure to salute was an oversight, and the Governor remarks that he has heard that Tell is a master of the bow. My father can hit an apple at a hundred yards, says Gessler, Very well, you shall prove your skill now. Shoot an apple from the boys head, If you miss, your own head shall pay the forfeit. Tell falls upon his knees, imploring Gessler to withdraw so barbarous a command and he bares his own breast, but the Governor laughs and says, It is not your life I want, but the shot—the proof of your skill. The boy speaks up, Shoot, Father, Tell removes two arrows from his quiver, puts one in his belt, takes aim and sends the other on its way. Walter runs to his father, crying, Heres the apple, I knew youd never hit me. Tell falls upon his knees to embrace his son, but Gessler has not finished with him, a word with you, Tell, he commands. I saw you place a second arrow on your belt, Tell answers, If the first arrow had struck my child, the second would have gone through your heart. For this answer, Gessler orders him bound and taken to the prison at Küssnacht for his threat, but a great storm comes up which proves to be the huntsmans salvation
William Tell (play)
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25
CHF coin 1955 obverse
11.
Charlotte von Lengefeld
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Charlotte Luise Antoinette von Schiller, born Charlotte von Lengefeld was the wife of German poet Friedrich Schiller. Lengefeld was born in Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, to an upper-class family, though her father, who died when she was a young girl, had been a forest administrator, in her young adulthood she was introduced to the literary circles of Weimar. She became friendly with Charlotte von Stein, who was at the center of the circle of Weimar Classicism as a friend of Schiller, Stein confided in her throughout her complex relationship with Goethe. Her first love was a soldier, but after her familys opposition the engagement was dropped, Lengefeld first met Schiller, then a little-known and impoverished poet, in 1785, through her older sister Caroline and her cousin Wilhelm von Wolzogen, who later became Carolines second husband. They began a correspondence in 1788, and, aided by the Lengefelds, oh how hard it has been for me to keep this secret which I was obliged to do from the beginning of our acquaintance. The precise nature of Schillers relationship to the two sisters has been disputed and they married on 20 February 1790. It grieves me that he should shed tears for such objects, the Schillers had four children, Karl Ludwig Friedrich, Ernst Friedrich Wilhelm, Karoline Luise Friederike Schiller, and Emilie Henriette Luise. Though never a published author during her lifetime, Lengefeld was a writer her entire life and her letters to her husband, her sister, Stein, Goethe, and others have been published in multiple editions. She has also identified as the author of several works found among her husbands papers and posthumously included in collected editions alongside his work
Charlotte von Lengefeld
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Print of a portrait of Charlotte von Lengefeld, probably by Auguste Christian Fleischman.
Charlotte von Lengefeld
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Portrait by Ludovike Simanowiz
Charlotte von Lengefeld
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The Schillers' four children
12.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Goethe in 1828
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Goethe's birthplace in
Frankfurt, Germany (Großer Hirschgraben)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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Goethe, age 38, painted by
Angelica Kauffman 1787
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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A Goethe watercolor depicting a
liberty pole at the border to the short-lived
Republic of Mainz, created under influence of the French Revolution and destroyed in the
Siege of Mainz in which Goethe participated
13.
Aesthetics
–
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
Aesthetics
–
Bronze sculpture, thought to be either
Poseidon or
Zeus,
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Aesthetics
–
Cubist painting by
Georges Braque, Violin and Candlestick (1910)
Aesthetics
–
William Hogarth, self-portrait, 1745
Aesthetics
–
Example of the
Dada aesthetic,
Marcel Duchamp 's Fountain 1917
14.
Frederick the Great
–
Frederick II was King of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, the longest reign of any Hohenzollern king. Frederick was the last titled King in Prussia and declared himself King of Prussia after achieving full sovereignty for all historical Prussian lands, Prussia had greatly increased its territories and became a leading military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great and was affectionately nicknamed Der Alte Fritz by the Prussian, in his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than the art of war. Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning acclaim for himself. Near the end of his life, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland and he was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Considering himself the first servant of the state, Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and he modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the system and made it possible for men not of noble stock to become judges. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, some critics, however, point out his oppressive measures against conquered Polish subjects during the First Partition. Frederick supported arts and philosophers he favored, as well as allowing complete freedom of the press, Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. Because he died childless, Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II, son of his brother, historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Fredericks Heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms. Immortalized by the raising of the Prussian state to the rank of a power, Johann Gustav Droysen was even more extolling. However, by the 21st century, a re-evaluation of his legacy as a great warrior, Frederick, the son of Frederick William I and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, was born in Berlin on 24 January 1712. The birth of Frederick was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I, with more than usual pleasure, with the death of his father in 1713, Frederick William became King of Prussia, thus making young Frederick the crown prince. The new king wished for his sons and daughters to be educated not as royalty and he had been educated by a Frenchwoman, Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle, and he wished that she educate his children. However, he possessed a violent temper and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority. As Frederick grew, his preference for music, literature and French culture clashed with his fathers militarism, in contrast, Fredericks mother Sophia was polite, charismatic and learned. Her father, George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg, succeeded to the British throne as King George I in 1714, Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously. Although Frederick William I was raised a Calvinist, he feared he was not of the elect, to avoid the possibility of Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination
Frederick the Great
–
Portrait of Frederick the Great; By
Anton Graff, 1781
Frederick the Great
–
Baptism of Frederick, 1712 (Harper's Magazine, 1870)
Frederick the Great
–
Frederick as Crown Prince (1739)
Frederick the Great
–
Rheinsberg Palace, Frederick's residence 1736-1740
15.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
16.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
–
Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
17.
Ludwigsburg
–
Ludwigsburg is a city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, about 12 kilometres north of Stuttgart city centre, near the river Neckar. It is the largest and primary city of the Ludwigsburg district with about 88,000 inhabitants and it is situated within the Stuttgart Region, and the district is part of the administrative region of Stuttgart. The area around Ludwigsburg had been a hunting grounds by the royal Württemberg family for generations before the founding of Ludwigsburg. Although the region was wilderness, it was accessible by boat using the Neckar River. In 1704 the founder of Ludwigsburg, Eberhard Louis, Duke of Württemberg, Ludwigsburg is named after the Duke Eberhard Louis middle name, Ludwig being the German name for Louis. Right up until his death, construction workers and craftsmen worked on what was to one of the largest Baroque palace ensembles in Europe. Under Eberhard Louis and his successor, Charles Eugene, the Palace served as the residence of Württemberg for a total of 28 years. With the Palace as their gesamtkunstwerk and the opulent festivals they organized, to them, their most important task was to bring fame and renown to the court of Württemberg and to compete with and outdo other European rulers in this regard. Duke Eberhard Louis planned to found an ideal Baroque city right beside Ludwigsburg Palace, however, the town only began to grow when it was granted city status in 1718 and then in that year became the royal residence and capital city of the country of Württemberg. By the time of Eberhard Louis death in 1733, the population had risen to around 6,000 people, nevertheless, the new capital city Ludwigsburg was still a major construction site with many unpaved streets and half-finished buildings. For over two decades, Eberhard Louis held court in Ludwigsburg with his mistress Wilhilmine von Grävenitz while the Duchess Johanna Elisabeth remained in Stuttgart, the clever, ambitious mistress made the best of her time, influencing politics in Württemberg and advancing her status in society. This was cause for great joy for many people in Württemberg, to mark reconciliation, the Ludwigsburg citizenry published a leaflet with a copper etching that made reference to the general wish for a new heir to the throne. The etching depicts the personification of Ludwigsburg who is receiving a pearl, however, peoples hopes for another child were not fulfilled as Eberhard Louis died in 1733 and his Catholic cousin, Charles Alexander, Duke of Württemberg, ascended to the throne. When Charles Alexander immediately moved the capital of Württemberg back to Stuttgart, the middle of Neckarland, where Ludwigsburg lies, was settled in the stone and bronze ages. Numerous archaeological sites from the Hallstatt period remain in the city, towards the end of the 1st century, the area was occupied by the Romans. They pushed the Limes further to the east around 150 and controlled the region until 260, evidence of the Alamanni settlement can be found in grave sites in the city today. The origins of Ludwigsburg date from the beginning of the 18th century when the largest baroque castle in Germany, originally, the Duke planned to just build one country home, which he began building in 1704. However, the examples of other princes fostered a desire to project his absolutist power by establishing a city, to the baroque palace, he added a hunting lodge and country seat, called Schloss Favorite, and the Seeschloss Monrepos
Ludwigsburg
–
Ludwigsburg Palace, inner courtyard
Ludwigsburg
–
View of the upper grounds of Ludwigsburg Palace.
Ludwigsburg
–
Hunting Lodge
Favorite.
