1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Frogner Manor
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Frogner Manor was a manor house and former estate in todays borough of Frogner in Oslo, Norway. The estate comprised most of the borough of Frogner, which has been named after the estate. The remaining part of the estate is now the site of the Frogner Park, with the house found in the south of the park. The 18th century buildings on the grounds are now occupied by the Oslo Museum, Frogner was one of the largest and oldest agricultural properties in the Oslo area. In the Middle Ages, Frogner became ecclesiastical property, mostly owned by the Hovedøya Abbey, however, significant parts of the estate instead became a public park. Frogner Manor was built in 1750 by Major Hans Jacob Scheel, in 1790 the estate was bought by timber merchant and shipowner Bernt Anker, Norways richest person at the time. He extended the building to its present size. He died a widower in 1805, and Frogner was bought by his nephew Morten Anker in 1807. His business was hit by the economic depression during and after the Napoleonic wars. The buyer was the director-general of the Modum Blue Colour Works, Benjamin Wegner, in 1848 Fredrik Georg Gade, a wealthy merchant from Bergen, purchased the manor. His heirs held the property in joint ownership, under the management of his son Gerhard Gade and he was married to an American, Hellen Allyne, and was the United States consul in Oslo. The former U. S. president and general Ulysses S. Grant visited Kristiania in the summer of 1878, the last private owner, Gerhard Gade, retained the right to inhabit the house until his death in 1909. This spared the house from demolition, and a recession prevented further building on the land. In the meantime, the house was recognised as an important cultural monument and it was restored and placed at the disposal of the Oslo City Museum. The private garden surrounding the house was historically much smaller. In 1914 the area was the site of the 1914 Jubilee Exhibition, the seter of Frogner was situated near the summit of the Holmenkollen hill north of Oslo, and included parts of the Nordmarka forest. The name is preserved in the terminal Frognerseteren station of the suburban Holmenkoll Line, opened in 1898. Frognerseteren and the forest was split from Frogner Manor when Benjamin Wegner sold the manor, wegners heirs sold it to Thomas Johannessen Heftye in 1864, and his heirs sold it to the municipality in 1889, thus making it the first forest owned by Oslo municipality
3.
Frogner
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Frogner is a borough and an exclusive residential and retail district in the West End of the city of Oslo, Norway. In addition to traditional Frogner, the borough incorporates Bygdøy, Uranienborg, the borough is named after Frogner Manor, and the famous Frogner Park is now found on the site of the manor. In Oslo, and indeed in Norwegian popular culture, Frogner occupies a position as Londons Knightsbridge. The borough is named after the old Frogner Manor, the Norse form of the name was Fraunar. The name is derived from the word frauð manure -. The area became part of the city of Oslo in 1878, the borough was originally the ground and property of Frogner Manor, a splendid 18th-century country estate now housing the Oslo City Museum. The Frogner Park includes the famous Vigeland Sculpture Park, the major part of Frogner consists of houses built around 1900. Frogner was then a part of the city for the affluent, the royal estate Bygdøy kongsgård and the little palace of Oscarshall are also located here. Bygdøy is also an area for Oslos citizens with several public beaches. On January 1,2004, the borough of Uranienborg-Majorstuen and Bygdøy-Frogner were merged with Frogner, creating the current. Frogner area is dominated by buildings and parks. It is one of the most expensive districts in Oslo due to the location, proximity to parks, marinas. It is also an embassy area, the Bygdøy peninsula - a short ferry journey from the city center - boasts several museums, the best of which are the Viking Ship Museum and the Kon-Tiki Museum. The Viking Ship Museum houses three spectacular examples of 9th and 10th century Scandinavian sea vessels - including the fully intact Oseberg ship - which were used as high status tombs, a collection of Viking weapons, utensils and talismans, buried with the ships, is also on display. The Kon-Tiki Museum is named after the raft on which Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl crossed the Pacific Ocean in 1947, alongside the raft, the museum houses various artefacts related to Heyerdahls other expeditions and a changing program of temporary exhibitions explores his life and work. Oslo City Museum is situated at Frogner Manor in the Vigeland park and it is a museum of cultural history with one of the largest collections of paintings in Norway. The history of Oslo is illustrated by thematic exhibitions showing, among other things, the development of Oslo, the Vigeland Museum, named for the artist behind the park’s enormous collection of sculptures, is where Gustav Vigeland lived and worked for nearly two decades. It is located in Frogner Park and it is the worlds largest sculpture park made by a single artist, and is one of Norways most popular tourist attractions
4.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
5.
Norwegian language
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Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
6.
Public park
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The design, operation and maintenance is usually done by government, typically on the local level, but may occasionally be contracted out to a private sector company. A park is an area of space provided for recreational use. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics, trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade. An early purpose-built public park, although financed privately, was Princes Park in the Liverpool suburb of Toxteth and this was laid out to the designs of Joseph Paxton from 1842 and opened in 1843. The land on which the park was built was purchased by Richard Vaughan Yates, the creation of Princes Park showed great foresight and introduced a number of highly influential ideas. First and foremost was the provision of space for the benefit of townspeople. Nashs remodelling of St Jamess Park from 1827 and the sequence of processional routes he created to link The Mall with Regents Park completely transformed the appearance of Londons West End. Liverpool had a presence on the scene of global maritime trade before 1800. The latter was commenced in 1843 with the help of public finance, frederick Law Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park in 1850 and praised its qualities. Indeed, Paxton is widely credited as having one of the principal influences on Olmsted. Another early public park is the Peel Park, Salford, England opened on 22 August 1846, in The Politics of Park Design, A History of Urban Parks in America, Professor Galen Cranz identifies four phases of park design in the U. S. As time passed and the area grew around the parks, land in these parks was used for other purposes, such as zoos, golf courses. These parks continue to draw visitors from around the region and are considered regional parks, because they require a higher level of management than smaller local parks. According to the Trust for Public Land, the three most visited parks in the United States are Central Park in New York, Lincoln Park in Chicago. In the early 1900s, according to Cranz, U. S. cities built neighborhood parks with swimming pools, playgrounds and civic buildings and these smaller parks were built in residential neighborhoods, and tried to serve all residents with programs for seniors, adults, teens and children. Green space was of secondary importance, as urban land prices climbed, new urban parks in the 1960s and after have been mainly pocket parks. One such example of a park is Chess Park in Glendale. This award-winning park was given an award by the American Society of Landscape Architects and these small parks provide greenery, a place to sit outdoors, and often a playground for children
7.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
8.
