1.
Supermarket
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A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger and has a wider selection than a grocery store. The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near an area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a selection of goods under a single roof. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend into the evening or even 24 hours of day, Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products, the shops are usually part of corporate chains that own or control other supermarkets located nearby—even transnationally—thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale. Supermarkets typically are supplied by the centres of their parent companies. Supermarkets usually offer products at low prices by using their buying power to buy goods from manufacturers at lower prices than smaller stores can. They also minimise financing costs by paying for goods at least 30 days after receipt, certain products are very occasionally sold as loss leaders, that is, with negative profit margins so as to attract shoppers to their store. There is some debate as to the effectiveness of this tactic, to maintain a profit, supermarkets make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items bought by the intended higher volume of shoppers. Customers usually shop by placing their selected merchandise into shopping carts or baskets, a larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. If the eatery in a supermarket is substantial enough, the facility may be called a grocerant, also, most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This also offered opportunities for interaction, many regarded this style of shopping as a social occasion. These practices were by nature very labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive, the shopping process was slow, as the number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store. The concept of a food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. The expectation was that customers would come from great distances, but in the end even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, the concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916, Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores
2.
Tuna
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A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
3.
Bandsaw
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A bandsaw is a saw with a long sharp blade consisting of a continuous band of toothed metal stretched between two or more wheels to cut material. They are used principally in woodworking, metalworking, and lumbering, advantages include uniform cutting action as a result of an evenly distributed tooth load, and the ability to cut irregular or curved shapes like a jigsaw. The minimum radius of a curve is determined by the width of the band, most bandsaws have two wheels rotating in the same plane, one of which is powered, although some may have three or four to distribute the load. The blade itself can come in a variety of size and tooth pitch which enables the machine to be versatile and able to cut a wide variety of materials including wood, metal. Almost all bandsaws today are powered by an electric motor, line shaft versions were once common but are now antiques. Constant flexing of the blade over the wheels caused either the material or the joint welding it into a loop to fail, nearly 40 years passed before Frenchwoman Anne Paulin Crepin devised a welding technique overcoming this hurdle. She applied for a patent in 1846, and soon sold the right to employ it to manufacturer A. Perin & Company of Paris. Combining this method with new alloys and advanced tempering techniques allowed Perin to create the first modern band saw blade. The first American band saw patent was granted to Benjamin Barker of Ellsworth, Maine, the first factory produced and commercially available band saw in the U. S. was by a design of Paul Prybil. Power hacksaws were once common in the industries, but bandsaws. Many workshops in residential garages or basements and in light industry contain small or medium-sized bandsaws that can cut wood, metal, often a general-purpose blade is left in place, although blades optimized for wood or metal can be switched out when volume of use warrants. Most residential and commercial bandsaws are of the vertical type mounted on a bench or a cabinet stand, Portable power tool versions, including cordless models, are also common in recent decades, allowing building contractors to bring them along on the truck to the jobsite. Saws for cutting meat are typically of all steel construction with easy to clean features. The blades either have fine teeth with heat treated tips, or have plain or scalloped knife edges, bandsaws dedicated to industrial metal-cutting use, such as for structural steel in fabrication shops and for bar stock in machine shops, are available in vertical and horizontal designs. Typical band speeds range from 40 feet per minute to 5,000 feet per minute, although specialized bandsaws are built for friction cutting of hard metals, metal-cutting bandsaws are usually equipped with brushes or brushwheels to prevent chips from becoming stuck in between the blades teeth. Systems which cool the blade with cutting fluid are also common equipment on metal-cutting bandsaws, the coolant washes away swarf and keeps the blade cool and lubricated. Horizontal bandsaws hold the workpiece stationary while the blade swings down through the cut and this configuration is used to cut long materials such as pipe or bar stock to length. Thus it is an important part of the facilities in most machine shops, the horizontal design is not useful for cutting curves or complicated shapes
4.
Tsukiji fish market
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The market is located in Tsukiji in central Tokyo, between the Sumida River and the upmarket Ginza shopping district. The market is located near the Tsukijishijō Station on the Toei Ōedo Line, there are two distinct sections of the market as a whole. The inner market is the wholesale market, where approximately 900 licensed wholesale dealers operate small stalls. The outer market is a mixture of wholesale and retail shops that sell Japanese kitchen tools, restaurant supplies, groceries, and seafood, most of the shops in the outer market close by the early afternoon, and in the inner market even earlier. The market handles more than 400 different types of seafood from cheap seaweed to the most expensive caviar, and from tiny sardines to 300 kg tuna and controversial whale species. Overall, more than 700,000 metric tons of seafood are handled every year at the three markets in Tokyo, with a total value in excess of 600 billion yen. The number of registered employees as of 25 January 2010 varies from 60,000 to 65,000, including wholesalers, accountants, auctioneers, company officials, and distributors. The market opens most mornings at 3,00 a. m. with the arrival of the products by ship, truck, particularly impressive is the unloading of tons of frozen tuna. The auction houses then estimate the value and prepare the products for the auctions. The buyers also inspect the fish to discern which fish they would like to bid for, the auctions start around 5,20 a. m. Bids can only be made by licensed participants and these bidders include intermediate wholesalers who operate stalls in the marketplace and other licensed buyers who are agents for restaurants, food processing companies, and large retailers. The auctions usually end around 10,00 a. m, afterward, the purchased fish is either loaded onto trucks to be shipped to the next destination or on small carts and moved to the many shops inside the market. There the shop owners cut and prepare the products for retail, in case of large fish, for example tuna and swordfish, cutting and preparation is elaborate. Frozen tuna and swordfish are often cut with large band saws, the market is the busiest between 5,30 and 8,00 a. m. and the activity declines significantly afterward. Many shops start to close around 11,00 a. m. and the market closes for cleaning around 1,00 p. m. Tourists may visit the market daily between 5 a. m. and 6,15 a. m. and watch the proceedings from a designated area, except during periods when it is closed to the public. After the latest ban that ended in May 2010, the auctions have been re-opened to the public with a maximum limit of 120 visitors per day on a first-come. Visitor entry into the wholesale markets is prohibited until after 9 AM
5.
Freezing
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Freezing, or solidification, is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. For most substances, the melting and freezing points are the temperature, however. For example, agar displays a hysteresis in its melting point and it melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 32 °C to 40 °C. Most liquids freeze by crystallization, formation of crystalline solid from the uniform liquid, because of the latent heat of fusion, the freezing is greatly slowed down and the temperature will not drop anymore once the freezing starts but will continue dropping once it finishes. Crystallization consists of two events, nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation is the step wherein the molecules start to gather into clusters, on the scale, arranging in a defined. The crystal growth is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size, in spite of the second law of thermodynamics, crystallization of pure liquids usually begins at a lower temperature than the melting point, due to high activation energy of homogeneous nucleation. The creation of a nucleus implies the formation of an interface at the boundaries of the new phase, some energy is expended to form this interface, based on the surface energy of each phase. If a hypothetical nucleus is too small, the energy that would be released by forming its volume is not enough to create its surface, Freezing does not start until the temperature is low enough to provide enough energy to form stable nuclei. Under high pressure water will super cool to as low as −70 °C before freezing, Freezing is almost always an exothermic process, meaning that as liquid changes into solid, heat and pressure is released. This is often seen as counter-intuitive, since the temperature of the material does not rise during freezing, but this can be understood, since heat must be continually removed from the freezing liquid or the freezing process will stop. The energy released upon freezing is a latent heat, and is known as the enthalpy of fusion and is exactly the same as the required to melt the same amount of the solid. Low-temperature helium is the only exception to the general rule. Helium-3 has an enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K. Helium-4 also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below 0.8 K. This means that, at appropriate constant pressures, heat must be added to these substances in order to freeze them, certain materials, such as glass and glycerol, may harden without crystallizing, these are called amorphous solids. Amorphous materials as well as some polymers do not have a freezing point, instead, there is a gradual change in their viscoelastic properties over a range of temperatures. Such materials are characterized by a transition that occurs at a glass transition temperature. Because vitrification is a process, it does not qualify as freezing
6.
