1.
British Airways Flight 38
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British Airways Flight 38 is a scheduled flight operated by British Airways from Beijing, China to London, United Kingdom. On 17 January 2008, local time 12,32 GMT, There were no fatalities but from the 152 people on board,47 people sustained injuries, one of them serious. The 150-tonne aircraft was the first Boeing 777-200ER to be written off in the history. Ice crystals in the fuel were blamed as the cause of the accident and this restricted fuel flow to the engines when thrust was demanded during the final approach to Heathrow. The aircraft used for the flight was Boeing 777-236ER G-YMMM, powered by two Rolls-Royce Trent 895-17 engines, the aircraft first flew on 18 May 2001 and was delivered to British Airways on 31 May 2001. It had a capacity for 233 passengers. Flight 38s route took it over Mongolia, Siberia and Scandinavia, aware of the cold conditions outside, the crew monitored the temperature of the fuel, with the intention of descending to a lower, warmer, level if there was any danger of the fuel freezing. This did not prove necessary, as the temperature never dropped below −34 °C. Although the fuel itself did not freeze, small quantities of water in the fuel did, ice adhered to the inside of the fuel lines, probably where they ran through the struts attaching the engines to the wings. This accumulation of ice had no effect on the flight until the final stages of the approach into Heathrow, when increased fuel flow and higher temperatures suddenly released it back into the fuel. This formed a slush of soft ice which flowed forward until it reached the Fuel-Oil Heat Exchangers where it once again. In attempting to maintain the instrument landing system glide slope, the autopilot sacrificed speed, the autopilot disconnected at 150 feet, as the co-pilot took manual control. Meanwhile, the reduced the flap setting from 30 degrees to 25 degrees to decrease the drag on the aircraft. The plane passed above traffic on the A30 and the airports Southern Perimeter road, the captain declared an emergency to the control tower a few seconds before landing. The aircraft came to rest on the markings at the start of the runway. A significant amount of fuel leaked, but there was no fire, four crew members and eight passengers received minor injuries, and one passenger received serious injuries. The London Ambulance Service stated that three fast response cars, nine ambulances and several officers were sent to the scene to assess the casualties and those injured were taken to the nearby Hillingdon Hospital. Willie Walsh, the British Airways Chief Executive, released a statement praising the actions of the flight and cabin crew did a magnificent job, the captain of the aircraft is one of our most experienced and has been flying with us for nearly 20 years
2.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
3.
Transport
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Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
4.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
5.
Convair CV-240 family
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The Convair CV-240 is an American airliner produced by Convair from 1947 to 1954, initially as a possible replacement of the ubiquitous Douglas DC-3. Although reduced in numbers through attrition, the Convairliners in various forms continue to fly into the 21st century, the design began its life in a requirement by American Airlines for an airliner to replace its Douglas DC-3s. Convairs original design, the unpressurised Model 110 was a twin-engine, low-wing monoplane of all-metal construction and it was powered by Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial engines and had a tricycle landing gear and a ventral airstair for passenger boarding. The prototype Model 110, registration NX90653, first flew on July 8,1946, by this time, American had changed its requirements to require pressurization and deemed the design too small. The first prototype was used by Convair for development work for the 240 series before being broken up in 1947, to meet the requirements of airlines for a pressurized airliner, Convair produced a revised design—the Model 240. This had a longer but thinner fuselage than the Model 110, the 240 first flew on March 16,1947. The Model 240 was followed by the Model 340 that had a fuselage, longer-span wings. The 340 first flew on October 5,1951, as the Super 240 evolved into the CV-340 and CV-440, the limit of piston-engine performance was reached, and future development centered on conversion to turboprop power. The first delivery of a production Convairliner was to American on February 29,1948, a total of 75 were delivered to American, with another 50 going to Western Airlines, Continental Airlines, Pan American Airways, KLM, Swissair, Sabena, and Trans Australia Airlines. A CV-240 was the first private aircraft used in a United States presidential campaign, in 1960, John F. Kennedy used a CV-240 named Caroline during his campaign. This aircraft is now preserved in the National Air and Space Museum, after aborted negotiations with TWA and Eastern for Super 240 orders, the production of the 240 series was temporarily halted. In response to a United inquiry, Convair redesigned the Super 240, United ordered 55, and more US orders came from Braniff, Continental, Delta, Northeast and National. Other orders came from abroad, and the CV-340 proved popular in South America, the CV-340 earned an enviable reputation for reliability and profitability, and was developed into the CV-440 Metropolitan, the final piston-engined variant of the Convairliners. Kelowna Flightcraft Air Charter, the major remaining operator of this model, used price for a Convair 240 in 1960 was around £40,000. Data from, General Dynamics Aircraft and their predecessors Convair Model 110 Unpressurized prototype with seats for 30 passengers,89 ft wingspan,71 ft length, powered by two 2,100 hp Pratt & Whitney R-2800-SC13G engines. Powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engines, Convair CV-240-21 Turboliner Turboprop-powered conversion fitted with Allison T38 engines. It became the first turboprop airliner to fly in the United States, but problems with the resulted in development being terminated. Convair CV-300 A conversion from a Convair CV-240 with two R-2800 CB-17 engines and nacelles as used on the CV-340, in 1977, a CV-300 was involved in an accident that killed three members and the manager of the rock group Lynyrd Skynyrd
6.