Oslo City Museum
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Oslo City Museum is a department of Oslo Museum, and is located at Frogner Manor in Frogner Park in Oslo, Norway. Oslo City Museum was an independent museum from 1905 to 2006, in 2006 it became part of the newly established Oslo Museum, together with two other museums. Oslo City Museum has a library with the purpose of documenting the history of the City of Oslo. The museum also has one of the largest and most important photo collections in Norway, additionally the museum has an art collection which contains around 1,000 paintings and around 6,000 other works. Oslo City Museum - Official site
9.
Frognerseteren
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Frognerseteren is a neighborhood of Oslo, Norway, located within Nordmarka. It is a starting point for recreational hiking and skiing in Oslo. Frognerseteren Station is the station of the Holmenkollen Line of the Oslo Metro. Frognerseteren Restaurant and conference facilities is one of the best examples of architectural style Dragestil in Oslo, Frognerseteren means the seter of Frogner. Frognerseteren with parts of the Nordmarka forest was part of Frogner Manor until 1848, wegners heirs sold Frognerseteren to Thomas Johannessen Heftye in 1864, and Heftyes heirs sold Frognerseteren to Christiania municipality in 1889
10.
Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
11.
Gustav Vigeland
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Gustav Vigeland, né Adolf Gustav Thorsen, was a Norwegian sculptor. Gustav Vigeland occupies a position among Norwegian sculptors, both in the power of his creative imagination and in his productivity. He is most associated with the Vigeland installation in Frogner Park and he was also the designer of the Nobel Peace Prize medal. Adolf Gustav Thorsen was born to a family of craftsmen, just outside Halse og Harkmark and his parents were Elesæus Thorsen, a cabinetmaker and Anne Aanensdatter. He had three brothers, of whom Emanuel Vigeland became a noted artist, as a youth, he was sent to Oslo where he learned wood carving at a local school. However, the death of his father compelled him to move back to Mandal to help his family. Gustav lived for a time with his grandparents on a farm called Mjunebrokka in Vigeland and he returned to Oslo in 1888, this time determined to become a professional sculptor. He came to the attention of sculptor Brynjulf Bergslien, who supported him, the following year he exhibited his first work, Hagar and Ishmael. In his 20s, he adopted the new family name Vigeland, Vigeland spent the years 1891 to 1896 in several voyages abroad, including Copenhagen, Paris, Berlin and Florence. In the French capital he frequented Auguste Rodins workshop, while in Italy he experimented with ancient, in these years the themes that would later dominate his inspiration - death and the relationship between man and woman - first appeared. He held his first personal exhibitions in Norway in 1894 and 1896, until 1902 Vigeland was engaged in the restoration of the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. The contact with Mediaeval art contributed to another frequent theme in Vigelands art, back in Oslo, he obtained from the town an abandoned studio in which to work. In 1905 Norway became independent from Sweden, Vigeland, considered the most talented Norwegian sculptor, received numerous commissions for statues and busts celebrating renowned compatriots like Henrik Ibsen and Niels Henrik Abel. In 1906 Vigeland proposed a model for a monumental fountain. Initially, the idea of the Oslo municipality was to put the fountain in Eidsvolls plass and his work was generally welcomed, but the location created a dispute, completion of the work was postponed by the dispute. In the meantime Vigeland enlarged the project, adding several sculpture groups. The a high granite column was added to the design in 1919, Gustav Vigeland is most widely known for the Vigeland installation, a permanent sculpture installation in Frogner Park in Oslo. In 1921 the City of Oslo decided to demolish the house where Vigeland lived, Vigeland moved to his new studio on Nobels gate in the borough of Frogner during 1924
12.
Baroque
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The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
13.
Hans Jacob Scheel
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Hans Jacob Scheel was a Dano-Norwegian Major-General. Scheel was born in Copenhagen, Denmark and he was the son of Hans Heinrich Scheel and Benedicte Dorothea Gjordsdatter. He served as Chamberlain at the Danish Royal Court, in 1752 he became a lieutenant colonel and Commandant of Fredrikstad Fortress from 1766 to 1774. Scheel was the first owner to make Frogner Manor his permanent residence and he had purchased the estate in 1747. However, construction costs at Frogner exceeded his ability and he was forced him to sell the manor in 1760. He was married to Catharine Christine von Brüggemann and was the father of Frederik Otto Scheel and he died at Fredrikstad in Østfold, Norway. Oslo Militære samfunds portrettgalleri Dehli, Martin, Fredrikstad bys historie, ovenstad, Olai, Militærbiografier, Den norske hærs officerer fra 1628 til 1814, Oslo 1948. Scheel, Christian Fredrik, Slekten Scheel i Danmark og Norge mv, S, Fredrikstad, Gamlebyen og festningen, Oslo 1934
14.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
15.
Benjamin Wegner
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Jacob Benjamin Wegner was a Norwegian industrialist, estate owner and timber merchant. In 1822, he relocated to Norway, after he had bought Blaafarveværket on behalf of a consortium led by the Berlin banker Wilhelm Christian Benecke. He was also owner of Frogner Manor, the largest co-owner of the Hafslund estate, a co-owner of the Hassel Iron Works and a co-owner of the timber firm Juel, Wegner & Co. Most of his business activities, both in the timber, grain and cobalt segments, focused heavily on export to England, where he spent much time throughout his life. He served as general to Norway of the sovereign city-republics of Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen. Seyler, and a granddaughter of the Swiss-born banker and theatre principal Abel Seyler and of the Hamburg bankers Johann Hinrich Gossler, jacob Benjamin Wegner, who went by the name of Benjamin, was born in Königsberg, an important port city on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Relatively little is known about his background, not even his parents names and his mother remarried to the Königsberg merchant Benjamin Gutzeit. He may have had a brother named Salomon and he received a solid commercial education and joined a leading Königsberg firm as an apprentice. He was an agent and close associate of the London firm Isaac Solly and Sons and of the Berlin firm Gebrüder Benecke and its head Wilhelm Christian Benecke, in 1821, Modums Blaafarveværk in Norway, the worlds leading producer of cobalt blue, was announced for sale. Edward Solly wanted to buy the company and send Wegner as his representative to complete the transaction, but as he had financial problems, Wegner subsequently bought the company at a public auction on behalf of an investment group of which Benecke was the prime investor. Wegner was appointed the new Director-General of Modums Blaafarveværk and became a co-owner, and he relocated to Norway, upon taking up residence in Norway, he automatically became a Norwegian citizen under Norways nationality law at the time. From 1826, Benecke and Wegner were the owners of Modums Blaafarveværk. The main export market was England and the companys largest customer by far was the London firm Smith, in its heyday, Blaafarveværket generated an annual income of around 10,000 Norwegian speciedaler for Wegner, partially as dividend and partially as tantième. As a consequence of the crisis following the revolutions of 1848 and also of the invention of the synthetic ultramarine colour. Together with Benecke, Wegner owned the Hassel Iron Works from 1835 to 1854 and he was also a co-owner, eventually the largest co-owner, of the major estate Hafslund with large forests in eastern Norway and the countrys largest sawmill, from 1835 to 1864. His co-owners included Benecke and Herman Wedel Jarlsberg, and subsequently Thorvald Meyer, in 1856, he co-founded the timber firm Juel, Wegner & Co. with Iver Albert Juel. In 1836, he bought Frogner Manor, where he lived with his family until 1849, the family then sold Frogner Manor and moved to Christiania. Wegner however retained a part of the Frogner property, Frognerseteren with a part of the Nordmarka forests, Frogner Manor is today best known as the site of Frogner Park
16.