Food industry
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The Food Industry is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food consumed by the world population. Only subsistence farmers, those who survive on what they grow, the food Industry includes, Agriculture, raising of crops and livestock, and seafood Manufacturing, agrichemicals, agricultural construction, farm machinery and supplies, seed, etc. The Food Standards Agency, a government body in India, describes it thus. the whole food industry – from farming and food production, packaging and distribution, to retail and catering. The Economic Research Service of the USDA uses the food system to describe the same thing, The U. S. food system is a complex network of farmers. Those links include makers of farm equipment and chemicals as well as firms that provide services to agribusinesses, such as providers of transportation and financial services. The system also includes the marketing industries that link farms to consumers, and which include food and fiber processors, wholesalers, retailers. The term food industries covers a series of activities directed at the processing, conversion, preparation, preservation. Many food industries depend almost entirely on agriculture or fishing. Agriculture is the process of producing food, feeding products, fiber and other desired products by the cultivation of certain plants, the practice of agriculture is also known as farming. Scientists, inventors, and others devoted to improving farming methods,1 in 3 people worldwide are employed in agriculture, yet it only contributes 3% to global GDP. Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fibre, agronomy encompasses work in the areas of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. Agronomy is the application of a combination of sciences, agronomists today are involved with many issues including producing food, creating healthier food, managing environmental impact of agriculture, and extracting energy from plants. Food processing includes the methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for human consumption, Food processing takes clean, harvested or slaughtered and butchered components and uses them to produce marketable food products. There are several different ways in which food can be produced, one off production, This method is used when customers make an order for something to be made to their own specifications, for example a wedding cake. The making of products could take days depending on how intricate the design is. Batch production, This method is used when the size of the market for a product is not clear, a certain number of the same goods will be produced to make up a batch or run, for example a bakery may bake a limited number of cupcakes. This method involves estimating consumer demand, mass production, This method is used when there is a mass market for a large number of identical products, for example chocolate bars, ready meals and canned food. The product passes from one stage of production to another along a production line, just-in-time, This method of production is mainly used in restaurants
7.
Cryopreservation
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At low enough temperatures, any enzymatic or chemical activity which might cause damage to the biological material in question is effectively stopped. Cryopreservation methods seek to reach low temperatures without causing additional damage caused by the formation of ice during freezing, traditional cryopreservation has relied on coating the material to be frozen with a class of molecules termed cryoprotectants. New methods are constantly being investigated due to the inherent toxicity of many cryoprotectants, by default it should be considered that cryopreservation alters or compromises the structure and function of cells unless it is proven otherwise for a particular cell population. Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is the process in which genetic material is collected and stored with the intention of conservation of the breed. Mixtures of solutes can achieve similar effects, some solutes, including salts, have the disadvantage that they may be toxic at intense concentrations. In addition to the water-bear, wood frogs can tolerate the freezing of their blood, urea is accumulated in tissues in preparation for overwintering, and liver glycogen is converted in large quantities to glucose in response to internal ice formation. Both urea and glucose act as cryoprotectants to limit the amount of ice that forms, frogs can survive many freeze/thaw events during winter if not more than about 65% of the total body water freezes. Research exploring the phenomenon of Freezing frogs has been performed primarily by the Canadian researcher, snapping turtles Chelydra serpentina and wall lizards Podarcis muralis also survive nominal freezing but it has not been established to be adaptive for overwintering. In the case of Rana sylvatica one cryopreservant is ordinary glucose, one of the most important early theoreticians of cryopreservation was James Lovelock known for Gaia theory. He suggested that damage to red blood cells during freezing was due to osmotic stress, during the early 1950s, Lovelock had also suggested that increasing salt concentrations in a cell as it dehydrates to lose water to the external ice might cause damage to the cell. Cryopreservation of tissue during recent times began with the freezing of fowl sperm, the process was applied to humans during the 1950s with pregnancies obtained after insemination of frozen sperm. Increased understanding of the mechanism of freezing injury to cells emphasised the importance of controlled or slow cooling to obtain maximum survival on thawing of the living cells, the ability of cryoprotectants, in the early cases glycerol, to protect cells from freezing injury was discovered accidentally. Freezing injury has two aspects, direct damage from the ice crystals and secondary damage caused by the increase in concentration of solutes as progressively more ice is formed. Storage at very cold temperatures is presumed to provide an indefinite longevity to cells, researchers experimenting with dried seeds found that there was noticeable variability of deterioration when samples were kept at different temperatures – even ultra-cold temperatures. Many of these effects can be reduced by cryoprotectants, once the preserved material has become frozen, it is relatively safe from further damage. However, estimates based on the accumulation of radiation-induced DNA damage during cryonic storage have suggested a maximum period of 1000 years. Solution effects As ice crystals grow in freezing water, solutes are excluded, high concentrations of some solutes can be very damaging. Extracellular ice formation When tissues are cooled slowly, water migrates out of cells, too much extracellular ice can cause mechanical damage to the cell membrane due to crushing
8.
Refrigerator
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Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries. The lower temperature lowers the rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the point of water. Optimum temperature range for food storage is 3 to 5 °C. A similar device that maintains a temperature below the point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had been a household appliance for almost a century. For this reason, a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox in American usage, the first cooling systems for food involved using ice. Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s, and developed in the early 1800s, in 1834, the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system was built. The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854, in 1913, refrigerators for home use were invented. In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit, the introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s. Home freezers as separate compartments were introduced in 1940, frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace. Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce, commercial refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. Most households use the style, which has been the basic style since the 1940s. A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and freezers, newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting, chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes, among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, the refrigerator allows the modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before. Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure, before the invention of the refrigerator, icehouses were used to provide cool storage for most of the year. Placed near freshwater lakes or packed snow and ice during the winter
9.
Waste & Resources Action Programme
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WRAP WRAP is a registered charity. It works with businesses, individuals and communities to achieve a circular economy through helping them reduce waste, develop sustainable products, WRAP was established in 2000 as a company limited by guarantee. And receives funding from the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, the Northern Ireland Executive, Zero Waste Scotland, the Welsh Government, WRAP developed the Recycle Now, Love Food, Hate Waste and Love your Clothes initiatives. These aim to help businesses, local authorities, community groups and individuals recycle and reuse more, signatories to the Courtauld Commitment include industry leaders such as Tesco, Sainsburys, Asda and big brands such as Unilever and Nestlé. The European Union praised phase one as an example of best practice, the phase three targets are, Reduce household food and drink waste by 5% - this represents a 9% reduction in real terms to counter the expected increase in food purchased. The clothing industry – through the ‘Sustainable Clothing Action Plan, working together to reduce the clothing industry footprint through sustainable design, reuse and recycling. These commitments fall within WRAP’s four main areas, Food and drink waste reduction, Sustainable electricals, Sustainable textiles. Food waste in the United Kingdom Front of Store Recycling ICE demolition protocol Quality Protocol Publicly Available Specification Circular Economy Official website
10.
Food Standards Agency
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The Food Standards Agency is a non-ministerial government department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for protecting public health in relation to food in England, Wales and it is led by a board appointed to act in the public interest. Its headquarters are in London, opposite Holborn tube station, with offices in Wales. The agency had a office in Scotland until April 2015. The Agency was created in 2001 based on a report by Professor James, issued after several high-profile outbreaks, from its inception, the Agency declared that it would take no decisions about food policy except in open Board meetings accessible to the public. Since 2003, these meetings have been webcast live, enabling consumers to see the process in action. Each Board meeting concludes with a Q&A session in which web viewers can question the Board or its Executive directly, in 2006, the Wine Standards Board merged with the FSA to take over responsibility for enforcing the EU wine regime in the UK. Formerly an executive agency of the FSA, the Meat Hygiene Service merged with the FSA in April 2010 to form a new operations group, the operations group has responsibility for the delivery of official controls. Certain aspects of food labelling policy in England were transferred from the Food Standards Agency to the Department for Environment, Food, the Food Standards Agency offices in Scotland and Northern Ireland have retained their responsibilities for nutrition policy. Plans to create a new food standards body in Scotland were announced by Ministers in June 2012, Food Standards Scotland took over from the FSA on 1 April 2015 as the public body responsible for food safety, food standards, nutrition, food labelling and meat inspection in Scotland. Sir John Krebs was the first Chair of the Food Standards Agency, dame Deirdre Hutton was Chair between 2005 and July 2009, followed by Jeff Rooker until July 2013. Tim Bennett, the former Deputy Chair, was appointed as interim Chair whilst a permanent appointment was made, heather Hancock was appointed the new Chair on 1 April 2016, for a three-year term. In February 2005, the announced the discovery of the dye Sudan I in Worcester sauce. The Agency asked for these to be removed from sale, the Food Standards Agency also imposed restrictions on the sheep trade because of the consequences of the 1986 Chernobyl catastrophe which were repealed in March 2012. In 2007, the UK TV regulator Ofcom introduced restrictions on advertising of products that scored poorly under the scheme, in June 2002, and re-released in June 2006, the FSA conducted an advertising campaign on British television, highlighting the danger of food poisoning caused by barbecues. The advert, intended to shock viewers, shows sausages sizzling on a barbecue, however, when a pair of tongs pick up one of these sausages, it falls apart, and reveals pink, uncooked meat in the middle. To emphasize the risk of diarrhoea and vomiting caused by food poisoning, in 2005, Brenda Dean carried out an independent review of the Food Standards Agency. The report made 22 recommendations, all of which were accepted by the Food Standards Agency board and it has done well in taking forward the experiences, good and bad, of the previous regime, to begin building its own reputation
11.