Ludwigsburg
–
Castle
Monrepos.
18.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Francophone Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the Enlightenment in France and across Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution, Rousseaus novel Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel Julie, or the New Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and romanticism in fiction and his Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club and he was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794,16 years after his death. Rousseau was born in Geneva, which was at the time a city-state, since 1536, Geneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Rousseau was proud that his family, of the order, had voting rights in the city. Throughout his life, he signed his books Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Geneva, in theory, was governed democratically by its male voting citizens, the citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as inhabitants, whose descendants were called natives and continued to lack suffrage. There was much debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, in 1707, a democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being. He was shot by order of the Little Council, Jean-Jacques Rousseaus father, Isaac, was not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacquess grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it. The trade of watchmaking had become a tradition by the time of Rousseaus father. Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, Isaac, notwithstanding his artisan status, was well educated and a lover of music. A Genevan watchmaker, Rousseau wrote, is a man who can be introduced anywhere, in 1699, Isaac ran into political difficulty by entering a quarrel with visiting English officers, who in response drew their swords and threatened him. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, Rousseaus mother, Suzanne Bernard Rousseau, was from an upper-class family. She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher and he cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques died in his early thirties. In 1695, Suzanne had to answer charges that she had attended a street theater disguised as a peasant woman so she could gaze upon M. Vincent Sarrasin, after a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. She married Rousseaus father at the age of 31, isaacs sister had married Suzannes brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Rousseau in 1753, by
Maurice Quentin de La Tour
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
The house where Rousseau was born at number 40, Grand-Rue.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Les Charmettes, where Rousseau lived with
Mme. de Warens in 1735–6, now a museum dedicated to Rousseau.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
–
Palazzo belonging to Tommaso Querini at 968 Cannaregio
Venice that served as the French Embassy during Rousseau's period as Secretary to the Ambassador
19.
Johann Anton Leisewitz
–
Johann Anton Leisewitz was a German lawyer and dramatic poet, and a central figure of the Sturm und Drang era. He is best known for his play Julius of Tarent, that inspired Friedrich Schiller and is considered the forerunner of Schillers quintessential Sturm und Drang work The Robbers. In 1775, at Brunswick, and later at Berlin and Weimar, he met and soon counted among his friends Eschenburg, Moses Mendelssohn, Lessing, Nicolai, Herder, and Goethe. His single complete play, Julius of Tarent, was written in Lessings style, the play was a favorite of Friedrich Schiller, and was frequently acted in Germany. It also inspired Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, who was employed as playwright by Leisewitz father-in-law Abel Seyler and he married Sophie Marie Katharina Seyler in Hamburg in 1781. She was the daughter of famed Swiss-born theatre director Abel Seyler and stepdaughter of actress Friederike Sophie Seyler and her brother was banker Ludwig Erdwin Seyler, who became by marriage a member of the Berenberg-Gossler banking dynasty. Leisewitz was a distant relative of his wife on the Andreae side and he would later refer to J. G. R. His diaries and his letters to his wife have been published, the letters sent between Johann Anton Leisewitz and Sophie Seyler have been described as some of the most beautiful love letters of the late 18th century. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds
Johann Anton Leisewitz
–
Johann Anton Leisewitz
Johann Anton Leisewitz
–
His wife Sophie Seyler
20.
Stuttgart
–
Stuttgart is the capital and largest city of the German state of Baden-Württemberg. It is located on the Neckar river in a fertile valley known as the Stuttgart Cauldron an hour from the Swabian Jura. Stuttgarts urban area has a population of 623,738, making it the sixth largest city in Germany. 2.7 million people live in the administrative region and another 5.3 million people in its metropolitan area. Since the 6th millennium BC, the Stuttgart area has been an important agricultural area and has been host to a number of cultures seeking to utilize the rich soil of the Neckar valley. The Roman Empire conquered the area in 83 AD and built a massive Castrum near Bad Cannstatt, Stuttgarts roots were truly laid in the 10th century with its founding by Liudolf, Duke of Swabia as a stud farm for his warhorses. Overshadowed by nearby Cannstatt, the town grew steadily and was granted a charter in 1320, the fortunes of Stuttgart turned with those of the House of Württemberg, and they made it the capital of their County, Duchy, and Kingdom from the 15th Century to 1918. Stuttgart prospered despite setbacks in the forms of the Thirty Years War and devastating air raids by the Allies on the city, however, by 1952, the city had bounced back and became the major economic, industrial, tourism and publishing center it is today. Stuttgart is also an important transport junction, and possesses the sixth largest airport in Germany. Such companies as Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, Daimler AG, Dinkelacker, Stuttgart is unusual in the scheme of German cities. It is spread across a variety of hills, valleys and parks and this is often a source of surprise to visitors who associate the city with its reputation as the Cradle of the Automobile. The citys tourism slogan is Stuttgart offers more, under current plans to improve transport links to the international infrastructure, the city unveiled a new logo and slogan in March 2008 describing itself as Das neue Herz Europas. For business, it describes itself as Where business meets the future, in July 2010, Stuttgart unveiled a new city logo, designed to entice more business people to stay in the city and enjoy breaks in the area. Stuttgart is a city of mostly immigrants, according to Dorling Kindersley Publishings Eyewitness Travel Guide to Germany, In the city of Stuttgart, every third inhabitant is a foreigner. 40% of Stuttgarts residents, and 64% of the population below the age of five are of immigrant background, the reason for this being that the city was founded in 950 AD by Duke Liudolf of Swabia to breed warhorses. Originally, the most important location in the Neckar river valley as the rim of the Stuttgart basin at what is today Bad Cannstatt. As with many military installations, a settlement sprang up nearby, when they did, the town was left in the capable hands of a local brickworks that produced sophisticated architectural ceramics and pottery. When the Romans were driven back past the Rhine and Danube rivers in the 3rd Century by the Alamanni, in 700, Duke Gotfrid mentions a Chan Stada in a document regarding property
Stuttgart
–
Clockwise from top left:
Staatstheater,
Cannstatter Volksfest in Bad Cannstatt, fountain at
Schlossplatz, Fruchtkasten façade and the statue of
Friedrich Schiller at
Schillerplatz,
New Palace, and
Old Castle at Schillerplatz.
Stuttgart
–
Panorama of Stuttgart looking southeast. From the
Neckar valley on the left the city rises to the city center, backdropped by high woods to the south (
television tower). Stuttgart South and Stuttgart West are to the right.
Stuttgart
–
Stuttgart at night, looking northwest
Stuttgart
–
Schlossplatz
21.
Mannheim
–
Mannheim is a city in the southwestern part of Germany, the third-largest in the German state of Baden-Württemberg after Stuttgart and Karlsruhe. Mannheim is among the twenty largest cities in Germany, with a 2015 population of approximately 305,000 inhabitants, the city is at the centre of the larger densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region which has a population of 2,400,000 and is Germanys eighth-largest metropolitan region. Mannheim is located at the confluence of the Rhine and the Neckar in the corner of Baden-Württemberg. The Rhine separates Mannheim from the city of Ludwigshafen, just to the west of it in Rhineland-Palatinate, Mannheim is downstream along the Neckar from the city of Heidelberg. Mannheim is unusual among German cities in that its streets and avenues are laid out in a grid pattern, the eighteenth century Mannheim Palace, former home of the Prince-elector of the Palatinate, now houses the University of Mannheim. In addition, Mannheims SAP Arena is not only the home of the German ice hockey record champions the Adler Mannheim, but also the well-known handball team, the Rhein-Neckar Löwen. According to the Forbes magazine, Mannheim is known for its exceptional power and was ranked 11th among the Top 15 of the most inventive cities worldwide. The New Economy Magazine elected Mannheim under the 20 cities that best represent the world of tomorrow emphasizing Mannheims positive economic, since 2014, Mannheim has been a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network and holds the title of UNESCO City of Music. Mannheim is a Smart City the citys electrical grid is installed with a Power-line communication network, the citys tourism slogan is Leben. The civic symbol of Mannheim is der Wasserturm, a Romanesque water tower completed in 1886 that rises to 60 metres above the highest point of the art nouveau area Friedrichsplatz, Mannheim is the starting and finishing point of the Bertha Benz Memorial Route. The name of the city was first recorded as Mannenheim in a transaction in 766. The name is interpreted as the home of Manno, a form of a Germanic name such as Hartmann or Hermann. Mannheim remained a mere village throughout the Middle Ages, in 1606, Frederick IV, Elector Palatine started building the fortress of Friedrichsburg and the adjacent city centre with its grid of streets and avenues. On January 24,1607, Frederick IV gave Mannheim the status of a city, Mannheim was mostly levelled during the Thirty Years War around 1622 by the forces of Johan Tillys troops. After being rebuilt, it was severely damaged by the French Army in 1689 during the Nine Years War. During the eighteenth century, Mannheim was the home of the Mannheim School of classical music composers, Mannheim was said to have one of the best court orchestras in Europe under the leadership of the conductor Carlo Grua. The royal court of the Palatinate left Mannheim in 1778, two decades later, in 1802, Mannheim was removed from the Palatinate and given to the Grand Duchy of Baden. In 1819, Norwich Duff wrote of Mannheim, In 1819, the climate crisis of 1816-17 caused famine and the death of many horses in Mannheim
Mannheim
–
View of Mannheim Palace
Mannheim
–
Aerial view of Mannheim, showing the grid layout
Mannheim
–
Mannheim in 1758
Mannheim
–
Historical map of Mannheim in 1880
22.