1914 Jubilee Exhibition
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The 1914 Jubilee Exhibition took place in Kristiania, Norway, from May to October 1914. It marked the anniversary of the 1814 constitution and focused on industry. The main location was the grounds of Frogner Manor, in addition to a subsection on shipping at Skarpsno at Frognerkilen, the exhibition opened on 5 May, and was closed on 11 October 1914. The total number of visitors was more than 1.5 million, on 11 October, the final day, more than 100,000 visitors visited the exhibition. The idea for the exhibition is credited to architect Torolf Prytz, Prytz became chairman of the planning committee, and later also chairman of the exhibition. Various location alternatives were discussed, including Hovedøya, but it was decided on Frogner. In August 1911 the Kristiania city council granted a funding of 300,000 kr to the exhibition, the park area was designed by architect Josef Nickelsen, and leading architects were Henrik Bull, August Nielsen, Rudolf Emanuel Jacobsen and Adolf Jensen. The exhibition showcased developments in Norway over the last 100 years, among the pavilions were the Industry Hall, the Machinery Hall, restaurants, and more than hundred other buildings. Two locomotives were on display, one constructed at Hamar Jernstøperi og Mekaniske Verksted, kværner Bruk won a gold medal for their contributions, which included construction elements of the Machinery hall. Lilleborgs soap bubble fountain, which was placed in the Industry Hall, a department of agriculture included a farm with barn and living house, in addition to separate exhibition buildings for forestry and agriculture. Among the exhibitions was a village with 80 inhabitants brought in from Kongo, other amusements were a 700 meter long roller coaster, the Tanagra theatre, and Lilleputbanen. Another display was Hjalmar Welhavens large collection of skis, a maritime department was located in Frognerkilen, at Skarpsno. Most of the pavilions were demolished after the exhibition, with a few exceptions, the exhibition opened on 5 May 1914, and was met with great interest from the public. Among the performances in Sangerhallen was Edvard Griegs Kongekvadet, and a new cantata written by Nils Collett Vogt with music by Christian Sinding, actor Johan Fahlstrøm recited the national hymn Ja, vi elsker dette landet. The exhibition was declared open by King Haakon, in the evening a dinner was given for 1,400 invited guests, which included 300 mayors from various municipalities. Several large gatherings took place during the exhibition period, at one assembly the restaurant served dinner for 4,000 guests. On 4 July a dinner was served for 2,600 guests, in July the exhibition faced some unexpected problems. A tram strike reduced the accessibility drastically, at the outbreak of World War I the Tyrolean orchestra and a German brass band had to leave, heading for the front
17.
Pavilion
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In architecture a pavilion has several meanings. In architectural terminology it refers to a building that is either positioned separately or as an attachment to a main building. Often its function makes it an object of pleasure, such configurations provide an emphatic visual termination to the composition of a large building, akin to bookends. Pavilions may be small outbuildings, similar to a summer house or a kiosk, small rooms on the roof of a large house. These were particularly popular up to the 18th century and can be equated to the Italian casina and these often resembled small classical temples and follies. Especially if there is space for food preparation, they may be called a banqueting house. A pavilion built to take advantage of a view may be referred to as a gazebo, bandstands in a park are a class of pavilion. A pool house by a swimming pool may have sufficient character, a sports pavilion is usually a building adjacent to a sports ground used for changing clothes and often partaking of refreshments. Often it has a verandah to provide protection from the sun for spectators, in cricket grounds, as at Lords, a cricket pavilion tends to be used for the building the players emerge from and return to, even when this is actually a large building including a grandstand. Externally, pavilions may be emphasised by any combination of a change in height, profile, colour, material, internally they may be part of a rectangular block, or only connected to the main block by a thin section of building. The two 18th-century English country houses of Houghton Hall and Holkham Hall, illustrate these different approaches in turn, in the Place des Vosges, Paris, twin pavilions mark the centers of the north and south sides of the square. They are named the Pavillon du Roi and the Pavillon de la Reine though no royal personage ever lived in the square, with their triple archways, they function like gatehouses that give access to the privileged space of the square. French gatehouses had been built in the form of such pavilions in the preceding century, in some areas, a pavilion is a term for a hunting lodge. The Pavillon de Galon in Luberon, France is a typical 18th century aristocratic hunting pavilion, the pavilion, located on the site of an old Roman villa, includes a garden à la française, which was used by the guests for receptions. Notes Media related to Pavilions at Wikimedia Commons
18.