Food preservation
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Food preservation is to prevent the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms, as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation, many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling, sugaring and sealing within an airtight jar, some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern methods. Some methods of preservation are known to create carcinogens. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation, new techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution. Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamper the decomposition of food products, as early as 12,000 BC, Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were drying foods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruits are dried by the sun and wind. A fire would be built inside the building to provide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. Before the era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars, rural people often did their own ice cutting, whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Boiling liquid food items can kill any existing microbes, milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews, milk is also boiled before storing to kill many microorganisms. Salting or curing draws moisture from a substance by osmosis, substances are cured with salt, sugar or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink colour. It was a method of preservation in medieval times and around the 1700s. The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey, similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar, sugar tends to draw water from the microbes. This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them, in this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage
12.
Microorganism
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A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some fungi, algae, and some such as rotifers. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages, some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all life, including microorganisms. Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon, out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons. Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earths oceans, in August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, You can find microbes everywhere — theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology, both in food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants, Robert Hooke coined the term cell after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe microorganisms in 1673, later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases, single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, so, for most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, the possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the 17th century
13.
Carboxymethyl cellulose
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Carboxymethyl cellulose or cellulose gum is a cellulose derivative with carboxymethyl groups bound to some of the hydroxyl groups of the glucopyranose monomers that make up the cellulose backbone. It is often used as its salt, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. It is synthesized by the reaction of cellulose with chloroacetic acid. The polar carboxyl groups render the cellulose soluble and chemically reactive, CMC is used in food under the E number E466 as a viscosity modifier or thickener, and to stabilize emulsions in various products including ice cream. It is also a constituent of many products, such as toothpaste, laxatives, diet pills, water-based paints, detergents, textile sizing. It is used primarily because it has high viscosity, is nontoxic, CMC is used extensively in gluten free and reduced fat food products. In laundry detergents, it is used as a soil suspension polymer designed to deposit onto cotton and other cellulosic fabrics, CMC is used as a lubricant in artificial tears. Following the initial reaction, the resultant mixture produces about 60% CMC plus 40% salts and this product is the so-called technical CMC which is used in detergents. A further purification process is used to remove these salts to produce the pure CMC used for food, pharmaceutical, an intermediate semipurified grade is also produced, typically used in paper applications such as restoration of archival documents. Knitted fabric made of cellulose may be converted into CMC and used in medical applications. A pvc balloon is covered by CMC knitted fabric reinforced by nylon, the device is soaked in water to form a gel, this is inserted into the nose and the balloon inflated. The combination of the balloon and the therapeutic effect of the cmc stops the bleeding. 2 Fabric used as a dressing following ENT surgical procedures,3 Added water to form a gel. This gel is inserted into sinus cavity following surgery, insoluble microgranular CMC is used as a cation-exchange resin in ion-exchange chromatography for purification of proteins. CMC is also used in ice packs to form a eutectic mixture resulting in a freezing point. Aqueous solutions of CMC have also used to disperse carbon nanotubes. The long CMC molecules are thought to wrap around the nanotubes, in conservation-restoration, it is used as an adhesive or fixative. CMC is used to achieve tartrate or cold stability in wine and this innovation may save megawatts of electricity used to chill wine in warm climates
14.
Thomas Sutcliffe Mort
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Thomas Sutcliffe Mort was an Australian industrialist responsible for improving refrigeration of meat. He was renowned for speculation in the pastoral industry as well as industrial activities such as his Ice-Works in Sydneys Darling Harbour and dry dock. Mort was born in Bolton, Lancashire, England in 1816, in 1878, he was associated with the Australian Mutual Provident Society. In 1849, he was one of a committee, which funded a company to promote sugar growing at Moreton Bay. In 1850 Mort was a member of the Sydney Exchange Co, in the 1850s, he opened Morts Dock in Sydney, a business that was not as successful as he wished. Mort returned to England for a visit in 1857–59, during that visit he bought many furnishings, pictures and other goods, in particular at a sale of the possessions of the Earl of Shrewsbury. He commissioned the architect Edmund Blacket to build a house to add to his house to display the new possessions and his gallery was open to the public. From 1856, Mort began acquiring land near Moruya on the south coast of New South Wales, in 1860, Mort acquired the Bodalla estate near the mouth of the Tuross River. Mort eventually owned 38,000 acres in the district, a substantial holding in that fertile area. Bodalla is alleged to have been known as Boat Alley. Morts vision for Bodalla was as an estate to retire on and to demonstrate model land utilisation. Mort wished to have a tenanted dairy estate run as an integrated whole, butter and cheese were produced for the Sydney market. By the 1870s, the tenants were disgruntled sharefarmers and the estate was in Morts control again run as three farms with hired labour, in 1866, Mort expanded his dry dock into an engineering works. Mort offered shares to his employees and in 1875, the company was incorporated with limited liability having been managed beforehand by a committee that included four leading hands. Mort financed experiments by Eugene Dominic Nicolle, a French born engineer who had arrived in Sydney in 1853, in 1861 Mort established at Darling Harbour the first freezing works in the world, which afterwards became the New South Wales Fresh Food and Ice Company. The first trial shipment of meat to London was in 1868. As a part of his works, Mort developed a large abattoir at Lithgow where sheep. In 1875, to mark his achievements in the refrigeration techniques and he organised a special train from Sydney and fed his guests food that had been refrigerated at his plant for over 18 months
15.
Darling Harbour
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Darling Harbour is a harbour adjacent to the city centre of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is also a recreational and pedestrian precinct that is situated on western outskirts of the Sydney central business district. Originally named Long Cove, the locality extends northwards from Chinatown, Cockle Bay is just one of the waterways that makes up Darling Harbour, which opens north into the much larger Port Jackson. The precinct and its surroundings are administered independently of the local government area of the City of Sydney. Darling Harbour is named after Lieutenant-General Ralph Darling, who was Governor of New South Wales from 1825 to 1831, the area was originally known as Long Cove, but was generally referred to as Cockle Bay until 1826 when Governor Darling renamed it after himself. The name Cockle Bay has recently restored in reference to the headwaters of the harbour. It was originally part of the port of Sydney, including the Darling Harbour Railway Goods Yard. During the Great Depression, the part of Darling Harbour became known as The Hungry Mile. Much of the land had been the site of the NSW Railways central marshalling yards, the Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre at Darling Harbour was a venue of the 2000 Summer Olympic Games and a key meeting venue of APEC Australia 2007. Darling Harbour is accessible via various modes of public transport, the precinct is served by the Dulwich Hill Line of Sydneys light rail network, with access via Paddys Markets, Convention, Exhibition and Pyrmont Bay stations. Ferry wharves including Darling Harbour and Pyrmont Bay provide access to the Inner Harbour ferry services to Circular Quay, the Goods Line is a park and pedestrian pathway connecting Darling Harbour to Railway Square and Central Station. The nearest train station is Town Hall, east Darling Harbour is part of a massive urban renewal development. Plans for the 18-hectare site include half business and residential developments, the state government of NSW declared plans for Globe Street, a street designed to become Australias and Asia Pacifics centre for corporate trade. The urban renewal development is not expected to be completed until 2020, east Darling Harbour will be known as Barangaroo. The Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre site is being replaced by the new International Convention Centre Sydney, the passenger terminal is now in White Bay and the container terminal has also closed. The area was used for several events during World Youth Day 2008. Darling Harbour is the location of the residence on MTVs reality TV show, The Real World, Sydney. The house has a large Darling Harbour sign along its edge, 20th Century Foxs 1995 film Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, The Movie was shot in Sydney, and featured some scenes filmed in Darling Harbour
16.