Swissair
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Swissair AG/S. A. was for many years the national airline of Switzerland. It was formed from a merger between Balair and Ad Astra Aero, in 1931, the airline thrived into the 1980s, when it was one of the Seven Sisters of Western European commercial aviation. It was headquartered at Zurich Airport and in Kloten, in 1997 the Swissair Group was renamed SAirGroup, with four subdivisions, SAirlines, SAirServices, SAirLogistics and SAirRelations. The airline was kept alive until 31 March 2002 by the Swiss Federal government, on 1 April 2002 successor airline Swiss International Air Lines was founded on the base of former Crossair, taking over most of the routes, planes and staff of the former Swissair. Today, The SAirGroup company still exists and is in the process of being liquidated, Swiss International Air Lines was taken over by the German airline Lufthansa in 2005. On March 26,1931, Swissair - Schweizerische Luftverkehr AG was founded through the fusion of the airlines Ad Astra Aero, the founding fathers were Balz Zimmermann and the Swiss aviation pioneer Walter Mittelholzer. In contrast to other airlines, it did not receive support from the government, the name Swissair was the proposal of Dr. Alphonse Ehinger, president of the directorial board of the Balair, although Swissair was first deemed un-Swiss. In the first operational year 64 people were employed including ten pilots, seven radio operators, in total, their planes offered 85 seats and operation was maintained only from March to October. The route network had a length of 4,203 kilometres, on April 17,1932 Swissair bought two Lockheed Orions, making them the second European airline to use American planes, after the Czechoslovak operator CSA purchased a Ford Trimotor in 1930. The Orion was the fastest commercial airplane of its time and was put to use on the Express line and this led Lufthansa to ask Heinkel for a model that could top the Orions speed, leading to the Heinkel He 70. In 1933, the first trans-Alpine route was introduced in 1933, for the first time in Europe, flight attendants were employed aboard the Curtiss Condor beginning in 1934. Nelly Diener, first flight attendant of Europe, became world-famous and she lost her life after just 79 flights in a crash near Wurmlingen, Germany, on July 27,1934. The cause of the crash was material fatigue, in 1936, Douglas DC-2s were acquired and London was added to the route network. In 1937, the bigger Douglas DC-3 was bought, in the same year, both founding fathers died, Walter Mittelholzer during mountaineering in the Steiermark, Austria, and Balz Zimmermann succumbed to an infectious disease. On August 27,1939, days before World War II broke out, Swissair was forced to suspend service to Amsterdam, Paris and London. Two days later, Swissair service was closed completely, of 180 employees,131 had to serve in the army. In spite of the war, some routes were re-introduced, such as Munich, Berlin, Rome, in 1940, an invasion of Switzerland was feared, and Swissair moved their operations to the Magadino plains in Ticino. Operations were suspended definitively in August 1944, when a Swissair DC-2 was destroyed in Stuttgart during an American bombing raid, on July 30,1945 Swissair was able to resume commercial aviation
7.
English Channel
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The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English. The name English Channel has been used since the early 18th century. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal, later, it has also been known as the British Channel or the British Sea having been called the Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, the Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ as opposed to Norð-sǣ
8.
Folkestone
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Folkestone /ˈfoʊkstən/ is a port town on the English Channel, in Kent, south-east England. The town lies on the edge of the North Downs at a valley between two cliffs. It was an important harbour and shipping port for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, there has been a settlement in this location since the Mesolithic era. A nunnery was founded by Eanswith, daughter of Æthelberht of Kent in the 7th century, the harbours use has diminished since the opening of the nearby Channel Tunnel and stopping of local ferry services, but still remains in active use. The area of Folkestone has been occupied since at least the Mesolithic era, in 2010, worked flints were discovered below the remains of the Folkestone Roman Villa. The East Cliff area was excavated in 1924 and most recently from 2010 -2011, on the East Cliff, an extensive Iron Age oppidum existed, which produced quern-stones on an almost industrial scale. These querns, or stones used for grinding cereals into flour, were traded for continental exports such as pottery, a modest Roman style villa was constructed over the Iron Age settlement sometime during the first century AD, followed by a more luxurious one in about 200 AD. The villa was abandoned sometime during the third or fourth century for unknown reasons, in 597 AD, monks led by St Augustine arrived at Ebbsfleet on the Isle of Thanet, on a mission from Pope Gregory to re-Christianise Britain. He was greeted by the Anglo Saxon pagan King of Kent, Ethelbert and his Christian Queen, Augustine was granted land in Canterbury where he built his church and outside the walls founded the monastery of St Peter & St Paul - now known as St Augustines. Ethelbert was succeeded as Anglo-Saxon king of Kent by his son Eadbald, in 630 AD, Eanswythe founded a nunnery on the site of her fathers castle near Folkestone by the present parish Church of St Mary & St Eanswythe. Eanswythe died c 640 AD and was made a saint. Her remains were moved into the chancel of the current church in the 12th century and they became the focus of prayer and pilgrimage such that Eanswythe was quickly adopted as the towns patron. The community grew and developed into a monastery until it was dissolved by Henry VIII and they were rediscovered in June 1885 when workmen, carrying out alterations to the high altar, found a battered lead casket immured in a niche in the north wall of the chancel. Examination by archaeologists at the time and again in 1981 confirmed that the casket was of Anglo-Saxon origin and these relics are still housed in the church close to where they were discovered in the north wall of the chancel flanked by a pair of small brass candlesticks. St Eanswythe is celebrated on 12 September each year - the date on which her relics were moved to the present chancel and she also appears on the towns seal with William Harvey, the Folkestone-born, 17th-century physician who discovered the circulation of the blood. A Norman knight held a Barony of Folkestone, which led to its entry as a part of the Cinque Ports in the thirteenth century, at the start of the Tudor period it had become a town in its own right. Wars with France meant that defences had to be built here, at the beginning of the 1800s a harbour was developed, but it was the coming of the railways in 1843 that would have the bigger impact. Until the 19th century Folkestone remained a fishing community with a seafront that was continually battered by storms
9.