Frogner stadion
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Frogner stadion is a sports stadium in Oslo, Norway, which has artificial ice in the winter for speed skating and bandy. The artificial grass is used in the summertime for soccer and American football and it is located close to the Frogner Park, between the park and Majorstuen. One match, Norway-Belarus, was played here at the 2013 Bandy World Championship and it opened in 1901, and was built by the speed skating club Kristiania Skøiteklub. In 1914, the stadium was moved to its current position, at the inaugural race in 1914, two speed skating world records were set by Oscar Mathisen, in 500 m and 1,500 m. In 1928, Oslo Municipality took over responsibility for the stadium, Frogner stadion was the most important skating arena in Norway until 1940. A long series of championships were held at Frogner stadion, both in figure skating and in speed skating, a total of 23 speed skating world records have been set at the stadium. Seventeen of the records from Frogner are listed among the official ISU world records in speed skating, outside the stadium are statues of Oscar Mathisen and Sonja Henie. Frogner stadion has been the venue for international matches both in football and bandy, as well as track and field athletics competitions. The venue hosted the Norwegian Athletics Championships in 1906,1911,1912,1914,1917,1918,1920,1922 and 1924, after the rebuild in 2010 it also became the homefield of the Oslo Vikings American football, currently the second best team in Norway. World records at the old stadium In 1911, Nikolay Strunnikov skated the 5,000 m distance in a record time of 8,37.2. This record was not approved by ISU, but is now listed among the world records. Oscar Mathisen set two records on 17 and 18 February 1912, the 500 m time was 44.2, while the 10,000 m record was 17,46.3. He improved his own record twice in 1913, first in Trondhjem and later at Frogner, World records at the new stadium from 1914 Oscar Mathisen set two world records at the opening of the new stadium in 1914. The time was 43.7 over 500 m and 2,19.4 over 1,500 m, in 1916, Oscar Mathisen set a world record over 5,000 m, with the time 8,36.3. In 1921, Harald Strøm set the record 8,27.7, strøms 5,000 m record from 1922 lasted seven years, the longest lasting of all world records set at Frogner, until it was beaten by Ivar Ballangrud in Davos in 1929. In 1932, Clas Thunberg skated the 1,000 m distance in 1,27.4, better than the world record, but this time is not registered as an official record. In 1936, Allan Potts set a record over 500 m, with the time 42.4. This record lasted only 12 days, when Engnestangen set another record in Davos
19.
Tourist attraction
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Factory tours, industrial heritage, creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks, tourist attractions are also created to capitalise on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland. Ghost sightings also make tourist attractions, ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighbourhood of Brixton in London, England. In the US, owners and marketers of attractions advertise tourist attractions on billboards along the side of highways and roadways, tourist attractions often provide free promotional brochures and flyers in information centres, fast food restaurants, hotel and motel rooms or lobbies, and rest area. Such places are known as tourist traps. Within cities such transport tourist attractions as rides by boats and buses are very popular, novelty attractions are not limited to the American Midwest, but are part of Midwestern culture. It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some tourist traps, siem Reap town for example is a popular tourist destination in Cambodia, mainly owed to its proximity to Angkor temples. A tropical island resort is an island or archipelago that also depends on tourism as its source of revenue, according to the World Tourism Organization, •698 million people travelled to a foreign country in 2000, spending more US$478 billion. Lists of tourist attractions Attractions at DMOZ
20.
Johan Christian Dahl
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Johan Christian Claussen Dahl, often known as J. C. Dahl or I. C. Dahl, was a Norwegian artist who is considered the first great romantic painter in Norway, the founder of the age of Norwegian painting. He was also the first acquire genuine fame and cultural renown abroad, as one critic has put it, J. C. Dahl occupies a central position in Norwegian artistic life of the first half of the 19th century. Dahl came from a simple background – his father was a modest fisherman in Bergen, Norway –. From 1803 to 1809 Dahl studied with the painter Johan Georg Müller, still, Dahl looked back on his teacher as having kept him in ignorance in order to exploit him, putting him to work painting theatrical sets, portraits, and views of Bergen and its surroundings. Another mentor, Lyder Sagen, showed the aspiring artist books about art and awakened his interest in historical and it was also Sagen who took up a collection that made it possible for Dahl to go to Copenhagen in 1811 to complete his education at the academy there. As important as Dahls studies at the academy in Copenhagen were his experiences in the surrounding countryside, the mood was often idyllic, often melancholy. When he added snow to a landscape he painted in the summer, it was not to show the light and colors of snow, it was to use snow as a symbol of death. ”Thanks to Sagens recommendations and to his own personal charm, Dahl soon gained access to the leading social circles in Copenhagen. Dahl took part in art exhibitions in Copenhagen beginning in 1812, but his real breakthrough came in 1815. In 1816 C. W. Eckersberg returned from abroad with his paintings of Roman settings, Dahl was impressed at once, Dahls 1817 painting “Den Store Kro i Fredensborg” marked the real beginning of his lifelong production of oil paintings depicting natural subjects. After his success in Copenhagen, Dahl realized that he wanted to live as an independent, one challenge facing him was that the academic preference of the day was for historical paintings with moral messages. Landscapes were considered the lowest kind of art, and perhaps not as art at all. The only landscapes that could be considered art, according to the academy, were ideal, in accordance with this reigning taste, Dahl attempted to give his Danish themes a certain atmospheric character in order to lift them up above what was considered a merely commercial level. But at the time it was his deepest wish to provide a more faithful picture of Norwegian nature than were offered by the old-fashioned, dry paintings of Haas. This desire was partly motivated by homesickness and patriotism, but it was suited to the public taste of the day for “picturesque” works. Dahl traveled to Dresden in September 1818 and he arrived with introductions to the citys leading citizens and to major artists such as Caspar David Friedrich, who helped him establish himself there and became his close friend. Greifswald in Moonlight depicts the artists birthplace in Pomerania, on the Baltic coast, bathed in an even, gauzy moonlight, the ancient university town assumes an almost ethereal appearance. ”Together with Friedrich and Carl Gustav Carus, Dahl would become one of the Dresden painters of the period who exerted a decisive influence on German Romantic painting. In Dresden, as in Copenhagen, Dahl traveled around the area to draw subjects that could be of use to him in works that would be painted later in his atelier
21.
Bernt Anker
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Bernt Anker was a Norwegian merchant, chamberlain and playwright. He was born in Christiania, the son of Christian Ancher and his business included trade in timber on a large scale, with a large income from supplying the fleet of England. He eventually became the wealthiest person in Norway, among his properties were Frogner Manor and Moss Jernverk. His magnificent home Paleet near Bjørvika was used as a Royal residence after his death and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1782. He was decorated Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog in 1803, a street in Oslo, Bernt Ankers gate, is named after him
22.
Henrik Bull
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Henrik Bull was a Norwegian architect and designer. Among his works are the Paulus Church at Grünerløkka in Oslo, the National Theater, the Historical Museum in Oslo, and he also designed coins for Norges Bank, and participated at the Kristiania Jubilée exhibition at Frogner in 1914. He headed the Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry from 1912 to 1934, Bull was born in Christiania as the son of architect Georg Andreas Bull and Emilie Constance Hjelm. Bull married actress Mette Marie Berntsen Wang in 1905 and he was a nephew of violinist Ole Bull and Knud Bull, and a first cousin of judge and politician Edvard Hagerup Bull and architect Schak Bull. Bulls first major commission was the Paulus Church in Kristiania and this church, built in Gothic Revival style, is located at Grünerløkka, and was finished in 1892. He also did work on the old stave churches. His Uvdal Church was built in style, and finished in 1893. Another of his works was the Åmot Church at Rena, a timber church, Bull designed three of the most important new buildings in Kristiania around 1900. The National Theatre is regarded as one of the most successful buildings in Norway from the historicism period, the Historical Museum was based on deceased architect Karl August Henriksens draft from 1890. The Government Building was based on a draft by architect Stener Lenschow from 1887/1891, Bull was responsible for the buildings at the 1914 Jubilee Exhibition in Kristiania. He also designed several of the buildings, including the bridge, the Machinery Hall. The buildings were demolished after the exhibition, Bull also designed furniture and other utilitarian articles. One of his works, a dining room set, is located at the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History at Bygdøy. His most widespread works were the coins designed for Norges Bank in 1907, the Art nouveau or Jugendstyle residence of the United States Ambassador to Norway, called the Villa Otium, was designed by him
23.