Frankfurt
–
The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region, which has a population of 5.8 million and is Germanys second-largest metropolitan region after Rhine-Ruhr. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 2013, the centre of the EU is about 40 km to the east of Frankfurts CBD. Frankfurt is culturally and ethnically diverse, with half of the population. A quarter of the population are foreign nationals, including many expatriates, Frankfurt is an alpha world city and a global hub for commerce, culture, education, tourism and traffic. Its the site of many global and European headquarters, Frankfurt Airport is among the worlds busiest. Automotive, technology and research, services, consulting, media, Frankfurts DE-CIX is the worlds largest internet exchange point. Messe Frankfurt is one of the worlds largest trade fairs, major fairs include the Frankfurt Motor Show, the worlds largest motor show, the Music Fair, and the Frankfurt Book Fair, the worlds largest book fair. Frankfurt is home to educational institutions, including the Goethe University, the UAS, the FUMPA. Its renowned cultural venues include the concert hall Alte Oper, Europes largest English Theatre and many museums, Frankfurts skyline is shaped by some of Europes tallest skyscrapers. In sports, the city is known as the home of the top football club Eintracht Frankfurt, the basketball club Frankfurt Skyliners, the Frankfurt Marathon. Its the seat of German sport unions for Olympics, football, Frankfurt is the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is home to the European Central Bank, Deutsche Bundesbank, Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges by market capitalization and accounts for more than 90 percent of the turnover in the German market. Frankfurt is considered a city as listed by the GaWC groups 2012 inventory. Among global cities it was ranked 10th by the Global Power City Index 2011, among financial centres it was ranked 8th by the International Financial Centers Development Index 2013 and 9th by the Global Financial Centres Index 2013. Its central location within Germany and Europe makes Frankfurt a major air, rail, Frankfurt Airport is one of the worlds busiest international airports by passenger traffic and the main hub for Germanys flag carrier Lufthansa. Frankfurter Kreuz, the Autobahn interchange close to the airport, is the most heavily used interchange in the EU, in 2011 human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Frankfurt as seventh in its annual Quality of Living survey of cities around the world. According to The Economist cost-of-living survey, Frankfurt is Germanys most expensive city, Frankfurt has many high-rise buildings in the city centre, forming the Frankfurt skyline. It is one of the few cities in the European Union to have such a skyline and because of it Germans sometimes refer to Frankfurt as Mainhattan, the other well known and obvious nickname is Bankfurt
Frankfurt
–
Collage of Frankfurt, clockwise from top of left to right: Facade of the
Römer and
Frankfurt Cathedral, statue of
Charlemagne in
Frankfurt Historical Museum, view of Frankfurt skyline and
Main River
Frankfurt
–
The legend of the Frankenfurt (ford of the Franks)
Frankfurt
–
Frankfurt in 1612
Frankfurt
–
Frankfurt in 1872
23.
Leipzig
–
Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways
Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig
24.
Dresden
–
Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
Dresden
–
Clockwise: Dresden at night,
Dresden Frauenkirche,
Schloss Pillnitz,
Dresden Castle and
Zwinger.
Dresden
–
The
Fürstenzug —the Saxon sovereigns depicted in
Meissen porcelain
Dresden
–
Dresden in 1521
Dresden
–
Image of Dresden during the 1890s, before extensive World War II destruction. Landmarks include
Dresden Frauenkirche,
Augustus Bridge, and
Katholische Hofkirche.
25.
Charlotte von Kalb
–
Charlotte Sophia Juliana von Kalb was a German writer who associated with poets Friedrich Schiller, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Hölderlin and Jean Paul. Born in Saal an der Saale in 1761, Kalb was characterized as neurotic in her youth and she married Major Heinrich Julius Alexander von Kalb on 25 October 1783. He was a veteran of Frances involvement with the American War of Independence and her marriage was an unhappy one as her husband was devoted to his career and they only spent their winters together. She employed Friedrich Hölderlin, then a poet, as a tutor for her son. She was also associated with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, von Kalb was more than just a socialite and was said to have been asked to pass on Goethes ideas about the development of animals skulls to Professor Johann Herder. The idea was that developed from vertebrae, an idea that is now discredited. Friedrich Schiller had an affair with von Kalb in the 1780s after they met in Mannheim in 1784, Schiller was two years older than she and they were together for a number of years, there was talk of von Kalb divorcing and remarrying. Schiller is said to have based a number of his characters on von Kalb. Eventually Schiller convinced himself that they needed to separate, but he needed help from his family, in 1796 von Kalb began her correspondence with Jean Paul. The primary interest was intellectual but Jean Paul was flattered and arranged to travel to Weimar to meet her in person, even then their letters were initially cool, although Jean Paul was said to be magnetic, and he admired not only von Kalbs eyes but also her soul. Von Kalbs letters to Jean Paul were later published, containing their entreaties of love, Jean Paul was in two minds but he decided that she was too titanic, too heroic. They did not marry as Jean Paul might have indicated, von Kalbs marriage effectively ended in 1800 when she unofficially separated from her husband. His military career had ended and his position was poor. He shot himself in April 1806 in Munich and she died in Berlin in 1843. Von Kalb published no books in her lifetime, in 1851, some years after her death, Cornelia was published, and in 1879, over thirty years after her death, an incomplete autobiography was published titled Charlotte. Von Kalb was judged unfavourably by women but she fascinated nearly all the men she ever knew, bibliography Ursula Naumann, Charlotte von Kalb. Metzler, Stuttgart 1985 Klaus Herrmann, Der Abschied, eine Erzählung um Schiller und Charlotte von Kalb. Weimar 1955 Ida Boy-Ed, Charlotte von Kalb, jena 1912, Stuttgart 1920 Johann Ludwig Klarmann, Geschichte der Familie von Kalb, mit besonderer Rücksicht auf Charlotte von Kalb
Charlotte von Kalb
–
Charlotte von Kalb by
Johann Friedrich August Tischbein
Charlotte von Kalb
–
Charlotte von Kalb by Johann Heinrich Schmidt
26.
Jena
–
Jena is a German university city and the second largest city in Thuringia. Jena is a centre of education and research, the Friedrich Schiller University was founded in 1558 and has 21,000 students today, furthermore, there are many institutes of the leading German research societies. Jena was first mentioned in 1182 and stayed a small town until the 19th century, for most of the 20th century, Jena was a world centre of the optical industry around companies like Carl Zeiss, Schott and Jenoptik. As one of only a few medium-sized cities in Germany, it has some buildings in the city centre. These also have their origin in the former Carl Zeiss factory, between 1790 and 1850, Jena was a focal point of the German Vormärz as well as of the student liberal and unification movement and German Romanticism. Notable persons of this period in Jena were Friedrich Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Novalis, the citys economy is based on the high-technology industry and research. The optical and precision industry is the branch to date, while software engineering, other digital businesses. Furthermore, Jena is also a hub for the surrounding regions. Jena lies in a landscape in the east of Thuringia. Until the High Middle Ages, the Saale was the border between Germanic regions in the west and Slavic regions in the east, owing to its function as a river crossing, Jena was conveniently located. The first unequivocal mention of Jena was in an 1182 document, the first local rulers of the region were the Lords of Lobdeburg with their eponymous castle near Lobeda, roughly 6 km south of the city centre on the eastern hillside of the Saale valley. Around 1230, Jena received town rights and a city grid was established between todays Fürstengraben, Löbdergraben, Teichgraben and Leutragraben. The city got a marketplace, main church, town hall, council and city walls during the late 13th, in this time, the citys economy was based mainly on wine production on the warm and sunny hillsides of the Saale valley. The two monasteries of the Dominicans and the Cistercians rounded out Jenas medieval appearance, as the political circumstances in Thuringia changed in the middle of the 14th century, the weakened Lords of Lobdeburg sold Jena to the aspiring Wettins in 1331. Jena obtained the Gotha municipal law and the citizens strengthened their rights, moreover, the Wettins were more interested in their residence in the nearby city of Weimar, and so Jena could develop itself relatively autonomously. The Protestant Reformation was brought to the city in 1523, Martin Luther visited the town to reorganize the clerical relations and Jena became an early centre of his doctrine. In the following years, the Dominican and the Carmelite convents were attacked by the townsmen, an important step in Jenas history was the foundation of the university in 1558. Ernestine Elector John Frederick the Magnanimous founded it, because he had lost his old university in Wittenberg to the Albertines after the Schmalkaldic War
Jena
–
Jena skyline
Jena
–
Lobdeburg castle above Lobeda district
Jena
–
Jena in 1650
Jena
–
The battle of Jena in 1806
27.