Water landing
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A water landing is, in the broadest sense, a landing on a body of water. Some aircraft such as land on water as a matter of course. The phrase water landing is used as a euphemism for crash-landing into water an aircraft not designed for the purpose. In this case, the flight crew make a controlled emergency landing on water. Ditching of commercial aircraft is a rare occurrence, seaplanes, flying boats, and amphibious aircraft are designed to take off and alight on water. Alighting can be supported by a hull-shaped fuselage and/or pontoons, the ability to loiter on water is also important for marine rescue operations and fire fighting. One disadvantage of water alighting is that it is dangerous in the presence of waves, furthermore, the necessary equipment compromises the crafts aerodynamic efficiency and speed. Early manned spacecraft launched by the United States were designed to alight on water by the splashdown method, the craft would parachute into the water, which acted as a cushion to bring the craft to a stop, the impacts were violent but survivable. Alighting over water rather than land made braking rockets unnecessary, but its disadvantages included difficult retrieval, the NASA Space Shuttle design was intended to land on a runway instead. Some future spacecraft are planning to permit water alightings Although extremely uncommon in commercial passenger travel, according to the National Transportation Safety Board, there are about a dozen ditchings per year. General aviation includes all fields of aviation outside of military or scheduled flights and this classification includes small aircraft, e. g. training aircraft, airships, gliders, helicopters, and corporate aircraft, including business jets and other for-hire operations. General aviation has the highest accident and incident rate in aviation, with 16 deaths per million flight hours, the FAA does not require commercial pilots to train to ditch but airline cabin personnel must train on the evacuation process. In addition, the FAA implemented rules under which circumstances an aircraft has to carry emergency equipment including floating devices such as life jackets, some aircraft are designed with the possibility of a water landing in mind. It is meant to slow flooding in a water landing, on 11 April 1952, Pan Am Flight 526A ditched 11.3 miles northwest of Puerto Rico due to engine failure after take off. Many survived the initial ditching but panicking passengers refused to leave the sinking wreck,52 passengers were killed,17 passengers and crew members were rescued by the USCG. After this accident it was recommended to implement pre-flight safety demonstrations for over-water flights, the port propeller failed, a propeller blade penetrated the fuselage and the single pilot was rendered unconscious, the ditching was performed by a passenger. The propeller had failed due to blade fracture, due to violent vibrations, engine number three broke away and control of engine number four was lost. The crew of eight and all but four of the 34 passengers were rescued, on 19 June 1954, Swissair Convair CV-240 HB-IRW ditched into the English Channel because of fuel starvation, which was attributed to pilot error
10.
Lockheed Super Constellation
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The Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation is an American aircraft, a member of the Lockheed Constellation aircraft line. The L-1049 was Lockheeds response to the successful Douglas DC-6 airliner, the aircraft was also produced for both the United States Navy and Air Force as transport, electronics, and airborne early warning and control aircraft. Since 1943 Lockheed had been planning a stretched variant of the Constellation family, the first was an L-049 with a fuselage lengthened by 13 feet. The next was an L-749 lengthened by 18 feet, neither was built due to the lack of suitable engines on the civilian market. The idea was relaunched after an aircraft appeared, when Douglas launched a stretched version of its DC-6 airliner as a cargo transport, designated DC-6A, for military. Douglas was soon to launch a version that could carry 23 more passengers than Lockheeds current production L-749 Constellation. In 1950 Lockheed had repurchased the XC-69 Constellation prototype from the Hughes Tool Company, the XC-69 then had four Pratt & Whitney R-2800 radial engines instead of the Wright R-3350s on production models. Lockheed lengthened XC-69 by 18 feet, to become the basis for the L-1049 Super Constellation, the aircraft first flew later that year still fitted with R-2800 engines, then was refitted with R-3350 956-C18CA-1 engines with jet stacks for slightly increased thrust. Later modifications included strengthened landing gear and larger vertical stabilizers, Eastern Air Lines ordered 10 aircraft, while Trans World Airlines followed with an order for 14. The L-1049 had some 550 improvements and modifications compared to the L-749, including greater fuel capacity, rectangular windows, larger cockpit windshields and improved heating, in 1953 R-3350 Turbo-compounds were made available for civil use. Lockheed incorporated them into the L-1049C, which first flew on February 17 of that year, the R-3350-972-TC18DA-1 turbo-compound engines on the L-1049C had a new turbine system, the Power Recovery Turbines. Each engines exhaust gas flowed through three turbines, increasing power by 550 hp, one drawback of the PRT was the visible flame from the exhaust pipes, this was resolved by placing armor plating 2 in thick under the stack. The L-1049C had a cruising speed and climb rate. Although still lacking the range of the DC-6B, the L-1049C matched the Douglas speed, the wings of the new model were strengthened, cabin soundproofing was increased, and the landing gear retraction system was improved. A new series of interior layouts was offered, Siesta, Intercontinental, each of these new layouts included reading lights at each seat. A freighter version, the L-1049D, first flew in August 1954 and it had two cargo doors on the left side and a reinforced magnesium floor as used on the R7V-1 military variant of the L-1049B. The L-1049D could carry a 36,916 lb payload and had a volume of 5,579 ft³, at the time of its first flight, the L-1049D was the largest civil cargo aircraft. In the end four were produced, all delivered to Seaboard & Western Airlines, two of the four L-1049Ds were later converted to L-1049H standards
11.