Clarence Birdseye
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Clarence Frank Birdseye II was an American inventor, entrepreneur, and naturalist, and is considered to be the founder of the modern frozen food industry. Clarence Birdseye was born in Brooklyn, New York, on December 9,1886, Birdseye attended Montclair High School in New Jersey, and due to financial difficulties completed only two years at Amherst College, where his father and elder brother had earned degrees. He subsequently moved west for the United States Agriculture Department, Birdseye began his career as a taxidermist. He also worked in New Mexico and Arizona as an “assistant naturalist” and he was taught by the Inuit how to ice fish under very thick ice. In -40 °C weather, he discovered that the fish he caught froze almost instantly, and and he recognized immediately that the frozen seafood sold in New York was of lower quality than the frozen fish of Labrador, and saw that applying this knowledge would be lucrative. His journals from this period, which record these observations, are held in the Archives, conventional freezing methods of the time were commonly done at higher temperatures, and thus the freezing occurred much more slowly, giving ice crystals more time to grow. It is now known that fast freezing produces smaller ice crystals, when slow frozen foods thaw, cellular fluids leak from the ice crystal-damaged tissue, giving the resulting food a mushy or dry consistency upon preparation. In 1924, his company went bankrupt for lack of consumer interest in the product and that same year he developed an entirely new process for commercially viable quick-freezing, packing fish in cartons, then freezing the contents between two refrigerated surfaces under pressure. Birdseye created a new company, General Seafood Corporation, to promote this method, in 1925, his General Seafood Corporation moved to Gloucester, Massachusetts. There it employed Birdseyes newest invention, the double belt freezer, in which cold brine chilled a pair of steel belts carrying packaged fish. His invention was subsequently issued as US Patent #1,773,079, Birdseye took out patents on other machinery, which cooled even more quickly, so that only small ice crystals could form and cell membranes were not damaged. In 1927, he began to extend the process beyond fish to quick-freezing of meat, poultry, fruit, Birdseye continued to work with the company, further developing frozen food technology. In 1930, the company began sales experiments in 18 retail stores around Springfield, Massachusetts, the initial product line featured 26 items, including 18 cuts of frozen meat, spinach and peas, a variety of fruits and berries, blue point oysters, and fish fillets. Consumers liked the new products and today this is considered the birth of retail frozen foods, the Birds Eye name remains a leading frozen-food brand. Birdseye was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2005, Birdseye died on October 7,1956, of a heart attack at the Gramercy Park Hotel. Birdseye was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea off Gloucester, in 2012 the first book-length biography of Birdseye, Mark Kurlanskys Birdseye, The Adventures of a Curious Man, was published by Doubleday. Method of preserving piscatorial products,1924, method in preparing foods and the product obtained thereby,1926. Refrigerating apparatus,1930,1931,1932,1933,1935, method of packaging fruit juices,1930
17.
Labrador
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Labrador /ˈlæbrədɔːr/ LAB-rə-dor is the distinct northerly region of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It comprises the portion of the province, separated from the island of Newfoundland by the Strait of Belle Isle. It is the largest and northernmost geographical region in Atlantic Canada, Labrador occupies the eastern part of the Labrador Peninsula. It is bordered to the west and the south by the Canadian province of Quebec, Labrador also shares a small land border with the Canadian territory of Nunavut on Killiniq Island. Though Labrador covers 71 percent of the land area, it has only 8 percent of the provinces population. The aboriginal peoples of Labrador include the Northern Inuit of Nunatsiavut, the Southern Inuit-Métis of Nunatukavut, many of the non-aboriginal population in Labrador did not permanently settle in Labrador until the natural resource developments of the 1940s and 1950s. Before the 1950s, very few people lived in Labrador year-round. The few European immigrants who worked seasonally for foreign merchants and brought their families were known as Settlers, Labrador has a roughly triangular shape that encompasses the easternmost section of the Canadian Shield, a sweeping geographical region of thin soil and abundant mineral resources. Its western border with Quebec is the divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands that drain into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, Northern Labradors climate is classified as polar, while Southern Labradors climate is classified as subarctic. Labrador can be divided into four regions, the North Coast, Central Labrador, Western Labrador. Each of those regions is described below, from Cape Chidley to Hamilton Inlet, the long thin northern tip of Labrador holds the Torngat Mountains, named after an Inuit spirit believed to inhabit them. The mountains stretch along the coast from Port Manvers to Cape Chidley, the Torngat Mountain range is also home to Mount Caubvick, the highest point in the province. This area is predominantly Inuit, with the small Innu community of Natuashish being the exception, the north coast is the most isolated region of Labrador, with snowmobiles, boats, and planes being the only modern modes of transportation. The largest community in this region is Nain, Nunatsiavut is an Inuit self-government region in Labrador created on June 23,2000. The Settlement area comprises the majority of Labradors North Coast, while the area also includes land farther to the interior. Nain is the center of Nunatsiavut. The most populous region of Labrador, Central Labrador extends from the shores of Lake Melville into the interior and it contains the Churchill River, the largest river in Labrador and one of the largest in Canada
18.
Eleanor Roosevelt
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Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was an American politician, diplomat, and activist. President Harry S. Truman later called her the First Lady of the World in tribute to her human rights achievements, Roosevelt was a member of the prominent American Roosevelt and Livingston families and a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt. She had a childhood, having suffered the deaths of both parents and one of her brothers at a young age. At 15, she attended Allenwood Academy in London and was influenced by its feminist headmistress Marie Souvestre. Returning to the U. S. she married her fifth cousin once removed, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, though widely respected in her later years, Roosevelt was a controversial First Lady at the time for her outspokenness, particularly her stance on racial issues. On a few occasions, she disagreed with her husbands policies. She launched a community at Arthurdale, West Virginia, for the families of unemployed miners. She advocated for expanded roles for women in the workplace, the rights of African Americans and Asian Americans. Following her husbands death in 1945, Roosevelt remained active in politics for the remaining 17 years of her life and she pressed the United States to join and support the United Nations and became its first delegate. She served as the first chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights, later she chaired the John F. Kennedy administrations Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. By the time of her death, Roosevelt was regarded as one of the most esteemed women in the world, in 1999, she was ranked ninth in the top ten of Gallups List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born in 1884 at 56 West 37th Street in Manhattan, New York City, to socialites Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt, from an early age, she preferred to be called by her middle name, Eleanor. Through her father, she was a niece of President Theodore Roosevelt, through her mother, she was a niece of tennis champions Valentine Gill Vallie Hall III and Edward Ludlow Hall. Her mother nicknamed her Granny because she acted in such a manner as a child. Her mother was somewhat ashamed of Eleanors plainness. Eleanor had two brothers, Elliott Jr. and Gracie Hall Roosevelt, usually called Hall. She also had a brother, Elliott Roosevelt Mann, through her fathers affair with Katy Mann. Roosevelt was born into a world of wealth and privilege
19.
Food packaging
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Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical and it may bear a nutrition facts label and other information about food being offered for sale. Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life, modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the shelf life is a primary function. Containment or agglomeration - Small items are grouped together in one package to allow efficient handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment, information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or product. Some types of information are required by governments, marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades, marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and the point of sale display. Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment, Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to reduce the risks of package pilferage, some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage. Packages may include authentication seals to indicate that the package. Using packaging in this way is a means of retail loss prevention, convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse. Portion control - Single-serving packaging has an amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities can be divided into packages that are a suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory, selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, the above materials are fashioned into different types of food packages and containers such as, Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is being processed. Secondary packaging combines the primary packages into one box being made, tertiary packaging combines all of the secondary packages into one pallet. Packaging machines may be of the general types, Reduced packaging
20.
Microwave oven
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A microwave oven is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the Radarange, it was first sold in 1946, Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They are also useful for heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items, which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water. Some modern microwave ovens are part of units with built-in extractor hoods. The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago Worlds Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW,60 MHz shortwave transmitter. The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and this patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz. The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of waves of a small enough wavelength. The magnetron was originally a component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II. A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, sir Henry Tizard travelled to the U. S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help. An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for mass production of the magnetron. In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from a radar set he was working on started to melt a candy bar he had in his pocket
21.
Polyethylene terephthalate
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It may also be referred to by the brand name Dacron, in Britain, Terylene, or, in Russia and the former Soviet Union, Lavsan. The majority of the worlds PET production is for synthetic fibers, in the context of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the acronym PET is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer, polyethylene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride are first, second and third. PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with repeating units, PET is commonly recycled, and has the number 1 as its recycling symbol. Depending on its processing and thermal history, polyethylene terephthalate may exist both as an amorphous and as a semi-crystalline polymer, the semicrystalline material might appear transparent or opaque and white depending on its crystal structure and particle size. Polymerization is through a reaction of the monomers with water as the byproduct. Because PET is an excellent water and moisture barrier material, plastic bottles made from PET are widely used for soft drinks, for certain specialty bottles, such as those designated for beer containment, PET sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol layer to further reduce its oxygen permeability. Biaxially oriented PET film can be aluminized by evaporating a thin film of metal onto it to reduce its permeability and these properties are useful in many applications, including flexible food packaging and thermal insulation. Because of its mechanical strength, PET film is often used in tape applications. Non-oriented PET sheet can be thermoformed to make packaging trays and blister packs, if crystallizable PET is used, the trays can be used for frozen dinners, since they withstand both freezing and oven baking temperatures. As opposed to amorphous PET, which is transparent, crystallizable PET or CPET tends to be black in colour, when filled with glass particles or fibres, it becomes significantly stiffer and more durable. PET is also used as a substrate in thin film solar cells, Terylene is also spliced into bell rope tops to help prevent wear on the ropes as they pass through the ceiling. PET was patented in 1941 by John Rex Whinfield, James Tennant Dickson and their employer the Calico Printers Association of Manchester, DuPont de Nemours in Delaware, USA, first used the trademark Mylar in June 1951 and received registration of it in 1952. It is still the name used for polyester film. The current owner of the trademark is DuPont Teijin Films US, in the Soviet Union, PET was first manufactured in the laboratories of the Institute of High-Molecular Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1949, and its name Lavsan is an acronym thereof. The PET bottle was patented in 1973 by Nathaniel Wyeth, PET in its natural state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin. Based on how it is processed, PET can be semi-rigid to rigid and it makes a good gas and fair moisture barrier, as well as a good barrier to alcohol and solvents. PET becomes white when exposed to chloroform and also certain other chemicals such as toluene, about 60% crystallization is the upper limit for commercial products, with the exception of polyester fibers
22.