Baden-Baden
–
Baden-Baden is a spa town, located in the state of Baden-Württemberg in southwestern Germany. The springs at Baden-Baden were known to the Romans as Aquae, in modern German, Baden is a gerund meaning bathing but Baden, the original name of the town, derives from an earlier plural form of Bad. As with the English placename Bath, there are various other Badens at hot springs throughout Central Europe, the current doubled name arose to distinguish it from the others, particularly Baden near Vienna in Austria and Baden near Zürich in Switzerland. It is a reference to the Margraviate of Baden-Baden, a subdivision of the Margraviate of Baden, Baden-Baden became its formal name in 1931. Baden-Baden lies in a valley of the Northern Black Forest in southwestern Germany, the western districts lie within the Upper Rhine Plain. The highest mountain of Baden-Baden is the Badener Höhe, which is part of the Black Forest National Park, the old town lies on the side of a hill on the right bank of the Oos. Since the 19th century, the resorts have been located on the other side of the river. There are 29 natural springs in the area, varying in temperature from 46 to 67 °C. The water is rich in salt and flows from artesian wells 1,800 m under Florentine Hill at a rate of 341 litre per minute and is conveyed through pipes to the towns baths. Roman settlement at Baden-Baden has been dated as far back as the emperor Hadrian, the known ruins of the Roman bath were rediscovered just below the New Castle in 1847 and date to the reign of Caracalla, who visited the area to relieve his arthritic aches. The facilities were used by the Roman garrison in Strasbourg, the town fell into ruin but its church was first constructed in the 7th century. By 1112, it was the seat of the Margraviate of Baden, the Lichtenthal Convent was founded in 1254. The margraves initially used Hohenbaden Castle, whose ruins still occupy the summit above the town, Baden suffered severely during the Thirty Years War, particularly at the hands of the French, who plundered it in 1643. They returned to occupy the city in 1688 at the onset of the Nine Years War, the margravine Sibylla rebuilt the New Castle in 1697, but the margrave Louis William removed his seat to Rastatt in 1706. The Stiftskirche was rebuilt in 1753 and houses the tombs of several of the margraves, the town began its recovery in the late 18th century, serving as a refuge for émigrés from the French Revolution. The town was frequented during the Second Congress of Rastatt in 1797–99 and she came for medicinal reasons, as the waters were recommended for gout, rheumatism, paralysis, neuralgia, skin disorders, and stones. The Ducal government subsequently subsidized the resorts development, guests included Queen Victoria, Wilhelm I, and Berlioz. The pumproom was completed in 1842, the Grand Duchys railways mainline reached Baden in 1845
Baden-Baden
–
View of Baden-Baden from
Mount Merkur.
Baden-Baden
Baden-Baden
–
Old Town (Altstadt)
Baden-Baden
–
Florentine Hill (Florentinerberg), with the New Castle (top right), the Caracalla Spa (lower right), and the Friedrichsbad (lower left)
28.
Deutsches Nationaltheater and Staatskapelle Weimar
–
The Deutsche Nationaltheater and Staatskapelle Weimar is the most important musical and theatrical venue in Weimar in Germany. It is an institution, consisting of the theatrical Deutsches Nationaltheater. It has a total of six stages across the city and also hosts touring orchestras and theatre companies, in 1602, the ensemble attained resident status at the Weimar court, as the Herzoglichen Hofkapelle. Notable musicians in the history of the Staatskapelle Weimar included Johann Schein and Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach particularly worked as resident organist and Kapellmeister, Johann Nepomuk Hummel served as the ensembles Kapellmeister from 1819 to 1837, on the appointment by the Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna. Franz Liszt began his tenure as Kapellmeister in 1842, and championed the music of Richard Wagner, Hector Berlioz, after Liszt left in 1858, he was succeeded by Eduard Lassen who remained as director until his retirement in 1895. Lassen conducted several world premieres during his tenure, including the first performance of Camille Saint-Saënss Samson et Dalila in 1877, Richard Strauss served as second Kapellmeister under Lassen from 1889 to 1894 and led the premieres of his own Guntram and Engelbert Humperdincks Hänsel und Gretel. Peter Raabe became Kapellmeister in 1907, with the end of World War I and the dismantling of the German Empire, the ensemble was renamed the Weimar Staatskapelle. Ernst Praetorius directed concert and opera programming from 1924 to 1933, because his wife was Jewish, Praetorius left the post after the National Socialists ascended to power in Germany in 1933. Paul Sixt directed activities there during the Nazi regime, after World War II and the end of the Nazi regime, Hermann Abendroth became Generalmusikdirektor and chief conductor of the ensemble, serving from 1945 to 1956. Successive GMDs of the ensemble have included Gerhard Pflüger, Lothar Seyfarth, Rolf Reuter, Peter Gülke, Hans-Peter Frank, George Alexander Albrecht, Jac van Steen, oleg Caetani was principal guest conductor of the ensemble from 1984 to 1987. The ensemble was renamed the Staatskapelle Weimar in 1988. In September 2009, the Swedish conductor Stefan Solyom became GMD of the ensemble and he concluded his Weimar tenure in July 2016. In July 2015, the announced the appointment of Kirill Karabits as its next GMD and chief conductor, effective with the 2016-2017 season. Karabitss debut concert, in September 2016, was Richard Strausss Alpine Symphony
Deutsches Nationaltheater and Staatskapelle Weimar
–
The Main House (Großes Haus) of the Deutsches Nationaltheater
Deutsches Nationaltheater and Staatskapelle Weimar
–
Nationaltheater and
monument to
Goethe and
Schiller (1996)
29.
Nobility
–
The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
Nobility
–
Detail from
Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry), c. 1410, month of April
Nobility
–
Nobility offered protection in exchange for service
Nobility
–
French aristocrats, c. 1774
Nobility
–
A French political cartoon of the three orders of
feudal society (1789). The rural third estate carries the clergy and the nobility.
30.
Lithography
–
Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
Lithography
–
Charles Marion Russell 's The Custer Fight (1903), with the range of tones fading toward the edges
Lithography
–
Lithography stone and
mirror image print of a map of Munich
Lithography
–
A 1902 lithograph map (original size 33×24 cm)
31.
Caroline von Wolzogen
–
Caroline von Wolzogen, born Caroline von Lengefeld, was a German writer in the Weimar Classicism circle. Her best-known works are a novel, Agnes von Lilien, Caroline von Lengefeld was the oldest child of an aristocratic family in Rudolstadt, she was raised and educated with a younger sister, Charlotte. Though her family belonged to the nobility, after her father died the financial situation was somewhat troubled. At 16, Caroline became engaged to Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig von Beulwitz, much of her long engagement was spent with her family in Switzerland, a trip paid for by von Beulwitz, they married shortly after Carolines return in 1784. Lacking shared interests, the marriage was unhappy from the start, in 1788, Schiller moved to a nearby town to be closer to the Lengefelds, and both Caroline and her sister became closer to him. Caroline felt an attraction toward him, though how far she considered taking it has been disputed by scholars. Schiller became engaged to Charlotte in August,1789, and credited Caroline for bringing them together, Caroline von Beulwitz began writing her first novel, Agnes von Lilien, in 1793. The novel describes a woman raised by a stepfather and growing up in isolation in the countryside, poor. A meeting with an older and wealthier man, with whom she falls in love, begins a process of discovery of the world at large, including the politics. Agnes eventually discovers that her own background, previously unknown to her, ties her closely to that world, which she eventually embraces. As one critic has said, despite its interest in female subjectivity, in 1795, Schiller began a new periodical called Die Horen, which would contain articles on philosophy and history as well as fiction, organized around the central tenets of Weimar classicism. Knowing his sister-in-law was writing, Schiller asked for a submission and this publication, and its eventual publication as a two-volume novel in 1798, led to considerable attention for the novel, and speculation as to its authors identity. Some believed it was a work of Schillers, and others a work of Goethes, the fuss eventually led to the revelation of its true author, who was treated to much celebration, albeit short-lived. After this brief burst of activity and fame, Carolines literary output greatly slowed, the novel was republished in 1988, and has gotten much more widespread and sympathetic treatment since. Between the writing and publication of Agnes von Lilien, Carolines life had changed markedly, in 1794, after years of unhappiness, she left von Beulwitz and married Wilhelm von Wolzogen, the cousin who had introduced her to Schiller. Her family, including Schiller, responded negatively to this decision, the von Wolzogens returned to Weimar in 1796, where the success of Agnes von Lilien created new connections for Caroline in the literary world. In 1802 she was contacted by Anne Louise Germaine de Staël, who had read and admired the novel, after Schillers death in 1805 and the subsequent growth of his literary reputation, Caroline von Wolzogen began collecting correspondence and reminiscences of her and her sisters life with the poet. These were published under the title Schillers Leben in 1830, the first biography of Schiller to be published
Caroline von Wolzogen
–
Caroline von Wolzogen in a portrait by Carl von Ambère, 1808
Caroline von Wolzogen
–
Title page of the 1798 edition of Agnes von Lilien
32.