Air France
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Air France, stylized as AIRFRANCE, is the French flag carrier headquartered in Tremblay-en-France. It is a subsidiary of the Air France–KLM Group and a member of the SkyTeam global airline alliance. The airlines global hub is at Charles de Gaulle Airport with Orly Airport, Air Frances corporate headquarters, previously in Montparnasse, Paris, are located on the grounds of Charles de Gaulle Airport, north of Paris. During the Cold War, from 1950 until 1990, it was one of the three main Allied scheduled airlines operating in Germany at West Berlins Tempelhof and Tegel airports. In 1990, it acquired the operations of French domestic carrier Air Inter and it served as Frances primary national flag carrier for seven decades prior to its 2003 merger with KLM. Between April 2001 and March 2002, the airline carried 43.3 million passengers and had a revenue of €12. 53bn. In November 2004, Air France ranked as the largest European airline with 25. 5% total market share, Air France operates a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing widebody jets on long-haul routes, and uses Airbus A320 family aircraft on short-haul routes. Air France introduced the A380 on 20 November 2009 with service to New York Citys JFK Airport from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, the carriers regional airline subsidiary, HOP. operates the majority of its regional domestic and European scheduled services with a fleet of regional jet aircraft. Of these airlines, SGTA was the first commercial company in France. The constituent members of Air France had already built extensive networks across Europe, to French colonies in North Africa, during World War II, Air France moved its operations to Casablanca. In 1936, Air France added French-built twin engine Potez 62 aircraft to its featuring a two compartment cabin that could accommodate 14 to 16 passengers. A high wing monoplane, it had a fuselage with composite coating while the wings were fabric covered with a metal leading edge. Equipped with Hispano-Suiza V-engines, they were used on routes in Europe, South America, on 26 June 1945 all of Frances air transport companies were nationalised. On 29 December 1945, a decree of the French Government granted Air France the management of the entire French air transport network, Air France appointed its first flight attendants in 1946. The same year the airline opened its first air terminal at Les Invalides in central Paris and it was linked to Paris Le Bourget Airport, Air Frances first operations and engineering base, by coach. At that time the network covered 160,000 km, claimed to be the longest in the world, Société Nationale Air France was set up on 1 January 1946. European schedules were initially operated by a fleet of Douglas DC-3 aircraft, on 1 July 1946, Air France started direct flights between Paris and New York via refuelling stops at Shannon and Gander. Douglas DC-4 piston-engine airliners covered the route in just under 20 hours, in September 1947 Air Frances network stretched east from New York, Fort de France and Buenos Aires to Shanghai
12.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
13.
John F. Kennedy International Airport
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John F. Kennedy International Airport is a major international airport located near South Ozone Park in the borough of Queens in New York City, United States,12 miles southeast of Lower Manhattan. Over ninety airlines operate out of the airport, with non-stop or direct flights to destinations in all six inhabited continents, the airport features six passenger terminals and four runways. It serves as a hub for American Airlines and Delta Air Lines and is the operating base for JetBlue Airways. In the past, JFK served as a hub for Eastern, National, Pan Am, John F. Kennedy International Airport was originally Idlewild Airport after the Idlewild Beach Golf Course that it displaced. It was built to relieve LaGuardia Airport, which was overcrowded soon after opening in 1939. Construction began in 1943, and about $60 million was spent of governmental funding. In March 1948 the New York City Council changed the name to New York International Airport, Anderson Field, the Port Authority leased the JFK property from the City of New York in 1947 and maintains this lease today. The first airline flight from JFK was on July 1,1948, the Port Authority cancelled foreign airlines permits to use LaGuardia, forcing them to move to JFK during the next couple of years. JFK opened with six runways and a seventh under construction, runways 1L and 7L were held in reserve and never came into use as runways. Runway 31R is still in use, runway 31L opened soon after the rest of the airport and is still in use, runway 1R closed in 1957, runway 4 opened June 1949 and runway 4R was added ten years later. A smaller runway 14/32 was built after runway 7R closed and was used through 1990 by general aviation, STOL and smaller commuter flights. The Avro Jetliner was the first jetliner to land at JFK on April 18,1950, later in 1957 the USSR sought approval for two Tupolev Tu-104 flights carrying diplomats to JFK, the Port Authority did not allow them, saying noise tests had to be done first. The airport was renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24,1963, then-mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. proposed the renaming. The Port of New York Authority originally planned a single 55-gate terminal, architect Wallace Harrison then designed a master plan under which each major airline at the airport would be given its own space to develop its own terminal design. This scheme made construction more practical, made terminals more navigable, the revised plan met airline approval in 1955, with seven terminals initially planned—five for individual airlines, one developed for 3 airlines and an international arrivals building. The International Arrivals Building, or IAB, was the first new terminal at the airport, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and opening in December 1957. Stretching nearly 700 meters parallel to runway 7R where Terminal 4 is now, it had finger piers at right-angles to the building allowing more aircraft to park. United Airlines opened Terminal 7, a Skidmore design similar to the IAB, Eastern Airlines opened its Chester L. Churchill-designed Terminal 1 a month later, it was demolished in 1995
14.