Henriette Wegner
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She was briefly a co-owner of Berenberg Bank, and was also noted for her work for the homeless in Norway. Born Henriette Seyler in the city-republic of Hamburg, she was the youngest daughter of the banker L. E, like most of Hamburgs elite, the family was fiercely Anglophile. On 15 May 1824, she married the businessman Benjamin Wegner in St and he later also acquired several other enterprises and estates in Norway. They lived at Fossum Manor until 1836, when they acquired Frogner Manor in what is now the borough of Frogner in west end Oslo, the estate also included Frognerseteren and parts of Nordmarka. The 1820s neoclassical pavilion found in Frogner Park was a gift given to her. Following the death of her father, she was a co-owner of Berenberg Bank in Hamburg until 31 December 1836, by contemporaries, she was described as a lovable character. She was also noted for her commitment, and was chairwoman. She also endowed a substantial amount to helping the homeless, the author Willibald Alexis describes his visit to Benjamin and Henriette Wegner at Fossum Manor in the book Herbstreise durch Scandinavien from 1828. She had six children, of five survived into adulthood. She was interred on 30 November 1875 at Gamle Aker Cemetery in Oslo, Wegner, Familien Wegner, Halden,1963 Rolf B. Wegner, Mine tippoldeforeldre Henriethe og Benjamin Wegner forteller,2013
24.
Architecture of Denmark
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The architecture of Denmark has its origins in the Viking period, richly revealed by archaeological finds. It became firmly established in the Middle Ages when first Romanesque, then Gothic churches and it was during this period that, in a country with little access to stone, brick became the construction material of choice, not just for churches but also for fortifications and castles. In parallel, the style became popular for ordinary dwellings in towns. Late in his reign, Christian IV also became a proponent of Baroque which was to continue for a considerable time with many impressive buildings both in the capital and the provinces. Neoclassicism came initially from France but was adopted by native Danish architects who increasingly participated in defining architectural style. A productive period of Historicism ultimately merged into the 19th century National Romantic style and it was not, however, until the 1960s that Danish architects entered the world scene with their highly successful Functionalism. Archaeological excavations in parts of Denmark have revealed much about the way the Vikings lived. One of the most notable sites is Hedeby, located some 45 km south of the Danish border near the German town of Schleswig, it probably dates back to the end of the 8th century. The houses are deemed to be among the most sophisticated dwellings of their time, oak frames were used for the walls, and the roofs were probably thatched. Viking ring houses, such as those at Trelleborg, near Slagelse on the Danish island of Zealand, have a different, ship-like shape. Each house consisted of a central hall,18 m ×8 m. Those at Fyrkat in the north of Jutland were 28.5 m long,5 m wide at the ends and 7.5 m in the middle, the walls consisted of double rows of posts with planks wedged horizontally between them. A series of posts slanted towards the wall were possibly used to support the building like buttresses. Denmarks first churches from the 9th century were built of timber and have not survived, hundreds of stone churches in the Romanesque style were built in the 12th and 13th centuries. They had a nave and chancel with small rounded windows. Among the finest examples of brick Romanesque buildings are St. Bendts Church in Ringsted, the church at Østerlars on the island of Bornholm was built around 1150. Like three other churches on the island, it is a round church, the three-storeyed building is supported by a circular outer wall and an exceptionally wide, hollow central column. Construction of Lund Cathedral in Scania started in about 1103 when the region was part of the Kingdom of Denmark and it was the first of great Danish Romanesque cathedrals in the shape of a three-aisled basilica with transepts
25.
English country house
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An English country house is a large house or mansion in the English countryside. Such houses were owned by individuals who also owned a town house. This allowed them to time in the country and in the city—hence, for these people. However, the term also encompasses houses that were, and often still are, frequently, the formal business of the counties was transacted in these country houses. With large numbers of indoor and outdoor staff, country houses were important as places of employment for rural communities. In turn, until the agricultural depressions of the 1870s, the estates, of country houses were the hub. However, the late 19th and early 20th centuries were the swansong of the traditional English country house lifestyle, increased taxation and the effects of World War I led to the demolition of hundreds of houses, those that remained had to adapt to survive. While a château or a schloss can be a fortified or unfortified building, if fortified, it is called a castle, but not all buildings with the name castle are fortified. The term stately home is subject to debate, and avoided by historians, as a description of a country house, the term was first used in a poem by Felicia Hemans, The Homes of England, originally published in Blackwoods Magazine in 1827. In the 20th century, the term was popularised in a song by Noël Coward. The books collection of homes also includes George IVs Brighton town palace. The country houses of England have evolved over the last five hundred years, before this time, larger houses were usually fortified, reflecting the position of their owners as feudal lords, de facto overlords of their manors. The Tudor period of stability in the saw the building of the first of the unfortified great houses. Henry VIIIs Dissolution of the Monasteries saw many former ecclesiastical properties granted to the Kings favourites, woburn Abbey, Forde Abbey and many other mansions with abbey or priory in their name became private houses during this period. Other terms used in the names of houses to describe their origin or importance include palace, castle, court, hall, mansion, park, house, manor, and place. Burghley House, Longleat House, and Hatfield House are among the best known examples of the prodigy house. Some of the best known of Englands country houses were built by one architect at one time, Montacute House, Chatsworth House. They finally ran out of funds in the early 20th century, an example of this is Brympton dEvercy in Somerset, a house of many periods that is unified architecturally by the continuing use of the same mellow, local Ham Hill stone
26.