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
–
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach was created as a duchy in 1809 by the merger of the Ernestine duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach. It was raised to a Grand duchy in 1815 by resolution of the Vienna Congress, in 1903, it officially changed its name to the Grand Duchy of Saxony, but this name was rarely used. The Grand Duchy came to an end in the German Revolution of 1918–19 with the monarchies of the German Empire. It was succeeded by the Free State of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, which was merged into the new state of Thuringia two years later. The full grand ducal style was Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Landgrave in Thuringia, Margrave of Meissen, Princely Count of Henneberg, Lord of Blankenhayn, Neustadt, the Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach branch is the most genealogically senior extant branch of the House of Wettin. The Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach consisted of three areas, each of which formed a Kreis administratively, plus several exclaves. Neighboring countries were Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse-Kassel, the northern part of the Weimar district was flat and part of the Thuringian Basin, the southern and eastern parts were situated on the Ilm-Saale Plateau and in the Saale valley. The district Neustadt was located in hills with altitudes between 200 and 400 meters, acting Prime Minister Goethe once described Weimar as Athens on the Ilm. The highest elevation in the duchy were the Kickelhahn near Ilmenau, the Ellenbogen in the Rhön. In 1895, the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach was administratively divided into three districts Kreise, Furthermore, the districts of Weimar and Eisenach were each subdivided into two Bezirke. In the case of Weimar, these were, Weimar and Apolda, in all, there were 31 cities and 594 municipalities in the Grand Duchy. The Grand Dukes of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach granted city status to three localities in the state, namely Berka/Werra, Ruhla and Münchenbernsdorf, in 1840, there were 13 cities with over 2,000 inhabitants. In the 70 years to 1910, the Grand Duchy industrialized heavily, the population of Stadtlengsfeld shrank dramatically after the Jewish emancipation, when most of the citys Jewish citizens migrated to larger cities. In 1910, several towns had grown past the 2,000 inhabitants mark, Ruhla, Blankenhain, Bad Sulza, Auma, Triptis, Tiefenort, Bad Berka, Oberweimar, Oldisleben. The first Duke of the union was Ernest Augustus I. His son Ernest Augustus II reigned for three years, and died at the age of 20 years. At the age of 18, he married the Brunswick Princess Anna Amalia, one year his junior, a year later she gave birth to her son, Charles Augustus and after another year, when she was already a widow, to her son Constantine. As Dowager Duchess Anna Amalia actively took up the regency, with the approval of the Empress Maria Theresa, as educator for her sons, she employed the poet Christoph Martin Wieland, who was a professor at the university of Erfurt
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
–
Schloss in Weimar
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
–
Flag (1813–1897)
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
–
Wartburg Castle near Eisenach
33.
Death mask
–
A death mask is an image, typically in wax or plaster cast made of a persons face following death, often by taking a cast or impression directly from the corpse. Death masks may be mementos of the dead, or be used for creation of portraits, in other cultures a death mask may be a funeral mask, an image placed on the face of the deceased before burial rites, and normally buried with them. The best known of these are the used by ancient Egyptians as part of the mummification process, such as Tutankhamuns mask. In some European countries, it was common for death masks to be used as part of the effigy of the deceased, displayed at state funerals, mourning portraits were also painted, showing the subject lying in repose. During the 18th and 19th centuries masks were used to permanently record the features of unknown corpses for purposes of identification. This function was replaced by post-mortem photography. In the cases of people whose faces were damaged by their death, an example of this occurred in the case of Thomas DArcy McGee, the Canadian statesman whose face was shattered by the bullet which assassinated him in 1868. When taken from a subject, such a cast is called a life mask. Proponents of phrenology used both death masks and life masks for pseudoscientific purposes, masks of deceased persons are part of traditions in many countries. A special element of the rite was a mask, put on the face of the deceased. This mask was believed to strengthen the spirit of the mummy, the best known mask is Tutankhamuns mask. Made of gold and gems, the conveys the highly stylized features of the ancient ruler. Such masks were not, however, made from casts of the features, rather, in 1876 the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered in Mycenae six graves, which he was confident belonged to kings and ancient Greek heroes—Agamemnon, Cassandra, Evrimdon and their associates. To his surprise, the skulls were covered with gold masks and it is now thought most unlikely that the masks actually belonged to Agamemnon and other heroes of the Homeric epics, in fact they are several centuries older. The lifelike character of Roman portrait sculptures has been attributed to the earlier Roman use of wax to preserve the features of deceased family members, the wax masks were subsequently reproduced in more durable stone. The use of masks in the cult is also attested in Etruria. Excavations of tombs in the area of the ancient city of Clusium have yielded a number of sheet bronze masks dating from the Etruscan Late Orientalising period. In the 19th century it was thought that they were related to the Mycenaean examples, the most credited hypothesis holds that they were originally fixed to cinerary urns, to give them a human appearance
Death mask
–
Death mask of
Samuel F.B. Morse
Death mask
–
Mask of
Tutankhamun 's mummy
Death mask
–
Death mask of
Blaise Pascal
Death mask
–
Two men in the process of making a death mask, New York, c. 1908
34.
Schillerplatz (Stuttgart)
–
Schillerplatz is a square in the old city centre of Stuttgart, Germany named in honour of the German poet, philosopher, historian, and dramatist Friedrich Schiller. Schillerplatz stands to the south west of Stuttgarts main square, Schlossplatz, a street market takes place twice a week on Schillerplatz. The square is used for major events taking place on Marktplatz such as the annual Christmas Market. Hidden underneath Schillerplatzs cobblestones is a car park. The late Gothic Fruchtkasten building in the corner of Schillerplatz is now used by the State Museum of Württemberg to house a collection of musical instruments, at the centre of the cobblestone square is a memorial to Friedrich Schiller which was erected in 1839 by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. Thorvaldsens statue was the first memorial to Schiller to be erected in Germany, the first known brick building in Stuttgart - the Stuthaus or mare house - stood next to the adjacent Stiftskirche. It is therefore supposed that the square was used as a horse breeding area around 1000 years ago. After the 12th century the square was covered in simple houses before other stone houses such as the Fruchtkasten were built. In the mid-14th century the Dürnitzbau wing of the Old Castle was erected, the Old Chancellery was built in 1542 shortly before completion of the Arkadenflügel wing of the Old Castle. The area between the Old Castle and the Chancellery became a moat, in 1594 Duke Friedrich I asked his master builder Heinrich Schickhardt to turn todays Schillerplatz into a Renaissance square. Residents houses were bought and demolished, the new square was laid with cobblestones and called Castle and Chancellery Square. The dimensions of the square have not changed since, in 1607 work began on the Gesandtenhaus which is now known as the Prinzenbau and was finally completed in 1677. In 1711 the Prinzenbau was extended behind the Old Chancellery with an arch in the northernmost corner of Schillerplatz, on the opposite, southern side of the square between the Old Castle and Stiftskirche the first Stuttgart Café opened in 1712. It was replaced in 1798 by the König von England inn and this was shortly after the moat surrounding the Old Castle had finally been filled in leaving the square the way it stands today. The square was officially renamed Schillerplatz in 1934 in memory of one of Baden-Württembergs most famous writers, during the Second World War of the buildings around Schillerplatz were burnt down but all were reconstructed after the war with the exception of the King of England Inn. The underground car park was built in 1972-3, silberburg Publishing, ISBN 3-925344-05-5 Stuttgart Tourist information on Schillerplatz
Schillerplatz (Stuttgart)
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Schillerplatz showing the Fruchtkasten building on the left and Prinzenbau on the right. In the centre: the
Schiller memorial
Schillerplatz (Stuttgart)
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Schillerplatz with
the Old Castle, the Schiller memorial, the
Collegiate Church, Fruchtkasten and the Prinzenbau
Schillerplatz (Stuttgart)
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Alte Kanzlei (The Old Chancellery)
Schillerplatz (Stuttgart)
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The Fruchtkasten building
35.