Belly landing
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A belly landing, pancake landing or gear-up landing occurs when an aircraft lands without its landing gear fully extended and uses its underside, or belly, as its primary landing device. During a belly landing, there is extensive damage to the airplane. Belly landings carry the risk that the aircraft may flip over, disintegrate, extreme precision is needed to ensure that the plane lands as straight and level as possible while maintaining enough airspeed to maintain control. Strong crosswinds, low visibility, damage to the airplane, or unresponsive instruments or controls greatly increase the danger of performing a belly landing, still, belly landings are one of the most common types of aircraft accidents, and are normally not fatal if executed carefully. The most common cause of gear-up landings is the pilot simply forgetting to extend the landing gear before touchdown. On any retractable gear aircraft, lowering the gear is part of the pilots landing checklist. Pilots who ritually perform such checklists before landing are less likely to land gear-up, however, some pilots neglect these checklists and perform the tasks by memory, increasing the chances of forgetting to lower the landing gear. In the picture shown above, the B-17 Dutchess Daughter had landed normally, the gear collapsed near the end of the landing roll. The common nature of gear-up landings caused by pilot error has led to an adage within the aviation community, however, a distracted pilot may forget to look at these lights. This has led to aircraft designers building extra safety systems in the aircraft to reduce the possibility of human error, however, the horn has been useless in situations when the pilot was unfamiliar with the aircraft and did not know what the horn sounding was meant to indicate. Pilots have sometimes confused the landing gear warning horn with the stall warning horn, in other cases, pilots cannot hear the horn on older aircraft due to wearing a modern noise-canceling headset. In larger aircraft, the system usually excludes the engine power setting and instead warns the pilot when the flaps are set for landing. An alternative system uses the ground proximity warning system or radar altimeter to engage a warning when the airplane is close to the ground and descending with the gear not down. Most airliners incorporate a voice system which eliminates the ambiguity of a horn or buzzer and instead gives the pilot a clear verbal indication. In addition, large aircraft are designed to be operated by two working as a team. One flies the aircraft and handles communications and collision avoidance, while the other operates the aircraft systems. This provides a sort of human redundancy which reduces the workload placed on any one crew member, the combination of advanced warning systems and effective crew training has made gear-up landing accidents in large aircraft extremely rare. In some cases, the pilot may be warned of an unsafe gear condition by the flying characteristics
15.
1963 Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-124 Neva river ditching
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The 1963 Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-124 Neva river ditching was a water landing by a Tupolev Tu-124 of the Soviet state airline Aeroflot. The aircraft took off from Tallinn-Ülemiste Airport at 08,55 on 21 August with 45 passengers and 7 crew on board, the aircraft was built in 1962 and was scheduled to fly to Moscow-Vnukovo under the command of 27-year-old captain Victor Mostovoy. After takeoff the nose gear did not retract, ground control diverted the flight to Leningrad – because of fog at Tallinn. At 10,00 the aircraft started to circle the city at 450 m, in order to use fuel, reducing weight, the ground services at Pulkovo Airport were preparing the dirt runway for the landing. Each circuit around the city took the aircraft approximately 15 minutes, during this time the crew attempted to force the nose gear to lock into the fully extended position by pushing it with a pole taken from the cloak closet. On the eighth and last circuit while 20 km from the airport, the remaining engine ceased shortly thereafter, with the aircraft above the city center, traveling east over St. Isaacs Cathedral and the Admiralty. Upon loss of power the flight crew ditched the aircraft in the 300-metre wide Neva River, eyewitnesses saw the Tupolev descend upstream. Immediately after a turn, the aircraft glided over the steel structures of the Bolsheokhtinsky Bridge with approximately 30 m of clearance. The Tu-124 flew over the Alexander Nevsky Bridge – under construction at the time – barely missing it, the pilot managed to land the aircraft onto the river, in close proximity to an 1898-built steam tugboat. The tugboats captain then broke the windshield to tie a cable to the cockpits control wheel. During the tow all passengers remained on board, passengers and crew then evacuated the cabin via an access hatch on the planes roof. List of airline flights that required gliding US Airways Flight 1549 Prepare to Ditch, in Flight International magazine,13 August 1964, p241 Soviet Transports series, townshend,1965 Accident description at the Aviation Safety Network
16.