Coachman
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A coachman is a man whose business it is to drive a coach, a horse-drawn vehicle designed for the conveyance of more than one passenger — and of mail — and covered for protection from the elements. He has also called a coachee, coachy or whip. In a great house, this would have been a specialty, but in more modest households, in early coaches he sat on a built-in compartment called a boot, bracing his feet on a footrest called a footboard. An ornamented, often fringed cloth called a hammercloth might have hung over the coachmans seat and he could be seen taking refreshments at a type of public house called a watering house, which also provided water for horses. The role of the coachman, who sat along with the passengers in the vehicle, was contrasted with that of the postillion, a coachman was sometimes called a jarvey or jarvie, especially in Ireland, Jarvey was a nickname for Jarvis. In the first of his Sherlock Holmes stories, A Study in Scarlet, others dubbed him a Phaeton, harking back to the Greek Phaëton, son of Helios who, attempting to drive the chariot of the sun, managed to set the earth on fire. When there was no coachman, a postilion or postillion sometimes rode as a guide on the horse of a pair or of one of the pairs attached to a coach. The driver of a wagon or cart drawn by an animal was known as teamster or carter. The English word coach, the Spanish and Portuguese coche, the German Kutsche, Kocs was a Hungarian post town, and the coach itself may have been invented in Hungary. Hungarian villages still hold Coachman of the Year competitions, the coachman soon became a prominent figure in Hungarian folklore. As the Clever Coachman, he turns up unexpectedly in the heros life, after the hero enters the coach, the coachman becomes a kind of guide. He may not take the hero to where he wants to go, many of Steven Brusts novels play with this image of the coachman. Coachman is also a synonym for the pennant coralfish, the Royal Coachman is also a type of fly used for fly fishing, which exists as both a dry-fly and a wet-fly. The pattern was composed in England pre-1860, media related to Coachmen at Wikimedia Commons Gentlemen Coachmen, by Anne Woodley. George Borrows, The Stage-Coachmen Of England, A Bully Served Out, the stables - Coachmen 1662-1837 | British History Online
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Classical architecture
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Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in all be said to draw on a common vocabulary of decorative and constructive elements. The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture and it can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from traditional or vernacular architecture, for contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles, the term New Classical Architecture may be used. Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on, the first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in a strict sense, nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. Most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture and this broad use of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, during these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during the Renaissance. Neoclassical architecture held a strong position on the architectural scene c. With the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost completely ceased to be practised, as noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a very long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in the West for much of Modern history. Furthermore, it can even be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, therefore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures, such as temples, during the Archaic and early Classical periods, the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. And not everyone within the reach of Mediterranean civilization made this transition. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone
28.
Octagon
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In geometry, an octagon is an eight-sided polygon or 8-gon. A regular octagon has Schläfli symbol and can also be constructed as a truncated square, t. A truncated octagon, t is a hexadecagon, t, the sum of all the internal angles of any octagon is 1080°. As with all polygons, the external angles total 360°, the midpoint octagon of a reference octagon has its eight vertices at the midpoints of the sides of the reference octagon. A regular octagon is a figure with sides of the same length. It has eight lines of symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 8. A regular octagon is represented by the Schläfli symbol, the internal angle at each vertex of a regular octagon is 135°. The area of an octagon of side length a is given by A =2 cot π8 a 2 =2 a 2 ≃4.828 a 2. In terms of the circumradius R, the area is A =4 sin π4 R2 =22 R2 ≃2.828 R2. In terms of the r, the area is A =8 tan π8 r 2 =8 r 2 ≃3.314 r 2. These last two coefficients bracket the value of pi, the area of the unit circle. The area can also be expressed as A = S2 − a 2, where S is the span of the octagon, or the second-shortest diagonal, and a is the length of one of the sides, or bases. This is easily proven if one takes an octagon, draws a square around the outside and then takes the corner triangles and places them with right angles pointed inward, the edges of this square are each the length of the base. Given the length of a side a, the span S is S = a 2 + a + a 2 = a ≈2.414 a. The area is then as above, A =2 − a 2 =2 a 2 ≈4.828 a 2, expressed in terms of the span, the area is A =2 S2 ≈0.828 S2. Another simple formula for the area is A =2 a S, more often the span S is known, and the length of the sides, a, is to be determined, as when cutting a square piece of material into a regular octagon. From the above, a ≈ S /2.414, the two end lengths e on each side, as well as being e = a /2, may be calculated as e = /2. The circumradius of the octagon in terms of the side length a is R = a
29.
Temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
30.
Colonnade
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In classical architecture, a colonnade denotes a long sequence of columns joined by their entablature, often free-standing, or part of a building. Paired or multiple pairs of columns are normally employed in a colonnade which can be straight or curved, the space enclosed may be covered or open. In St. Peters Square in Rome, Berninis great colonnade encloses a vast open elliptical space, when in front of a building, screening the door, it is called a portico, when enclosing an open court, a peristyle. A portico may be more than one rank of columns deep, colonnades have been built since ancient times and interpretations of the classical model have continued through to modern times, and Neoclassical styles remained popular for centuries. At the British Museum, for example, porticos are continued along the front as a colonnade, the porch of columns that surrounds the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. can be termed a colonnade. The longest colonnade in the United States, with 36 Corinthian columns, is the New York State Education Building in Albany, New York
31.
Pantheon, Rome
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The Pantheon is a former Roman temple, now a church, in Rome, Italy, on the site of an earlier temple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus. The present building was completed by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated about 126 AD and he retained Agrippas original inscription, which has confused its date of construction as the original Pantheon burnt down so it is not certain when the present one was built. The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns under a pediment, a rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheons dome is still the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome, the height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same,43.3 metres. Mary and the Martyrs but informally known as Santa Maria Rotonda, the square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is a property, ruled by Italys Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism through the Polo Museale del Lazio. The Pantheons large circular domed cella, with a temple portico front, is unique in Roman architecture. Nevertheless, it became a standard exemplar when classical styles were revived, Pantheon is derived from the Ancient Greek Pantheion meaning of, relating to, or common to all the gods. His uncertainty strongly suggests that Pantheon was merely a nickname, not the name of the building. In fact, the concept of a dedicated to all the gods is questionable. The only definite pantheon recorded earlier than Agrippas was at Antioch in Syria and it seems highly significant that Dio does not quote the simplest explanation for the name—that the Pantheon was dedicated to all the gods. Godfrey and Hemsoll maintain that the word Pantheon need not denote a group of gods, or, indeed, even all the gods. Certainly the word pantheus or pantheos, could be applicable to individual deities…, bearing in mind also that the Greek word θεῖος need not mean of a god but could mean superhuman, or even excellent. It seems likely that the Pantheon and the Basilica of Neptune were Agrippas sacra privata and this less solemn designation would help explain how the building could have so easily lost its original name and purpose in such a relatively short period of time. However, archaeological excavations have shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been destroyed except for the façade. Lise Hetland argues that the present construction began in 114, under Trajan and her argument is particularly interesting in light of Heilmeyers argument that, based on stylistic evidence, Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajans architect, was the obvious architect. The form of Agrippas Pantheon is debated and this description was widely accepted until the late 20th century. The only passages referring to the decoration of the Agrippan Pantheon written by an eyewitness are in Plinys Natural History, from him we know that the capitals, too, of the pillars, which were placed by M
32.