Schiller Monument (Berlin)
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The Schiller Monument is located in central Berlin on Gendarmenmarkt, in front of the flight of steps leading up to the former royal theater, today a concert hall. It honors the poet, philosopher and historian Friedrich Schiller, who is regarded as one of the most significant dramatists and lyricists of the German language. The set of statues was executed by Reinhold Begas a prominent 19th-century German sculptor and it is a registered historic monument. Throughout Germany celebrations took place on 10 November 1859 to commemorate the 100th birthday of Friedrich Schiller. In Berlin funds were raised to erect a monument for the purpose, with Crown Prince Wilhelm and the city of Berlin each donating 10,000 Thaler and the population 12,680 Thaler. On the day of celebration the foundation stone for the monument was laid. The city called for proposals, and in 1864 a decision was made in favor of Reinhold Begas. The monument was the first major commission of his career and thereafter led to orders for numerous monumental sculptures in Berlin, the Franco-Prussian war of 1870/71 delayed the unveiling, which took place on 10 November 1871, the 112th anniversary of Schiller’s birthday. The occasion was used to lay out a garden on the part of Gendarmenmarkt. The statue of the stands on a cube-shaped pedestal surrounded by four semicircular basins. Although the memorial has the design of a fountain it was never used as such, Schiller wears a crown of laurel leaves and is depicted as a young, self-assured man. The model for the head was the Schiller bust made in 1794 by the sculptor Johann Heinrich von Dannecker, four allegorical figures sit on the edges of the basins and depict the writer’s main areas of creative activity. At front left is Lyric Poetry with a harp, at front right Tragedy. In the back are History, with names including Schiller, Lessing, Kant, Goethe and other people on her tablets. The pedestal bears inscriptions relating to Schiller and two small bas reliefs which show Schiller receiving a lyre from the muses and being introduced to writers of former times. During the Third Reich Gendarmenmarkt was turned into a ground in 1936. The decorative gardening was removed, the Schiller monument dismantled and put into storage, there is a bronze copy in the southern part of Schiller Park in the Berlin locality of Wedding. The marble original of the Schiller statue was placed in Lietsensee Park, the monument’s heavily damaged allegorical figures were stored in Friedrichsfelde zoo in East Berlin
Schiller Monument (Berlin)
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Schiller monument on Berlin’s Gendarmenmarkt
Schiller Monument (Berlin)
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The statue being returned to its original location in 1986
Schiller Monument (Berlin)
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Allegory of History
Schiller Monument (Berlin)
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Allegory of Lyric Poetry
36.
Gendarmenmarkt
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The Gendarmenmarkt is a square in Berlin and the site of an architectural ensemble including the Konzerthaus and the French and German Churches. In the centre of the stands an monumental statue of Germanys renowned poet Friedrich Schiller. The square was created by Johann Arnold Nering at the end of the century as the Linden-Markt. The Gendarmenmarkt is named after the cuirassier regiment Gens dArmes, which had stables at the square until 1773, during World War II, most of the buildings were badly damaged or destroyed. Today all of them have been restored, Gendarmenmarkt was first built in 1688. It was a marketplace and part of the citys Western expansion of Friedrichstadt, the French Church is the older of the two churches, was built by the Huguenot community between 1701 and 1705. It was modelled after the destroyed Huguenot church in Charenton-Saint-Maurice, France, the tower and porticoes, designed by Carl von Gontard, were added to the building in 1785. The French Church has a platform, a restaurant and a Huguenot museum. The German Church is located to the south of the Gendarmenmarkt and it has a pentagonal structure and was designed by Martin Grünberg and built in 1708 by Giovanni Simonetti. This church belonged to the Lutheran community and it too was modified in 1785 by Carl von Gontard, who built the domed tower. The German Church was completely destroyed by fire in 1945, during World War II, after German reunification it was rebuilt, finished in 1993 and re-opened in 1996 as a museum of German history. The Konzerthaus Berlin is the most recent building on the Gendarmenmarkt and it was built by Karl Friedrich Schinkel in 1821 as the Schauspielhaus. It was based on the ruins of the National Theatre, which had destroyed by fire in 1817. Parts of the building columns and some outside walls from the destroyed building. Like the other buildings on the square, it was badly damaged during World War II. The reconstruction, finished in 1984, turned the theatre into a concert hall, today, it is the home of the Konzerthausorchester Berlin. The Gendarmenmarkt hosts one of Berlins most popular Christmas markets, website of das Konzerthaus Der Gendarmenmarkt on Berlin Tourism Gendarmenmarkt Panorama
Gendarmenmarkt
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2008 panorama of the Gendarmenmarkt, showing the Konzerthaus, flanked by the German Church (left) and French Church (right)
Gendarmenmarkt
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Gendarmenmarkt around 1900
Gendarmenmarkt
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View of Gendarmenmarkt with the Konzerthaus to the right and the German Church in the back, as seen from the top of the French Church, 2011
Gendarmenmarkt
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Gendarmenmarkt at dusk
37.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
William Shakespeare
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The
Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed.
National Portrait Gallery, London.
William Shakespeare
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John Shakespeare's house, believed to be
Shakespeare's birthplace, in
Stratford-upon-Avon.
William Shakespeare
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Shakespeare's coat of arms, as it appears on the rough draft of the application to grant a coat-of-arms to John Shakespeare. It features a spear as a
pun on the family name.
William Shakespeare
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Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon.
38.
Freemasonry
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The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
Freemasonry
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Lodge in Palazzo Roffia,
Florence set out for French (Moderns) ritual
Freemasonry
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The Masonic
Square and Compasses. (Found with or without the letter
G)
Freemasonry
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Freemasons Hall, London, home of the
United Grand Lodge of England
Freemasonry
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Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809
39.
Rudolstadt
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Rudolstadt is a town in the German Bundesland of Thuringia, close to the Thuringian Forest to the southwest, and to Jena and Weimar to the north. The former capital of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, the town is built along the River Saale inside a valley surrounded by woods. Rudolstadt was founded in 776 and has had municipal law since 1326, the towns landmark is the Castle Heidecksburg which is enthroned on a hill above the old town. Rudolstadt became popular through the Anchor Stone Blocks of the Toy Company Richter and porcelain factories, Rudolstadt hosts Germany’s biggest folk, roots, and world music festival, TFF Rudolstadt, taking place annually on the first full July weekend. The headquarters of the EPC Group, an engineering and construction company, are in Rudolstadt. Since 2012 Rudolstadt hosts Gettingtough – The Race, Europes hardest Obstacle Race and he went to school in Rudolstadt, it was here that he killed his friend Hans Dietrich von Necker in a duel
Rudolstadt
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Rudolstadt
Rudolstadt
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The so-called "Richtersche Villa" (Richters Mansion).
Rudolstadt
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Rudolstadt Town Hall
Rudolstadt
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Bobo 2006
40.
Immanuel Kant
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Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who is considered a central figure in modern philosophy. Kant took himself to have effected a Copernican revolution in philosophy and his beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political theory, and aesthetics. Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that peace could be secured through universal democracy. He believed that this will be the outcome of universal history. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, Kant argued that our experiences are structured by necessary features of our minds. In his view, the shapes and structures experience so that, on an abstract level. Among other things, Kant believed that the concepts of space and time are integral to all human experience, as are our concepts of cause, Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason, the Metaphysics of Morals, which dealt with ethics, and the Critique of Judgment, Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, Prussia. His mother, Anna Regina Reuter, was born in Königsberg to a father from Nuremberg. His father, Johann Georg Kant, was a German harness maker from Memel, Immanuel Kant believed that his paternal grandfather Hans Kant was of Scottish origin. Kant was the fourth of nine children, baptized Emanuel, he changed his name to Immanuel after learning Hebrew. Young Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student and he was brought up in a Pietist household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible. His education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on Latin and religious instruction over mathematics, despite his religious upbringing and maintaining a belief in God, Kant was skeptical of religion in later life, various commentators have labelled him agnostic. Common myths about Kants personal mannerisms are listed, explained, and refuted in Goldthwaits introduction to his translation of Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime. It is often held that Kant lived a strict and disciplined life. He never married, but seemed to have a social life — he was a popular teacher. He had a circle of friends whom he met, among them Joseph Green. A common myth is that Kant never traveled more than 16 kilometres from Königsberg his whole life, in fact, between 1750 and 1754 he worked as a tutor in Judtschen and in Groß-Arnsdorf
Immanuel Kant
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Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
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Immanuel Kant by
Carle Vernet (1758-1836)
41.