Tallinn Airport
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It was also the home base of the now defunct national airline Estonian Air. Tallinn Airport is open to domestic and international flights. It is located 2.7 nautical miles southeast of the centre of Tallinn on the shore of Lake Ülemiste. It was formerly known as Ülemiste Airport, the airport has a single asphalt-concrete runway, 08/26, that is 3,480 m ×45 m and large enough to handle wide-bodied aircraft such as the Boeing 747, five taxiways and fourteen terminal gates. Since 29 March 2009 the airport is known as Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport, in honour of the leader of the Estonian independence movement. The airport has also used for military purposes. It has served as an aircraft base, being home to the 384th Interceptor Aircraft Regiment. Prior to the establishment of the present airport in Ülemiste area, Lasnamäe Airfield was the airport of Tallinn. After Aeronaut went bankrupt in 1928, air service was continued by Deruluft, the first seaplane harbour on the shores of Lake Ülemiste was built 1928 to 1929 in order to serve Finnish seaplanes. The use of this harbour ended in World War II, on 26 March 1929 Riigikogu passed an expropriation act in order to establish a public airport. 10 ha of land was expropriated from Dvigatel joint-stock company and another 22 ha was expropriated from descendants of Vagner,10 million sents were paid to land-owners as indemnity. Land leveling and renovation works took another 5 million sents, on April 1935 a ramp for seaplanes was built on a shore of Lake Ülemiste, together with a small arch bridge and a customs office, which allowed seaplanes to be relocated from a sea port. The same year the administration building was erected, which also served initially as a waiting place for travellers. The total cost of the airport project, including the cost of building flight hangars, was 25 million sents. As the very first runways had soft surface, it made them unavailable for takeoffs and landings during spring and autumn seasons. Therefore, only seaplanes stationed at Lake Ülemiste were able to carry out flights, the concrete paved runways of the first stage, inaugurated together with the opening of the airport, were about 40 metres wide and 300 metres long. As they were arranged in a form of a triangle, they allowed takeoffs and landings in six directions. These were the first concrete-paved runway in Estonia, it was needed some 5,396 cubic meters of stone,4,100 cubic meters of construction aggregate and 137 tons of cement to construct them, in addition,3 km of pipeworks was laid for drainage purposes
17.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
18.
Neva River
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The Neva is a river in northwestern Russia flowing from Lake Ladoga through the western part of Leningrad Oblast to the Neva Bay of the Gulf of Finland. Despite its modest length of 74 kilometres, it is the fourth largest river in Europe in terms of average discharge, the Neva is the only river flowing from Lake Ladoga. It flows through the city of Saint Petersburg, three towns of Shlisselburg, Kirovsk and Otradnoye, and dozens of settlements. The river is navigable throughout and is part of the Volga–Baltic Waterway and White Sea – Baltic Canal. There are at least three versions of the origin of the name Neva, from the ancient Finnish name of Lake Ladoga, from the Finnish, neva meaning swamp, or from the Swedish, ny – new river. Modern names for the distributaries of the delta were settled only by the end of the 18th century. In the Paleozoic, 300–400 million years ago, the territory of the modern delta of the Neva River was covered by a sea. Modern relief was formed as a result of glacier activity and its retreat formed the Littorina Sea, the water level of which was some 7 to 9 metres higher than the present level of the Baltic Sea. Then, the Tosna River was flowing in the bed of the Neva. In the north of the Karelian Isthmus, the Littorina Sea united by a strait with Lake Ladoga. The Mga River then flowed to the east, into Lake Ladoga, near the source of the Neva River. Near the modern Lake Ladoga, land rose faster, and a reservoir was formed. Its water level began to rise, eventually flooded the valley of Mga, the Ivanovo rapids of the modern Neva were created in the breakthrough area. So about 2000 BC the Neva was created with its tributaries Tosna, according to some newer data, it happened at 1410–1250 BC making the Neva a rather young river. The valley of Neva is formed by glacial and post-glacial sediments, the delta of Neva was formed at that time, which is actually pseudodelta, as it was formed not by accumulation of river material but by plunging into the past sediments. The Neva flows out of Lake Ladoga near Shlisselburg, flows through the Neva Lowland and it has a length of 74 kilometres, and the shortest distance from the source to the mouth is 45 kilometres. The river banks are low and steep, on average about 3 to 6 metres and 2 to 3 metres at the mouth. There are three turns, the Ivanovskye rapids, at Nevsky Forest Park of the Ust-Slavyanka region and near the Smolny Institute
19.