Active packaging
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The terms active packaging, intelligent packaging, and smart packaging refer to packaging systems used with foods, pharmaceuticals, and several other types of products. They help extend shelf life, monitor freshness, display information on quality, improve safety, active packaging usually means having active functions beyond the inert passive containment and protection of the product. Intelligent and smart packaging usually involve the ability to sense or measure an attribute of the product and this information can be communicated to users or can trigger active packaging functions. Programmable matter, smart materials, etc can be employed in packages, depending on the working definitions, some traditional types of packaging might be considered as active or intelligent. More often, the terms are used with new technologically advanced systems, microelectronics, computer applications, nanotechnology, for many years, desiccants have been used to actively control the water vapor in a closed package. A desiccant is a hygroscopic substance usually in a pouch or sachet which is placed inside a sealed package. They have been used to reduce corrosion of machinery and electronics and to extend the life of moisture sensitive foods. Corrosion inhibitors can be applied to items to prevent rust. Volatile corrosion inhibitors or vapor phase corrosion inhibitors can be provided inside a package in a pouch or can be incorporated in a saturated overwrap of special paper, many of these are organic salts that condense on the metal to resist corrosion. Some films also have VCI emitting capability, films are available with copper ions in the polymer structure, These neutralize the corrosive gas in a package and deter rust. VCI create an environment in the packaging. It works on the principle of difference in pressure and causes reaction with Metals and Non metals. There are different forms of VCIs available like Papers, Plastics, HDPE Papers, Oils, Foams, Chips, Aluminum Barrier Foils, Bubble, Emitters etc. that can prevent corrosion at many stages. Trace transition metals in foods, especially iron, can induce oxidative degradation of food components, especially lipids. Metal-chelating active packaging materials are made by immobilizing metal-chelating active compounds onto traditional active packaging material, the surface immobilized metal-chelating compounds can scavenge the transition metals from the product and enhance the oxidative stability of the product. The metal-chelating active packaging technology is also antioxidant active packaging that will extend the shelf-life of consumer products by controlling the oxidation, the metal-chelating active packaging technology is known to be able to remove synthetic food preservatives from the food product. This technology can be used to address the consumer demand for additive free. Oxygen scavengers or oxygen absorbers help remove oxygen from a closed package, some are small packets or sachets containing powdered iron, as the iron rusts, oxygen is removed from the surrounding atmosphere
23.
Oxygen scavenger
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Oxygen scavengers or oxygen absorbers are added to enclosed packaging to help remove or decrease the level of oxygen in the package. They are used to maintain product safety and extend shelf life. There are many types of oxygen available to cover a wide array of applications. The components of an oxygen absorber vary according to intended use, the activity of the product being preserved. Often the oxygen absorber or scavenger is enclosed in a porous sachet or packet but it can also be part of packaging films, others are part of a polymer structure. The first patent for an oxygen scavenger used a solution of pyrogallic acid in an air-tight vessel. Modern scavenger sachets use a mixture of powder and sodium chloride. Often activated carbon is included as it adsorbs some other gases and many organic molecules, further preserving products. When an oxygen absorber is removed from its packaging, the moisture in the surrounding atmosphere begins to permeate into the iron particles inside of the absorber sachet. Moisture activates the iron, and it oxidizes to form iron oxide, typically, there must be at least 65% relative humidity in the surrounding atmosphere before the rusting process can begin. To assist in the process of oxidation, sodium chloride is added to the mixture, acting as a catalyst or activator, as oxygen is consumed to form iron oxide the level of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere is reduced. Absorber technology of this type may reduce the level in the surrounding atmosphere to below 0. 01%. Complete oxidation of 1 g of iron can remove 300 cm3 of oxygen in standard conditions, though other technologies can remove more, iron is the most useful as it does not cause odor like sulfur compounds or passivate like aluminium compounds. Many other alternatives are not food safe, the moisture requirement of iron-based scavengers makes them ineffective in moisture sensitive applications. The performance of oxygen scavengers is affected by ambient temperature and relative humidity, newer packaging technologies may use oxygen scavenging polymers to prevent accidental ingestion of oxygen scavengers. Ascorbic acid is used to scavenge oxygen for generation of anaerobic environments for microbiology. 01%. Plastic sachets offer greater protection than paper as they are not prone to disintegrating in products with high fat contents, active packaging Scavenger Oxygen transmission rate
24.
Temperature data logger
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A temperature data logger, also called temperature monitor, is a portable measurement instrument that is capable of autonomously recording temperature over a defined period of time. The digital data can be retrieved, viewed and evaluated after it has been recorded, a data logger is commonly used to monitor shipments in a cold chain and to gather temperature data from diverse field conditions. A variety of constructions are available, most have an internal thermistor or thermocouple or can be connected to external sources. Sampling and measurement are taken and digitally stored. Some have a built in display of data or out-of-tolerance warnings, Data retrieval can be by cable, RFID, wireless systems, etc. They generally are small, battery powered, portable, and equipped with a microprocessor, internal memory for data storage, some data loggers interface with personal computers or smart phones for set-up, control, and analysis. Some include other sensors such as humidity, wind, light. Others may record input from GPS devices, shock and vibration resistance Water resistance – humidity, condensation, etc. Size, weight, mounting Certifications, calibrations, etc, software Data export Data integration with other systems Autonomous data loggers can be taken to diverse locations that cannot easily support fixed temperature monitoring equipment. These might include, mountains, deserts, jungles, mines, ice flows, caves, portable data loggers are also used in industry and laboratory situations where stand-alone recording is desired. Temperature sensitive products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, and some chemicals are monitored during shipment. Exposure to temperatures outside of a range, for a critical time period. Regulations and contracts make temperature monitoring mandatory for some products, Data loggers are often small enough to be placed inside an insulated shipping container or directly attached to a product inside a refrigerator truck or a refrigerated container. These monitor the temperature of the product being shipped, some data loggers are placed on the outside of the package or in the truck or intermodal container to monitor the air temperature. Modern digital data loggers are very portable and record the times and temperatures. This information can be used to model product degradation and to pinpoint the location, the measured data reveals whether the goods in transit have been subjected to potentially damaging temperature extremes or an excessive Mean kinetic temperature. Possibly accelerate sale and use because of reduced shelf life, multiple replicate shipments of data loggers are also used to compare modes of shipment and to develop composite data to be used in package testing protocols. and Paine, F. A. Packaging of Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare Products,2006, Blackie, ISBN0751401676 Yam, K. L. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons,2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6
25.
Susceptor
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A susceptor is a material used for its ability to absorb electromagnetic energy and convert it to heat. This energy is typically radiofrequency or microwave radiation used in heating processes. The name is derived from susceptance, a property of materials that measures their tendency to convert electromagnetic energy to heat. In microwave cooking, susceptors are built into paper packaging of certain foods and this process raises the susceptor patch temperature to levels where it may then heat food by conduction or by infrared radiation. Conduction heating occurs with good contact between susceptor and food. Because of the temperatures, there is less browning. If there is an air gap between the susceptor and food, the susceptor will heat to higher temperature, and at these higher temperatures. This infrared radiation then shines onto the food below or next to the susceptor, causing a broiling type effect, due to ability of infrared to penetrate foods. Conversion of some microwave to infrared is particularly useful for goods which require an amount of crust-browning from infrared. Susceptors are usually made of metallised film, ceramics or metals, the susceptor is the reason products meant to be browned via susceptor-generated thermal radiation carry instructions to microwave the food while still inside its packaging. Susceptors meant to heat goods by direct conduction in places where less browning will occur may be seen in the lining of packaging directly holding food. A typical example of the latter is the paper susceptor-lined dish directly holding a microwaveable pot pie or casserole, susceptors built into packaging create high temperatures in a microwave oven. This is useful for crisping and browning foods, as well as concentrating heat on the oil in a popcorn bag in order to melt it rapidly. Among the first microwave susceptors marketed were those from the mid-1980s in a product called McCain Micro Chips by McCain Foods and it consisted of a susceptor sheet which cooked French fries in a microwave oven. These are currently used in several types of packaging for heating and cooking products in microwave ovens, care in package design and use is needed for proper food safety. A crisping sleeve is a made of paperboard and affixed with a susceptor used both as a rigid container to support the food items within and to focus heat on the foodstuff. They are generally intended for a single use, hot Pockets are a form of the crisping sleeve, while the actual cuisine is a stuffed bread type of food
26.