German idealism
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German idealism was a speculative philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It began as a reaction to Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and was linked with both Romanticism and the revolutionary politics of the Enlightenment. The word idealism has more than one meaning, the question of what properties a thing might have independently of the mind is thus unknowable and a moot point within the idealist tradition. Kants solution was to propose that while we can know, via sensory experience, particular facts about the world and that is, we cannot know what objects we will encounter, but we can know how we will encounter them. Kant called his mode of philosophising critical philosophy, in that it was less concerned with setting out positive doctrine than with critiquing the limits to the theories we can set out. The conclusion he presented, as above, he called transcendental idealism, Kant said that there are things-in-themselves, noumena, that is, things that exist other than being merely sensations and ideas in our minds. Kant held in the Critique of Pure Reason that the world of appearances is empirically real, the mind plays a central role in influencing the way that the world is experienced, we perceive phenomena through time, space and the categories of the understanding. It is this notion that was taken to heart by Kants philosophical successors, arthur Schopenhauer considered himself to be a transcendental idealist. In his major work The World as Will and Representation he discusses his indebtedness to Kant, the Young Hegelians, a number of philosophers who developed Hegels work in various directions, were in some cases idealists. On the other hand, Karl Marx, who was numbered among them, had professed himself to be a materialist, Kants transcendental idealism consisted of taking a point of view outside of and above oneself and understanding that the mind directly knows only phenomena or ideas. Whatever exists other than mental phenomena, or ideas that appear to the mind, is a thing-in-itself and he wanted to restrict reasoning, judging, and speaking only to objects of possible experience. The main German Idealists, who had been students, reacted against Kant’s stringent limits. In 1787, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi addressed, in his book On Faith, or Idealism and Realism, Jacobi agreed that the objective thing-in-itself cannot be directly known. However, he stated, it must be taken on belief, a subject must believe that there is a real object in the external world that is related to the representation or mental idea that is directly known. This belief is a result of revelation or immediately known, but logically unproved, the real existence of a thing-in-itself is revealed or disclosed to the observing subject. In this way, the subject directly knows the ideal, subjective representations that appear in the mind, by presenting the external world as an object of belief, Jacobi legitimized belief. …y reducing the world to a matter of faith, he wanted merely to open a little door for faith in general…. Karl Leonhard Reinhold published two volumes of Letters Concerning the Kantian Philosophy in 1790 and 1792 and they provided a clear explication of Kants thoughts, which were previously inaccessible due to Kants use of complex or technical language
German idealism
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Philosophers of German idealism. Kant (upper left), Fichte (upper right), Schelling (lower left), Hegel (lower right)
42.
Karl Leonhard Reinhold
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Karl Leonhard Reinhold was an Austrian philosopher. He was the father of Ernst Christian Gottlieb Reinhold, also a philosopher, Reinhold helped to popularize the work of Immanuel Kant in the late 18th century. His elementary philosophy also influenced post-Kantian German Idealism, notably Johann Gottlieb Fichte, in late 1772, at the age of fourteen he entered the Jesuit college of St. Annes Church, Vienna. He studied there for a year, until the order was suppressed in 1773, at time he joined a similar Viennese Catholic college of the order of St. Barnabas. Finding himself out of sympathy with life, he fled on November 19,1783 to Leipzig. In 1784, after studying philosophy for a semester at Leipzig, he settled in Weimar, where he became Christoph Martin Wielands collaborator on the German Mercury, Reinhold married Wielands daughter Sophia Catharina Susanna Wieland on May 18,1785. In the German Mercury Reinhold published, in the years 1786–87, his Briefe über die Kantische Philosophie, as a result of these Letters, Reinhold received a call to the University of Jena, where he taught from 1787 to 1794. In 1788, Reinhold published Hebräischen Mysterien oder die älteste religiöse Freymaurerey under the pseudonym Decius, the fundamental idea of this work is that Moses derived his system from the Egyptian priesthood. He presented them in the form of two lectures in Leipzig that year, in 1794 he accepted a call to the University of Kiel, where he taught till his death in 1823, although his independent activity had come to an end. In later life he was influenced by J. G. Fichte. However, his historical importance belongs entirely to his earlier activity, the development of the Kantian standpoint contained in the New Theory of Human Understanding, and in the Fundament des philosophischen Wissens, was called by its author Elementarphilosophie. Reinhold lays greater emphasis than Kant upon the unity and activity of consciousness, the principle of consciousness tells us that every idea is related both to an object and a subject, and is partly to be distinguished from and partly united to both. Since form cannot produce matter and a subject cannot produce an object and this is a notion which is self-contradictory if consciousness were to be essentially a relating activity. There is therefore something which must be thought and yet cannot be thought, as a former Catholic priest, Reinhold retained the values of Christian morality and individual dignity. The basic Christian doctrines of a transcendent God and a human soul were presuppositions in his thinking. However, he disagreed with Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, who thought that the way to avoid nihilism, fatalism. Reinhold tried to show that Kants philosophy provided an alternative to religious revelation or philosophical skepticism. But Kants Critique of Pure Reason was a difficult and confusing book and it was not widely read and had little influence
Karl Leonhard Reinhold
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Karl Leonhard Reinhold
43.
Christoph Martin Wieland
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Christoph Martin Wieland was a German poet and writer. He is best-remembered for having written the first Bildungsroman, as well as the epic Oberon and he was born in Oberholzheim, which then belonged to the Free Imperial City of Biberach an der Riss in the south-east of the modern-day state of Baden-Württemberg. His father, who was pastor in Oberholzheim and subsequently in Biberach, from the town school of Biberach he passed on at the age of twelve to the Kloster Berge gymnasium, near Magdeburg. During the summer of 1750, he fell in love with a cousin, Sophie Gutermann, and this affair inspired him to plan his first ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge. In 1750 he went to the University of Tübingen as a student of law, the poems he wrote at the university — Hermann, an epic, Zwölf moralische Briefe in Versen, Anti-Ovid — are pietistic in tone and dominated by the influence of Klopstock. They attracted the attention of the Swiss literary reformer, J. J. Bodmer, here he became intimate with Jean-Jacques Rousseaus friend Julie de Bondeli. In Cyrus, he had been inspired by the deeds of Frederick the Great to write a poem exhibiting the ideal of a hero, araspes und Panthea is based on an episode from the Cyropaedia of Xenophon. Wielands conversion was completed at Biberach, having returned in 1760 as director of the chancery. The monotony of his life here was relieved by the friendship of a Count Stadion, whose library in the castle of Warthausen, not far from Biberach, was stocked with French. Wieland met again his early love Sophie Gutermann, who had become the wife of Hofrat La Roche, then manager of Count Stadions estates. In Don Sylvia von Rosalva, a romance in imitation of Don Quixote, he held up to ridicule his earlier faith, more important is the novel Geschichte des Agathon, in which, under the guise of a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual and intellectual growth. This work, which Lessing recommended as a novel of classic taste, musarion advocates a rational unity of the sensual and spiritual, Amadis celebrates the triumph of intellectual over physical beauty. Wieland married Anna Dorothea von Hillenbrand on October 21,1765, Wielands daughter Sophia Catharina Susanna Wieland married philosopher Karl Leonhard Reinhold on May 18,1785. Between 1769 and 1772, Wieland was a professor of philosophy at the University of Erfurt, in his Verklagter Amor he defended amatory poetry, and in the Dialogen des Diogenes von Sinope he gave a general vindication of his philosophical views. With the exception of years spent at Ossmannstedt, where in later life he bought an estate. Turning his attention to poetry, he wrote the Wahl des Hercules. In 1773, he founded Der teutsche Merkur, which under his editorship became the most influential literary review in Germany. His views, as exhibited therein, however, showed so much of the narrow conventional spirit of French criticism and this Wieland answered with great good nature, recommending it to all who were fond of wit and sarcasm
Christoph Martin Wieland
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1805 portrait of Christoph Martin Wieland by Ferdinand Carl Christian Jagemann
Christoph Martin Wieland
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Birthplace of Christoph Martin Wieland in
Oberholzheim, (1840)
Christoph Martin Wieland
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View of Schloss Warthausen by
Johann Heinrich Tischbein (1781)
Christoph Martin Wieland
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Former Komödienhaus in der Schlachtmetzig in
Biberach an der Riss where in 1762,
The Tempest (
Shakespeare), translated by Christoph Martin Wieland was performed for the first time in Germany.
44.