Lockheed F-104 Starfighter
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The Lockheed F-104 Starfighter is a single-engine, supersonic interceptor aircraft which later became widely used as an attack aircraft. It was originally developed by Lockheed for the United States Air Force, but became used by US Allies around the world. One of the Century Series of fighter aircraft, it was operated by the air forces of more than a dozen nations from 1958 to 2004. Its design team was led by Kelly Johnson, who went on to lead or contribute to the development of the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, the F-104 set numerous world records, including both airspeed and altitude records. The poor safety record of the Starfighter also brought the aircraft into the public eye, Fighter ace Erich Hartmann was forced to retire from the Luftwaffe due to his outspoken opposition to selection of the F-104. The ultimate production version of the model was the F-104S, an all-weather interceptor designed by Aeritalia for the Italian Air Force. An advanced F-104 with a wing, known as the CL-1200 Lancer, was considered. In 2018 a privately owned Starfighter is scheduled to launch a group of small cubesat satellites into low orbit by carrying the rocket aloft. Clarence Kelly Johnson, the engineer at Lockheeds Skunk Works, visited Korea in December 1951. At the time, the U. S. pilots were confronting the MiG-15 with North American F-86 Sabres, the pilots requested a small and simple aircraft with excellent performance. Armed with this information, Johnson immediately started the design of such an aircraft on his return to the United States. In March, his team was assembled, they studied several designs, ranging from small designs at 8,000 lb. The engine chosen was the new General Electric J79, an engine of dramatically improved performance in comparison with contemporary designs, the small L-246 design powered by a single J79 remained essentially identical to the L-083 Starfighter as eventually delivered. The design was presented to the Air Force in November 1952, although all were interesting, Lockheed had an insurmountable lead, and was granted a development contract in March 1953 for two prototypes, these were given the designation XF-104. Work progressed quickly, with a ready for inspection at the end of April. Meanwhile, the J79 engine was not ready, both prototypes were designed to use the Wright J65 engine, a licensed-built version of the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire. The first prototype was completed by early 1954 and first flew on 4 March at Edwards AFB, the total time from contract to first flight was less than a year. When the USAF revealed the existence of the XF-104, they gave a vague description of it
20.
Oxygen mask
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An oxygen mask provides a method to transfer breathing oxygen gas from a storage tank to the lungs. Oxygen masks may cover the nose and mouth or the entire face and they may be made of plastic, silicone, or rubber. In certain circumstances, oxygen may be delivered via a nasal cannula instead of a mask, medical plastic oxygen masks are used primarily by medical care providers for oxygen therapy because they are disposable and so reduce cleaning costs and infection risks. Mask design can determine accuracy of oxygen delivered with many various medical situations requiring treatment with oxygen, Oxygen is naturally occurring in room air at 21% and higher percentages are often essential in medical treatment. For these reasons oxygen therapy is closely monitored, masks are light in weight and attached using an elasticated headband or ear loops. Silicone and rubber oxygen masks are heavier than plastic masks, Dr. Arthur H. Bulbulian pioneered the first modern viable oxygen mask, worn by World War II pilots and used by hospitals. Valves inside these tight-fitting masks control the flow of gases into and out of the masks, hoses or tubing connect an oxygen mask to the oxygen supply. Hoses are larger in diameter than tubing and can allow greater oxygen flow, when a hose is used it may have a ribbed or corrugated design to allow bending of the hose while preventing twisting and cutting off the oxygen flow. The quantity of oxygen delivered from the tank to the oxygen mask is controlled by a valve called a regulator. Three main kinds of masks are used by pilots and crews who fly at high altitudes, continuous flow, diluter demand. The first successful creation for the mask was by Armenian born Dr. Arthur Bulbulian. In a continuous-flow system, oxygen is provided to the user continuously and it does not matter if the user is exhaling or inhaling as oxygen is flowing from the time the system is activated. Below the oxygen mask is a bag that collects oxygen during exhalation. Diluter-demand and pressure-demand masks supply oxygen only when the user inhales and they each require a good seal between the mask and the user’s face. In a diluter-demand system, as the altitude increases, the flow increases such that the partial pressure of oxygen is roughly constant. Diluter-demand oxygen systems can be used up to 40,000 feet, in a pressure-demand system, oxygen in the mask is above ambient pressure, permitting breathing above 40,000 feet. Because the pressure inside the mask is greater than the pressure around the torso, inhalation is easy. Aviators are trained in pressure-demand breathing in altitude chambers, because they seal tightly, pressure-demand-type oxygen masks are also used in hyperbaric oxygen chambers and for oxygen breathing research projects with standard oxygen regulators
21.
British Midland International
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British Midland Airways Limited was an airline with its head office in Donington Hall in Castle Donington, close to East Midlands Airport, in the United Kingdom. BMI was a member of Star Alliance from 1 July 2000 until 20 April 2012, BMI was acquired from Lufthansa by International Airlines Group on 20 April 2012, and was integrated into British Airways by 27 October 2012. BMIs subsidiaries Bmibaby and BMI Regional were also purchased, although IAG did not wish to retain either, BMI Regional was sold to Sector Aviation Holdings in May 2012 and continues to operate, whereas Bmibaby closed down in September 2012. British Midland Airways Limited held a Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence, permitting it to passengers, cargo. The airline dates back to 1938, when Captain Roy Harben established Air Schools Limited as a school for training pilots of the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve. Captain Harben had been approached by the Derby Corporation to run a new aerodrome under construction near Burnaston, Sir Kingsley Wood, the Secretary of State for Air, officially opened the aerodrome as Derby Municipal Airport on 17 June 1939. Military flying training continued at the airport throughout the war, Air Schools Limited formed a parent company, Derby Aviation Limited, in 1946, and Harben died the following year of a heart attack. His wife remained the controlling shareholder of the business and asked E. W. Phillips, in 1953, Derby Aviation ceased flying training, following the award of a licence to operate scheduled flights from Burnaston and Wolverhampton to Jersey. Flights in each direction were required to land at Elmdon Airport in Birmingham to allow passengers to clear customs, the first flight was made on 18 July 1953, using a Dragon Rapide. The following year, Wolverhampton Aviation was merged into Derby Aviation, and, in 1955, the company purchased its first Douglas DC-3, International services to Ostend commenced in 1956, and flights carrying holidaymakers from the UK to mainland Europe began as well. The company was contracted by Rolls-Royce to transport aero engines to customers all over the world. In 1959, Derby Aviation formed Derby Airways as its airline business, domestic scheduled flights within the United Kingdom began the same year. The corporate colours of blue and white were adopted at that time, along with the first turboprop aircraft, from this point, Bishop drove the company forward, with domestic and European expansion continuing apace. As a first step, in November 1969, BMA took over Autairs Heathrow–Teesside route, in 1970, BMA entered the jet age with the introduction of three new BAC One-Eleven 500s, followed by an ex-Pan Am Boeing 707–321 in 1971. The former had been intended to be used on European inclusive tour charters while the latter was to be mainly used on transatlantic affinity group charters. All of these were leased to other operators, with none operating for BMA on scheduled or charter services until 1981, on 1 November 1974, BMA began operating between London Gatwick and Belfast, where it replaced the service previously operated by British Caledonian. London–Belfast was BMAs first UK domestic trunk route and the first all-year round route it served in competition with British Airways. BMAs Gatwick debut also made it the only airline at the time to operate scheduled services from all five contemporary London airports – Gatwick, Heathrow, Luton, Southend and Stansted
22.