Water activity
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Water activity or aw is the partial vapor pressure of water in a substance divided by the standard state partial vapor pressure of water. In the field of science, the standard state is most often defined as the partial vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Using this particular definition, pure distilled water has an activity of exactly one. As temperature increases, aw typically increases, except in some products with crystalline salt or sugar, higher aw substances tend to support more microorganisms. Bacteria usually require at least 0.91, and fungi at least 0.7, water migrates from areas of high aw to areas of low aw. For example, if honey is exposed to air, the honey absorbs water from the air. If salami is exposed to dry air, the salami dries out, definition of aw, a w ≡ p / p ∗ where p is the vapor pressure of water in the solution, and p*₀ is the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Alternate definition, a w ≡ l w x w where lw is the activity coefficient of water, relationship to relative humidity, The relative humidity of air in equilibrium with a sample is called the Equilibrium Relative Humidity. Food designers use water activity to formulate shelf-stable food, if a product is kept below a certain water activity, then mold growth is inhibited. This results in a shelf life. Water activity values can help limit moisture migration within a food product made with different ingredients. Food formulators use water activity to predict how much moisture migration affects their product, water activity is used in many cases as a critical control point for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points programs. Samples of the product are periodically taken from the production area. Measurements can be made in as little as five minutes, and are regularly in most major food production facilities. For many years, researchers tried to equate bacterial growth potential with water content and they found that the values were not universal, but specific to each food product. W. J. Scott first established that bacterial growth correlated with activity, not water content. It is firmly established that growth of bacteria is inhibited at specific water activity values, U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulations for intermediate moisture foods are based on these values. Lowering the water activity of a product should not be seen as a kill step
27.
Vitamin C
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Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid and L-ascorbic acid, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat and prevent scurvy, evidence does not support use in the general population for the prevention of the common cold. It may be taken by mouth or by injection, large doses may cause gastrointestinal discomfort, headache, trouble sleeping, and flushing of the skin. Normal doses are safe during pregnancy, Vitamin C is an essential nutrient involved in the repair of tissue. Foods that contain vitamin C include citrus fruit, tomatoes, Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928, and first made in 1933. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Vitamin C is available as a generic medication and over the counter. In 2015, the wholesale cost in the world was about 0.003 to 0.007 USD per tablet. In some countries, ascorbic acid may be added to such as breakfast cereal. A2012 Cochrane review found no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality, although rare in modern times, scurvy and its associated destabilization of collagen, connective tissue, and bone can be prevented by adequate vitamin C intake. A2014 review found that, Currently, the use of high-dose IV vitamin C cannot be recommended outside of a clinical trial, a 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy or high risk people. A2014 meta-analysis found that vitamin C intake might protect against lung cancer risk, a second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer, one found a weak association between vitamin C consumption and reduced risk, and the other found no effect of supplementation. A2013 meta-analysis found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, however, a second analysis found an inverse relationship between circulating vitamin C levels or dietary vitamin C and the risk of stroke. A meta-analysis of 44 clinical trials has shown a significant positive effect of vitamin C on endothelial function when taken at doses greater than 500 mg per day. The researchers noted that the effect of vitamin C supplementation appeared to be dependent on health status, a 2010 review found no role for vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimers disease have reached conflicting conclusions, maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably more important than supplementation for achieving any potential benefit. Vitamin C supplementation above the RDA has been used in trials to study a potential effect on preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract, however, no significant effects were found from the research. Vitamin Cs effect on the cold has been extensively researched
28.
Vitamin A
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Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids. Vitamin A has multiple functions, it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. In foods of animal origin, the form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate. The retinol form functions as a form of the vitamin. All forms of vitamin A have a ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a retinyl group. Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity, the orange pigment of carrots can be represented as two connected retinyl groups, which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels. Alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have a single group, which give them some vitamin activity. None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity, the carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans. Vitamin A can be found in two forms in foods, Retinol, the form of vitamin A absorbed when eating animal food sources, is a yellow. Since the pure form is unstable, the vitamin is found in tissues in a form of retinyl ester. It is also produced and administered as esters such as retinyl acetate or palmitate. Vitamin A deficiency is estimated to approximately one third of children under the age of five around the world. It is estimated to claim the lives of 670,000 children under five annually, approximately 250, 000–500,000 children in developing countries become blind each year owing to vitamin A deficiency, with the highest prevalence in Southeast Asia and Africa. Vitamin A deficiency is the cause of preventable childhood blindness. It also increases the risk of death from common childhood conditions such as diarrhea, UNICEF regards addressing vitamin A deficiency as critical to reducing child mortality, the fourth of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Vitamin A deficiency can occur as either a primary or a secondary deficiency, early weaning from breastmilk can also increase the risk of vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A is a vitamin and depends on micellar solubilization for dispersion into the small intestine
29.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
30.
Biopreservation
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Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and extending its shelf life. Beneficial bacteria or the products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage. It is an ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention. Of special interest are lactic acid bacteria, Lactic acid bacteria have antagonistic properties which make them particularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs compete for nutrients, their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic and acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin which is a particularly effective preservative. These days LAB bacteriocins are used as an part of hurdle technology. Lactic acid bacteria and propionibacteria have been studies for their efficacy against spoilage causing yeasts. A bacterium/yeast that is a candidate for use as a biopreservative does not necessarily have to ferment the food. However, if conditions are suitable for growth, then a biopreservative bacterium will compete well for nutrients with the spoilage. As a product of its metabolism, it should also produce acids and other antimicrobial agents, biopreservative bacteria, such as lactic acid bacteria, must be harmless to humans. Bacteriophages, or simply phages, are viruses which infect bacteria, the majority of all bacteriophages known exhibit a double-stranded DNA genome inside the virion capsid and belong to the order of tailed phages, Caudovirales. Bacteriophages are ubiquitously distributed in nature and can also be isolated from human or animal associated microflora and they outnumber their bacterial host species by a factor of ten representing the most abundant self-replicating entities on earth with an estimated 1031 phages in total. The idea of using phages against unwanted bacteria developed shortly after their discovery, with the improvements in organic chemistry during the 1950s, exploration and development of broad spectrum antibiotics displaced interest in bacteriophage research. Several laboratories have been testing suitability of bacteriophage isolates to control bacterial pathogens. Significant advancements in this research have made at the Bacteriophage Institute in Tbilisi, Georgia. Today treatment of resistant bacteria is a challenging task. Bacteriophages have recently received a generally recognized as safe based on their lack of toxicity. In meat processing, biopreservation has been studied in fermented meat products
31.
Canning
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Canning is a method of preserving food in which the food contents are processed and sealed in an airtight container. Canning provides a shelf life ranging from one to five years. A freeze-dried canned product, such as canned dried lentils, could last as long as 30 years in an edible state. In 1974, samples of canned food from the wreck of the Bertrand, although appearance, smell and vitamin content had deteriorated, there was no trace of microbial growth and the 109-year-old food was determined to be still safe to eat. The larger armies of the period required increased and regular supplies of quality food, limited food availability was among the factors limiting military campaigns to the summer and autumn months. In 1809, Nicolas Appert, a French confectioner and brewer, observed that food cooked inside a jar did not spoil unless the seals leaked, Appert was awarded the prize in 1810 by Count Montelivert, a French minister of the interior. The reason for lack of spoilage was unknown at the time, unfortunately for Appert, the factory which he had built with his prize money was razed in 1814 by Allied soldiers when they entered France. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the process was gradually employed in other European countries. Durand did not pursue food canning himself, selling his patent in 1811 to Bryan Donkin and John Hall, Bryan Donkin developed the process of packaging food in sealed airtight cans, made of tinned wrought iron. Initially, the process was slow and labour-intensive, as each large can had to be hand-made. The main market for the food at this stage was the British Army, by 1817 Donkin recorded that he had sold £3000 worth of canned meat in six months. In 1824 Sir William Edward Parry took canned beef and pea soup with him on his voyage to the Arctic in HMS Fury, in 1829, Admiral Sir James Ross also took canned food to the Arctic, as did Sir John Franklin in 1845. Some of his stores were found by the expedition led by Captain Leopold McLintock in 1857. One of these cans was opened in 1939, and was edible and nutritious, throughout the mid-19th century, canned food became a status symbol amongst middle-class households in Europe, being something of a frivolous novelty. Increasing mechanization of the process, coupled with a huge increase in urban populations across Europe. Demand for canned food greatly increased during wars, urban populations in Victorian Britain demanded ever-increasing quantities of cheap, varied, quality food that they could keep at home without having to go shopping daily. In response, companies such as Underwood, Nestlé, Heinz, in particular, Crosse and Blackwell took over the concern of Donkin Hall and Gamble. Shortages of canned food in the British Army in 1917 led to the government issuing cigarettes and amphetamines to soldiers to suppress their appetites, after the war, companies that had supplied military canned food improved the quality of their goods for civilian sale
32.