Dutch Revolt
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The southern provinces initially joined in the revolt, but later submitted to Spain. The religious clash of cultures built up gradually but inexorably into outbursts of violence against the repression of the Habsburg Crown. These tensions led to the formation of the independent Dutch Republic, the first leader was William of Orange, followed by several of his descendants and relations. This revolt was one of the first successful secessions in Europe, and led to one of the first European republics of the modern era, King Philip was initially successful in suppressing the rebellion. In 1572, however, the rebels captured Brielle and the rebellion resurged, the northern provinces became independent, first in 1581 de facto, and in 1648 de jure. The Southern Netherlands remained under Spanish rule, the continuous heavy-handed rule by the Habsburgs in the south caused many of its financial, intellectual, and cultural elite to flee north, contributing to the success of the Dutch Republic. The Dutch imposed a blockade on the southern provinces which prevented Baltic grain relieving famine in the southern towns. The first phase of the conflict can be considered to be the Dutch War of Independence, the focus of the latter phase was to gain official recognition of the already de facto independence of the United Provinces. This phase coincided with the rise of the Dutch Republic as a major power, in a series of marriages and conquests, a succession of Dukes of Burgundy expanded their original territory by adding to it a series of fiefdoms, including the Seventeen Provinces. Although Burgundy itself had been lost to France in 1477, the Burgundian Netherlands were still intact when Charles V was born in Ghent in 1500 and he was raised in the Netherlands and spoke fluent Dutch, French, Spanish, and some German. In 1506, he became lord of the Burgundian states, among which were the Netherlands, subsequently, in 1516, he inherited several titles, including the combined kingdoms of Aragon, and Castile and León which had become a worldwide empire with the Spanish colonization of the Americas. In 1519, he became ruler of the Habsburg empire, although Friesland and Guelders offered prolonged resistance, virtually all of the Netherlands had been incorporated into the Habsburg domains by the early 1540s. Flanders had long been a wealthy region, and had been coveted by the French kings for a long time. The other Netherlands had also grown into wealthy and entrepreneurial regions within the empire, Charles Vs empire became a worldwide empire with large American and European territories. The latter were, however, distributed throughout Europe, control and defense of these were hampered by the disparity of the territories and huge length of the empires borders. This large realm was almost continuously at war with its neighbors in its European heartlands, most notably against France in the Italian Wars, further wars were fought against Protestant princes in Germany. The Netherlands paid heavy taxes to fund these wars, but perceived them as unnecessary and sometimes downright harmful, during the 16th century, Protestantism rapidly gained ground in northern Europe. Dutch Protestants, after initial repression, were tolerated by local authorities, by the 1560s, the Protestant community had become a significant influence in the Netherlands, although it clearly formed a minority then
Dutch Revolt
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Prince Maurice at the Battle of Nieuwpoort by
Pauwels van Hillegaert. Oil on canvas.
Dutch Revolt
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Philip II,
King of Spain.
Dutch Revolt
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Philip II of Spain berating William the Silent. Prince of Orange by
Cornelis Kruseman, painting from 19th century. This scene was purported to have happened on the dock in Flushing when Philip departed the Netherlands.
Dutch Revolt
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Relief statues in the
Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht, attacked in
Reformation iconoclasm in the 16th century.
45.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
Romanticism
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Caspar David Friedrich,
Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, 1818
Romanticism
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Eugène Delacroix,
Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, taking its
Orientalist subject from a play by
Lord Byron
Romanticism
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Philipp Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808
Romanticism
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William Blake,
The Little Girl Found, from
Songs of Innocence and Experience, 1794
46.
Melodrama
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A melodrama is a dramatic or literary work in which the plot, which is typically sensational and designed to appeal strongly to the emotions, takes precedence over detailed characterization. Characters are often drawn, and may appear stereotyped. In scholarly and historical contexts, melodramas are Victorian dramas in which orchestral music or song was used to accompany the action. The term is now applied to stage performances without incidental music, novels, movies. In modern contexts, the melodrama is generally pejorative, as it suggests that the work in question lacks subtlety, character development. By extension, language or behavior which resembles melodrama is often called melodramatic, the term originated from the early 19th-century French word mélodrame. It is derived from Greek melos, music, and French drame and this applies to both Victorian stage melodrama and 20th-century film melodrama. Movie director Sidney Lumet stressed the primacy of plot, saying in 2007 In a well-written drama, the characters in a well-written melodrama come out of the story. The relationship of melodrama to realism is complex, the protagonists of melodramatic works may either be ordinary people who are caught up in extraordinary events, or highly exaggerated and unrealistic characters. According to Singer, late Victorian and Edwardian melodrama combined a focus on realism in stage sets and props with anti-realism in character. Melodrama in this period strove for accuracy in the depiction of incredible. Novelist Wilkie Collins is noted for his attention to accuracy in detail in his works, beginning in the 18th century, melodrama was a technique of combining spoken recitation with short pieces of accompanying music. In such works, music and spoken dialogue typically alternated, although the music was also used to accompany pantomime. The earliest known examples are scenes in J. E. Eberlins Latin school play Sigismundus, the first full melodrama was Jean-Jacques Rousseaus Pygmalion, the text of which was written in 1762 but was first staged in Lyon in 1770. The overture and an Andante were composed by Rousseau, but the bulk of the music was composed by Horace Coignet, a different musical setting of Rousseaus Pygmalion by Anton Schweitzer was performed in Weimar in 1772, and Goethe wrote of it approvingly in Dichtung und Wahrheit. Pygmalion is a monodrama, written for one actor, some 30 other monodramas were produced in Germany in the fourth quarter of the 18th century. When two actors are involved the term duodrama may be used, georg Benda was particularly successful with his duodramas Ariadne auf Naxos and Medea. The sensational success of Bendas melodramas led Mozart to use two long melodramatic monologues in his opera Zaide, other later, and better-known examples of the melodramatic style in operas are the grave-digging scene in Beethovens Fidelio and the incantation scene in Webers Der Freischütz
Melodrama
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Poster for
The Perils of Pauline (1914) a classic melodramatic film series
47.
Bohemian Forest
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The Bohemian Forest, known in Czech as Šumava and in German as Böhmerwald, is a low mountain range in Central Europe. They create a border between the Czech Republic on one side and Germany and Austria on the other. In Czech, Šumava is also used as a name for the adjacent region in Bohemia. The Bohemian Forest comprises heavily forested mountains with heights of 800–1,400 metres. The highest peak is Großer Arber on the Bavarian side, the highest peak on the Bohemian and Austrian side is Plechý, the most eastern peak is the Sternstein. The range is one of the oldest in Europe, and its mountains are eroded into round forms with few rocky parts, typical for the Bohemian Forest are plateaux at about 1, 000–1,200 m with relatively harsh climates and many peat bogs. The Bohemian Forest is the range between the watersheds of the Black Sea and the North Sea, where water collected by the Vltava, Otava and Úhlava rivers flows. These rivers all spring from the Bohemian Forest, owing to heavy precipitation, the peat bogs and the Lipno Dam, the Šumava region is an important water reservoir for Central Europe. More important for their value than for holding water are several lakes of glacial origin. As a border region, the Bohemian Forest has had a complicated history, in the 20th century it was part of the Iron Curtain, and large areas were stripped of human settlement. Even before that, settlement was sparse and for centuries forests dominated over human dwellings and these unique circumstances led to the preservation of unspoilt nature and forest ecosystems relatively unaffected by human activity. On the other hand, many habitats dependent on farming activity are slowly turning into forest, in the Czech Republic, the most valuable area is protected in the Šumava National Park and Protected Landscape and the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Part of the German section is protected as the Bavarian Forest National Park, the Bohemian Forest is a popular holiday destination because it is excellent hiking country. Most interesting natural and cultural sights are connected with more than 500 km of marked trails. However, park administration is not always successful in its task, Šumava National Park is also suffering problems connected with bark beetles, and there is heated debate about how to deal with it. The origin of the current name Bohemian Forest goes back to 400 BC, the Boii people spread across Europe between 400 BC and 8 BC. Boii is the Roman name of three ancient Celtic tribes, living in Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul, and Bohemia, Moravia, the European region of Bohemia owes its name to the Boii, who lived there until the were replaced by the Germanic Marcomanni. The Romans called it Boiohaemum, a Latinization of the Germanic name of the region, the mountain range has been traditionally identified with Γαβρήτα Ὕλη, mentioned in Strabos Geographica and Ptolemys Geographia
Bohemian Forest
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Großer Arber (Velký Javor)
Bohemian Forest
Bohemian Forest
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Čertovo jezero (Devil's Lake)
Bohemian Forest
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Czech Ski Resort at Šumava