Sundial
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A sundial is a device that tells the time of day by the apparent position of the Sun in the sky. In the narrowest sense of the word it consists of a flat plate, as the sun appears to move across the sky, the shadow aligns with different hour-lines which are marked on the dial to indicate the time of day. The style is the edge of the gnomon, though a single point or nodus may be used. The gnomon casts a shadow, the shadow of the style shows the time. The gnomon may be a rod, a wire or a decorated metal casting. The style must be parallel to the axis of the Earths rotation for the sundial to be throughout the year. The styles angle from horizontal is equal to the geographical latitude. In a broader sense a sundial is any device that uses the suns altitude or azimuth to show the time, in addition to their time-telling function, sundials are valued as decorative objects, as literary metaphors and as objects of mathematical study. It is common for inexpensive mass-produced decorative sundials to have incorrectly aligned gnomons and hour-lines, there are several different types of sundials. Some sundials use a shadow or the edge of a shadow while others use a line or spot of light to indicate the time, the shadow-casting object, known as a gnomon, may be a long thin rod or other object with a sharp tip or a straight edge. Sundials employ many types of gnomon, the gnomon may be fixed or moved according to the season. It may be oriented vertically, horizontally, aligned with the Earths axis, given that sundials use light to indicate time, a line of light may be formed by allowing the suns rays through a thin slit or focusing them through a cylindrical lens. A spot of light may be formed by allowing the suns rays to pass through a hole or by reflecting them from a small circular mirror. Sundials also may use many types of surfaces to receive the light or shadow, planes are the most common surface, but partial spheres, cylinders, cones and other shapes have been used for greater accuracy or beauty. Sundials differ in their portability and their need for orientation, the installation of many dials requires knowing the local latitude, the precise vertical direction, and the direction to true North. Portable dials are self-aligning, for example, it may have two dials that operate on different principles, such as a horizontal and analemmatic dial, mounted together on one plate, in these designs, their times agree only when the plate is aligned properly. Sundials indicate the solar time, unless corrected for some other time. To obtain the clock time, three types of corrections need to be made
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Coffeehouse
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A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or café is an establishment which primarily serves hot coffee, related coffee beverages, tea, and other hot beverages. Some coffeehouses also serve cold beverages such as iced coffee and iced tea, many cafés also serve some type of food, such as light snacks, muffins, or pastries. Coffeehouses range from owner-operated small businesses to multinational corporations. A coffeehouse may share some of the characteristics of a bar or restaurant. Many coffee houses in the Middle East and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world offer shisha, espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specializes in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks. Since the development of Wi-Fi, coffeehouses with this capability have also become places for patrons to access the Internet on their laptops, a coffeehouse can serve as an informal club for its regular members. As early as the 1950s Beatnik era and the 1960s folk music scene, coffeehouses have hosted singer-songwriter performances, coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams, who banned them, as well as the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530, the first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus and not long there were many coffeehouses in Cairo. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus came to the city, they opened a large shop in the district called Tahtakale. Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a Kiva Han in the late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, resembling checkers, hopscotch, and chess, are played. In addition, mollas, dervishes, and poets take turns telling stories in verse or in prose, the narrations by the mollas and the dervishes are moral lessons, like our sermons, but it is not considered scandalous not to pay attention to them. No one is forced to give up his game or his conversation because of it. It often happens that two or three people talk at the time, one on one side, the other on the opposite, and sometimes one will be a preacher. The most common English spelling, café, is the French, Portuguese and Spanish spelling, thus the spelling cafe has become very common in English-language usage throughout the world, especially for the less formal, i. e. greasy spoon variety. The Italian spelling, caffè, is sometimes used in English. In southern England, especially around London in the 1950s, the French pronunciation was often altered to /ˈkæf/. The English words coffee and café both descend from the Italian word for coffee, caffè—first attested as caveé in Venice in 1570— and in turn derived from the Arabic qahuwa. The Arabic term qahuwa originally referred to a type of wine but after the ban by Mohammed
34.
Eidsvolls plass
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Eidsvolls plass is a square and park in Oslo, Norway, located west of the Parliament of Norway Building, south of Karl Johans gate and east of Studenterlunden and the National Theatre. It has been referred to as the National Mall of Norway and it was preserved as a park because house owners in Karl Johans gate did not want tall buildings on the other side of the street. A statue of Henrik Wergeland, sculpted by Brynjulf Bergslien, was raised here in 1881 and it was unveiled on 17 May 1881, Norwegian Constitution Day, in a highly politicized atmosphere with a speech by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson. Political conservatives staunchly opposed that Bjørnson be holding the speech, and submitted other candidates and they had already provoked the liberals in 1880, when a statue of Christian IV of Denmark was unveiled at Stortorvet. The speech was held by Bjørnson, and attended by 50,000 people. This crowd included at least 2,000 countryfolk, from Østerdal and elsewhere, other statues, including one of Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, are found in the vicinity. Because of its density of national symbols, Sigurd Aa, aarnes has referred to Eidsvolls plass as the National Mall of Norway. In 1956, a plan by architect Arnstein Arneberg was set into motion, funded by the company Christiania Spigerverk, it was humorously nicknamed Spikersuppa. The pool has a fountain in the middle, and since 1958 a group of trees as well as a statue of deer in the west, the pool was enlarged by 25% in 1976, and since 1994 it is used as a skating rink during the winter. The square is served by Wessels plass station on the Oslo Tramway, Stortinget station on the Oslo Metro as well as an eponymous bus station
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Storting