Cold chain
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A cold chain is a temperature-controlled supply chain. It is used to preserve and to extend and ensure the life of products, such as fresh agricultural produce, seafood, frozen food, photographic film, chemicals. Such products, during transport and when in transient storage, are called cool cargo, mobile refrigeration was innovated in 1940 by Frederick McKinley Jones, who founded Thermo King. Cold chains are common in the food and pharmaceutical industries and also in some chemical shipments, one common temperature range for a cold chain in pharmaceutical industries is 2 to 8 °C. but the specific temperature tolerances depend on the actual product being shipped. This is important in the supply of vaccines to distant clinics in hot climates served by poorly developed transport networks, disruption of a cold chain due to war may produce consequences similar to the smallpox outbreaks in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War. Patients that thought they were being immunized, in reality were put at risk due to the inactivated vaccines they received. Thus great attention is now being paid to the cold chain distribution process to ensure that simple diseases can eventually be eradicated from society. Traditionally all historical stability data developed for vaccines was based on the range of 2–8 °C. As such, the process must be validated to ensure that there is no negative impact to the safety. The GMP environment requires that all processes that impact the safety, efficacy or quality of the drug substance must be validated, including storage. A cold chain can be managed by a quality management system and it should be analyzed, measured, controlled, documented, and validated. The overall approach to validation of a process is by building more and more qualifications on top of each other to get to a validated state. Performing thermal testing can help with validating the cold chain. Certified test labs use environmental chambers to simulate ambient profiles that a package may encounter in the distribution cycle, thermocouple probes and separate temperature dataloggers measure temperatures within the product load to determine the response of the package to the test conditions. Replicate testing based on a qualification protocols is used to create a final report that can be used to defend the configuration when audited by regulators. It is normally best to have an individual understands the principles of validation. Cold chains need to be evaluated and controlled, Carriers and logistics providers can assist shippers and these providers have the technical ability to link with airlines for real time status, generate web-based export documentation and provide electronic tracking. The use of trucks, refrigerator cars, reefer ships, reefer containers
33.
Curing (food preservation)
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Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the way of preserving meat. Nitrates and nitrites, in conjunction with salt, are one of the most common agents in curing meat because they inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. They also contribute to the pink color. For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in ensuring the viability of meat production, transport, untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling, if kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change colour and exude a foul odour, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism, in such circumstances the usefulness of preserving foods containing nutritional value for transport and storage is obvious. Curing is able to extend the life of meat before it spoils. A survival technique since prehistory, the conservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat. Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world, diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat, the ancient Greeks prepared tarichos, which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a technique involving œnogaros. A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe, in Polybiuss time, the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts, rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometime smoked and these goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgians were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs and their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large income from their hams
34.
Food drying
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Food drying is a method of food preservation in which food is dried. Drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold through the removal of water, dehydration has been used widely for this purpose since ancient times, the earliest known practice is 12,000 B. C. by inhabitants of the modern Middle East and Asia regions. Water is traditionally removed through evaporation, although today electric food dehydrators or freeze-drying can be used to speed the drying process, many different foods can be prepared by dehydration. Meat has held a significant role. For centuries, much of the European diet depended on dried cod—known as salt cod, bacalhau and it formed the main protein source for the slaves on the West Indian plantations, and was a major economic force within the triangular trade. Dried shark meat, known as Hákarl, is a delicacy in Iceland, currently popular dried meats include prosciutto, bresaola, biltong and beef jerky. Dried fruits have been consumed historically due to their sugar content and sweet taste. Fruits are often observed differently when dried, the plum becomes a prune, the grape a raisin. Figs and dates are also transformed into new, different products that can either be eaten as they are, used in recipes, freeze-dried vegetables are often found in food for backpackers, hunters, and the military. Garlic and onion are often dried, edible mushrooms, as well as other fungi, are also sometimes dried for preservation purposes or to be used as seasonings. Home drying of vegetables, fruit and meat can be carried out with electrical dehydrators or by sun-drying or by wind, preservatives such as potassium metabisulfite, BHA, or BHT may be used, but are not required. However, dried products without these preservatives may require refrigeration or freezing to ensure safe storage for a long time, industrial food dehydration is often accomplished by freeze-drying. In this case food is flash frozen and put into a system which causes the water to sublimate directly from the solid to the gaseous phase. Industrial hot air dryers are simple and easy to design, construct, more so, it is very affordable and has been reported to retain most of the nutritional properties of food if dry using appropriate drying conditions. There are many different methods for drying, each with their own advantages for particular applications, these include, National Center for Home Food Preservation, drying section
35.
Fermentation in food processing
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Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desired, the science of fermentation is known as zymology or zymurgy. The term fermentation sometimes refers specifically to the conversion of sugars into ethanol, producing alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer. However, similar processes take place in the leavening of bread, other widely consumed fermented foods include vinegar, olives, and cheese. More localised foods prepared by fermentation may also be based on beans, grain, vegetables, fruit, honey, dairy products, fish, meat, since ancient times, humans have exploited the fermentation process. Seven-thousand-year-old jars containing the remains of wine, now on display at the University of Pennsylvania, were excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting alcoholic drinks in Babylon c.3000 BC, ancient Egypt c.3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico c.2000 BC, the French chemist Louis Pasteur founded zymology, when in 1856 he connected yeast to fermentation. When studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was catalyzed by a force, called ferments. The ferments were thought to only within living organisms. Alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells, nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts can ferment sugar even in the absence of living yeast cells. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research, one year earlier, in 1906, ethanol fermentation studies led to the early discovery of NAD+. Food fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates into alcohol or preservative organic acids, all three products have found human uses. The production of carbon dioxide is used to leaven bread, the production of organic acids is exploited to preserve and flavor vegetables and dairy products. It has more cases of botulism than any state in the United States of America. The World Health Organization has classified pickled foods as possibly carcinogenic, other research found that fermented food contains a carcinogenic by-product, ethyl carbamate. A2009 review of the studies conducted across Asia concluded that regularly eating pickled vegetables roughly doubles a persons risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Science aid, Fermentation - Process and uses of fermentation Fermented cereals, a global perspective - FAO1999
36.
Freeze-drying
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Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen water in the material to sublimate directly from the solid phase to the gas phase. The process of freeze-drying was invented in 1906 by Arsène dArsonval, in 1911 Downey Harris and Shackle developed the freeze-drying method of preserving live rabies virus which eventually led to development of the first antirabies vaccine. Modern freeze-drying was developed during World War II, the freeze-drying process was developed as a commercial technique that enabled serum to be rendered chemically stable and viable without having to be refrigerated. Shortly thereafter, the process was applied to penicillin and bone. Since that time, freeze-drying has been used as a preservation or processing technique for a variety of products. There are four stages in the drying process, pretreatment, freezing, primary drying. Pretreatment includes any method of treating the product prior to freezing and this may include concentrating the product, formulation revision, decreasing a high-vapor-pressure solvent, or increasing the surface area. In many instances the decision to pretreat a product is based on knowledge of freeze-drying and its requirements. On a larger scale, freezing is usually done using a freeze-drying machine, in this step, it is important to cool the material below its triple point, the lowest temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of the material can coexist. This ensures that sublimation rather than melting will occur in the following steps, larger crystals are easier to freeze-dry. To produce larger crystals, the product should be frozen slowly or can be cycled up and this cycling process is called annealing. In this case, the freezing is done rapidly, in order to lower the material to below its eutectic point quickly, usually, the freezing temperatures are between −50 °C and −80 °C. The freezing phase is the most critical in the whole freeze-drying process, amorphous materials do not have a eutectic point, but they do have a critical point, below which the product must be maintained to prevent melt-back or collapse during primary and secondary drying. During the primary drying phase, the pressure is lowered, the amount of heat necessary can be calculated using the sublimating molecules latent heat of sublimation. In this initial drying phase, about 95% of the water in the material is sublimated and this phase may be slow, because, if too much heat is added, the materials structure could be altered. In this phase, pressure is controlled through the application of partial vacuum, the vacuum speeds up the sublimation, making it useful as a deliberate drying process. Furthermore, a cold condenser chamber and/or condenser plates provide a surface for the vapour to re-solidify on. This condenser plays no role in keeping the material frozen, rather, it prevents water vapor from reaching the vacuum pump, condenser temperatures are typically below −50 °C
37.
Food irradiation
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Food irradiation is the process of exposing foodstuffs to ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is energy that can be transmitted without direct contact to the source of the energy capable of freeing electrons from their bonds in the targeted food. This treatment is used to food, reduce the risk of food borne illness, prevent the spread of invasive pests. Irradiated food does not become radioactive, the radiation can be emitted by a radioactive substance or generated electrically. Irradiation is also used for applications, such as medical devices. Although consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other means, one family of chemicals are uniquely formed by irradiation, and this product is nontoxic. When irradiating food, all other chemicals occur in a lower or comparable frequency to other processing techniques. Food irradiation is permitted by over 60 countries, with about 500,000 metric tons of food annually processed worldwide, the regulations that dictate how food is to be irradiated, as well as the food allowed to be irradiated, vary greatly from country to country. Irradiation is used to reduce or eliminate the risk of food born illnesses, prevent or slow down spoilage, arrest maturation or sprouting and as a treatment against pests. Depending on the dose, some or all of the organisms, microorganisms, bacteria. In this respect it is similar to pasteurization, Irradiation is used to create safe foods for people at high risk of infection or for conditions where food must be stored for long periods of time and or proper storage conditions are not available. Foods that can tolerate irradiation at sufficient doses are treated to ensure that the product is completely sterilized and this is most commonly done with rations for astronauts, special diets for hospital patients. Irradiation is used to create shelf stable products, since irradiation reduces the populations of spoilage microorganisms and because pre-packed food can be irradiated, the packaging prevents recontamination into the final product. Irradiation is used to reduce post harvest losses and it reduces populations of spoilage micro-organisms in the food and can slow down the speed at which enzymes change the food and therefore slows spoilage, ripening, and inhibits sprouting. Food is also irradiated to prevent the spread of invasive pest species through trade in vegetables and fruits. The pests are sterilized when the food is treated by low doses of irradiation, in general the higher doses required to destroy pests such as insects, mealybugs, mites, moths and butterflies either affect the look or taste or cannot be tolerated by fresh produce. Low dosage treatments enables trade across quarantine boundaries and may help reduce spoilage. Irradiation has been approved by many countries, for example in the US the FDA has approved food irradiation for over 50 years and this phytosanitary irradiation aims to render any hitch-hiking pest incapable of breeding
38.
Fruit preserves
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Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams, some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit, which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English speaking world, the two terms are more differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is jam. The singular preserve or conserve is used as a noun for high fruit content jam. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the variant of English being used. A chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices, mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar. Savory confits, such as made with garlic or fennel, may call for a savory oil, such as virgin olive oil. A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a jam made of fruit stewed in sugar, in Romania they are known as dulceata. As a result of minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits, because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and as such, conserves will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams. An alternative definition holds that conserves are preserves made from a mixture of fruits and/or vegetables, Conserves may also include dried fruit or nuts. Fruit butter, in context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process. Fruit butters are generally made from fruits, such as apples, plums. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency, add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring. … The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Neither should there be any free liquid. —Berolzheimer R et al, fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth
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Aspic
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Aspic is a dish in which ingredients are set into a gelatin made from a meat stock or consommé. Non-savory dishes, often made with commercial gelatin mixes without stock or consommé, are usually called gelatin salads, when cooled, stock that is made from meat congeals because of the natural gelatin found in the meat. The stock can be clarified with egg whites, and then filled and flavored just before the aspic sets, almost any type of food can be set into aspics. Most common are meat pieces, fruits, or vegetables, aspics are usually served on cold plates so that the gel will not melt before being eaten. A meat jelly that includes cream is called a chaud-froid, nearly any type of meat can be used to make the gelatin, pork, beef, veal, chicken, turkey, or fish. The aspic may need additional gelatin in order to set properly, veal stock provides a great deal of gelatin, in making stock, veal is often included with other meat for that reason. Fish consommés usually have too little natural gelatin, so the stock may be double-cooked or supplemented. Since fish gelatin melts at a lower temperature than gelatins of other meats, fish aspic is more delicate, vegetables and fish stocks need gelatin to maintain a molded shape. Historically, meat aspics were made before fruit- and vegetable-flavored aspics or jellies, by the Middle Ages at the latest, cooks had discovered that a thickened meat broth could be made into a jelly. A detailed recipe for aspic is found in Le Viandier, written in or around 1375, in the early 19th century, Marie-Antoine Carême created chaud froid in France. Chaud froid means hot cold in French, referring to foods that were prepared hot, Aspic was used as a chaud froid sauce in many cold fish and poultry meals. The sauce added moisture and flavor to the food, Carême invented various types of aspic and ways of preparing it. Aspic, when used to hold meats, prevents them from becoming spoiled, the gelatin keeps out air and bacteria, keeping the cooked meat fresh. Aspic came into prominence in America in the early 20th century, by the 1950s, meat aspic was a popular dinner staple throughout the United States as were other gelatin-based dishes such as tomato aspic. Cooks used to show off aesthetic skills by creating inventive aspics, Aspic can also be referred as aspic gelée or aspic jelly. Aspic jelly may be colorless or contain various shades of amber, Aspic can be used to protect food from the air, to give food more flavor, or as a decoration. There are three types of textures, delicate, sliceable, and inedible. The sliceable aspic must be made in a terrine or in an aspic mold and it is firmer than the delicate aspic
40.
Jugging
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Jugging is the process of stewing whole animals, mainly game or fish, for an extended period in a tightly covered container such as a casserole or an earthenware jug. In French, such a stew of a game animal thickened with the blood is known as a civet. It is traditionally served with the blood and port wine. The recipe goes on to describe cooking the pieces of hare in water in a jug that is set within a bath of boiling water to cook for three hours. Beginning in the century, Glasse has been widely credited with having started the recipe with the words First. Her actual directions are, Take your Hare when it is casd, to case means to take off the skin. Both the Oxford English Dictionary and The Dictionary of National Biography discuss the attribution, however, having a freshly caught, or shot, hare enables one to obtain its blood. A freshly killed hare is prepared for jugging by removing its entrails and then hanging it in a larder by its hind legs, which causes the blood to accumulate in the chest cavity. One method of preserving the blood after draining it from the hare is to mix it with red wine vinegar in order to prevent it coagulating, many other British cookbooks from before the middle of the 20th century have recipes for Jugged Hare. It is usual to roast a hare first, and to stew or jug the portion which is not eaten the first day. This mode of cooking a hare is very desirable when there is any doubt as to its age, as an old hare, which would be otherwise uneatable, may be made into an agreeable dish. In 2006, a survey of 2021 people for the television channel UKTV Food found that only 1. 6% of the aged under 25 recognized Jugged Hare by name. 7 out of 10 of those people stated that they would refuse to eat Jugged Hare if it were served at the house of a friend or a relative, Jugged Rabbit is an alternative to Jugged Hare. It is considered a speciality of the cuisine of Martinique, another jugged dish, also traditional in the United Kingdom, is Jugged Kippers, which is kippers in a covered jug, cooked in boiling water. Recipe books recommend jugging kippers as one way of avoiding the strong smell that kippers have, list of cooking techniques Rabbit stew Jugged Hare. Mrs Beetons Poultry and Game Revisited, — Mrs Beetons recipe for Jugged Hare William Kitchiner. The Cooks Oracle, Containing Receipts for Plain Cookery, on the Most Economical Plan for Private Families, — another detailed recipe, with alternatives Frederick Bishop. The Illustrated London Cookery Book, Containing Upwards of Fifteen Hundred First-rate Receipts, — Bishops recipe includes a note that in some parts of the country the hare is cooked in ale with bacon
41.
Modified atmosphere
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Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the internal atmosphere of a package in order to improve the shelf life. The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen, moving it from 20. 9% to 0%, in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions. The removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen, commonly acknowledged as a gas, or carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat, packets containing scavengers may be used. In the 1970s MA packages reached the stores when bacon and fish were sold in packs in Mexico. Since then development has been continuous and interest in MAP has grown due to consumer demand and this has led to advances, for example in the design and manufacturing of Bacon films. New techniques have been designed, such as the use of anti-fogging layer to improve product visibility, from MAP a new packaging technique, EMAP, has been developed. The three major commodity types are fruits and vegetables, meat and meat products, and seafood. Many products such as red meat, seafood, minimally processed fruits and vegetables, pasta, cheese, bakery goods, poultry, cooked and cured meats, ready meals and dried foods are packaged under MA. It has been estimated that 25-40% of all fresh produce harvested will not reach the table, due to spoilage. Modified Atmosphere Packaging is a used for prolonging the shelf-life of fresh or minimally processed foods. In this preservation technique the air surrounding the food in the package is changed to another composition and this way the initial fresh state of the product may be prolonged. It is the shelf-life of perishable products like meat, fish, fruits, MAP is used with various types of products. The mixture of gases in the package depends on the type of product, packaging materials, meat, fish and cheese are non-respiring products needing very low gas permeability films and so-called high barrier films are used. The initial flushed gas-mixture will be maintained inside the MA package, among fresh-cut produce Equilibrium Modified Atmosphere Packaging is the most commonly used packaging technology. When packaging vegetables and fruits the gas atmosphere of package is not air but consists usually of a level of O2. This kind of package slows down the respiration of the product to prolong its shelf-life. Of course there are factors, like the size of the product, severity of preparation, maturity of the product
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