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The Storting is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. The unicameral parliament has 169 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation in nineteen plural member constituencies, a member of the Storting is known in Norwegian as a Stortingsrepresentant, literally Storting representative. The assembly is led by a president and, since 2009 five vice presidents — the presidium, the members are allocated to twelve standing committees, as well as four procedural committees. Three ombudsmen are directly subordinate to parliament, the Parliamentary Intelligence Oversight Committee, in 2009, qualified unicameralism was replaced by unicameralism, through the dissolution of the two chambers, the Lagting and the Odelsting. Since 2013 Olemic Thommessen has been president, the alltings were where legal and political matters were discussed. As oral laws became codified and Norway unified as an entity in the 10th century. The Parliament of Norway Building opened in 1866, on 27 June 1940 the presidium signed an appeal to King Haakon, about his abdication. In September 1940 the representatives were summoned to Oslo, and voted in favour of the results of the negotiations between the presidium and the authorities of the German invaders, however, directives from Adolf Hitler resulted in the obstruction of the agreement of cooperation between parliament and occupation force. Although the Storting has always been unicameral, until 2009 it would divide itself into two departments in legislative matters. After elections, the Storting would elect a quarter of its membership to form the Lagting a sort of upper house, the division was also used on very rare occasions in cases of impeachment. The original idea in 1814 was probably to have the Lagting act as an upper house. Bills were submitted by the Government to the Odelsting or by a member of the Odelsting, a standing committee, with members from both the Odelsting and Lagting, would then consider the bill, and in some cases hearings were held. If passed by the Odelsting, the bill would be sent to the Lagting for review or revision, most bills were passed unamended by the Lagting and then sent directly to the king for royal assent. If the Lagting amended the Odelstings decision, the bill would be sent back to the Odelsting, if the Odelsting approved the Lagtings amendments, the bill would be signed into law by the King. If it did not, then the bill would return to the Lagting, if the Lagting still proposed amendments, the bill would be submitted a plenary session of the Storting. In order to be passed, the bill should have then had the approval of a majority of the plenary session. In all other cases a majority would suffice. Three days had to pass between each time a department voted on a bill, in all other cases, such as taxes and appropriations, the Storting would meet in plenary sessions
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Halden
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Halden, between 1665 and 1928 known as Frederikshald, is both a town and a municipality in Østfold county, Norway. The seat of the municipality, Halden is a town located at the mouth of Tista River on the Iddefjord. The town of Halden is located about 120 km south of Oslo,190 km north of Gothenburg, named after a small farm Hallen first mentioned in 1629, Halden, became the city of Frederikshald in 1665, named after Frederick III of Denmark. The Gud med oss coat-of-arms created in 1665 shows a standing on a mountain, yellow on a blue background. In 1718, the Great Northern War ended when Charles XII was shot, the fortress had been erected in the 17th century as a replacement for the Bohus Fortress lost at the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 when Bohuslän was ceded to Sweden. Halden has never captured by force by any invading army. The Swedes unsuccessfully attempted to invade the town six times between 1658 and 1814, in a 1835 census, Frederikshald was the seventh largest town or city in Norway, with 4,921 inhabitants. In 1838, Frederikshald became a city municipality, and in 1928, the 4 kilometres Tistedalen east of the Halden was part of the city from 1686 to 1967 until it was separated from Halden. At the same time, the area of Halden, Tistedalen, the political situation in Halden has become infamous in Norway for conflicts between individual politicians and between local political parties. As of 2013, the mayor of Halden is Thor Edquist from the Conservative Party, the municipality is governed by the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, the Christian Democratic Party, the Centre Party, and the Green Party. The slogan, Halden, IT- og Miljøbyen, is a reference to Haldens large number of IT companies, in the late 1960s, the most powerful mainframe computer in Norway at the time was located at the Institute for Energy Technologys facilities in Halden. From the 1960s-1980s, Halden was infamous for high levels of industrial pollution, one of Norways two nuclear reactors is located in Halden. The Halden Boiling Water Reactor is a research reactor located 100 metres within Månefjell and it is in operation about 50% of the time and, in addition to research data, supplies steam to the mill. The reactor is operated by the Institute for Energy Technology, one of Haldens largest employers, IFEs Man-Technology-Organisation laboratory is IFEs other major facility, and was opened by Norways crown prince regent in March 2004. This new laboratory building houses the most recent incarnations of the Halden Man-Machine Laboratory, the OECD Halden Reactor Project is one of the worlds longest running international research collaborations, with 20 countries participating and the largest international research project in Norway. This ensures a steady influx of international guest scientists to the city, the fact that Norway has no commercial interest in nuclear power ensures that Halden is viewed internationally as a neutral location. In national politics, the reactor is controversial, however locally it has had support from the majority of political parties, some of the largest IT companies in Halden, such as Hand-El Skandinavia and ScandPower, are spin-offs from IFE. Rød Herregård in Halden is one of the best preserved houses in Norway
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Ruth Maier
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Ruth Maier was an Austrian woman whose diaries describing her experiences of the Holocaust in Austria and Norway were published in 2007, reviews described her as Norways Anne Frank. Ruth Maier was born in Vienna to a largely assimilated Jewish family and her father, Ludwig Maier, held a doctorate in philosophy, was a polyglot, and held a senior position within the Austrian post and telegraph service. He died in 1933 of erysipelas and her first cousin, who survived the war, was the philosopher Stephan Körner. Her younger sister Judith managed to escape to the United Kingdom, through her fathers contacts, Ruth was able to find refuge in Norway, where she arrived by train on 30 January 1939. She was housed for some time with a Norwegian family and she became fluent in Norwegian within a year, completed her examen artium, and befriended the future poet Gunvor Hofmo at a volunteer work camp in Biri. The two became inseparable, finding lodging and work in places in Norway. Ruth was also one of the models for the statue Surprised and it is on permanent display in Frogner Park in Oslo. Vigeland began work on the sculpture about 1904, the model for the face of the sculpture was Inga Syvertsen, the sculpture was completed in 1942. Maier was surprised by another person entering the room while she was modelling for Vigeland, the statue was eventually cast in bronze in 2002. Additionally Ruth was a model for Norwegian painter Åsmund Esval and she rented a room in Dalbergstien 3 in Oslo in the early fall of 1942 and was arrested on 26 November 1942 and deported on the SS Donau the same day. Arriving in Auschwitz on 1 December 1942, she was led straight into the gas chambers and her close friend Gunvor Hofmo kept Ruths diaries and much of her correspondence. She approached Gyldendal to get published in 1953, but was turned down. After she died in 1995, Jan Erik Vold went through her papers, after editing them for ten years, they were published in 2007. Vold was highly impressed by the value of the diaries, comparing Ruth Maiers literary talent to that of Hannah Arendt. The book was translated into English by Jamie Bulloch in 2009, most of Ruths diary is preserved from 1933 to 1942. Stoltenberg said, The Holocaust came to Norway on Thursday 26 November 1942, Ruth Maier was one of the many who were arrested that day. On 26 November, just as the sky was beginning to lighten, a few minutes later, the slight Jewish girl was seen by her friends being led out the door of Dalsbergstien 3. Ruth Maier was last seen being forced into a truck by two big Norwegian policemen