Canadair North Star
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The Canadair North Star was a 1940s Canadian development of the Douglas C-54 / DC-4 aircraft designed for Trans-Canada Air Lines - TCA. Instead of radial piston engines found on the Douglas design, Canadair used Rolls-Royce Merlin engines to achieve a higher cruising speed of 325 mph compared with the 227 mph of the standard DC-4. Requested by TCA in 1944, the prototype flew on 15 July 1946 and it proved to be reliable but noisy when in service through the 1950s and into the 1960s. Some examples continued to fly into the 1970s, converted to cargo aircraft, Canadair Aircraft Ltd. took over the Canadian Vickers Ltd. operations on 11 November 1944. Besides the existing Consolidated PBY Canso flying patrol boats in production, the new Canadair DC-4M powered by Rolls-Royce Merlin engines mounted in Rolls-Royce Universal Power Plant installations emerged in 1946 as the North Star. Canadair built 71 examples under the designations, North Star, DC-4M, C-4, with the exception of the single C-5, these variants were all powered by Rolls-Royce Merlin engines and 51 of the production examples were pressurized. The RCAF North Stars were unpressurized and were used on a variety of transport duties, in an effort to reduce cabin noise, the sole C-5 variant was powered by Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp engines that were considerably quieter. The only C-5 was delivered to the RCAF in 1950, entering service with No.412 Transport Squadron RCAF in Uplands, Ottawa, specially outfitted for the transportation of VIP passengers. North Stars were also employed by 412 Squadron RCAF on various VIP transport duties and, overall, from 1950 to 1952, during the Korean War, RCAF North Star aircraft were employed ferrying supplies to Korea across the Pacific Ocean. They flew 599 round trips over the Pacific and delivered seven million pounds of cargo and 13,000 personnel on return trips and they flew 1.9 million miles without a fatal crash and outhauled the United States Air Force C-54s on the Korean run. After 1967, the remaining North Stars were assigned to No.426 Transport Squadron RCAF initially deployed to Dorval, Quebec and then to Trenton, gradually, their service life diminished in the 1970s and most were declared surplus. TCA received its fleet of twenty DC-4M-2 North Stars during 1947 and 1948 and operated them on routes within Canada, starting in 1954 the North Stars were replaced on TCAs routes to Europe by Lockheed Super Constellations. To deal with complaints about noise, TCA engineers developed a cross-over for the fuselage-side exhausts that reduced cabin noise by 6-8 decibels. In the cabin, noise is reduced to 102 decibels near the windows and 93 at the aisle, BOAC ordered 22 DC-4M-4s and named them the Argonaut class, each aircraft having a classical name beginning with A. The Argonauts were delivered between March and November 1949, they flew to South America, Africa, the Middle East, on 1 February 1952 the BOAC Argonaut Atalanta G-ALHK transported Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh to Kenya to begin a Commonwealth tour. Some days later,6 February, it was again Atalanta G-ALHK which returned the newly acceded Queen Elizabeth II to England upon the death of her father, King George VI. Rolls-Royce also developed a quieter cross-over exhaust system for the DC-4M, the engine thus modified became the Merlin TMO in contrast to the unmodified engine, the Merlin TML - Transport Merlin L. The modified exhaust conferred an increase in horsepower over the system of 38 hp
23.
Stockport air disaster
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72 of the 84 aboard were killed in the accident. Of the 12 survivors, all were seriously injured and it currently stands as the fourth worst disaster in British aviation history, and the third worst disaster to date to happen on English soil. The aircraft, which had been chartered by Arrowsmith Holidays Ltd, left Palma de Mallorca at 5,00 am, carrying vacationers back from the Balearic Islands to Manchester Airport. As the aircraft was making an approach to the airport, the Nos.3 and 4 engines suddenly cut out over the town of Stockport. The aircraft became uncontrollable and crashed at 10,09 am local time in an area between buildings close to the town centre. Despite the crash occurring in an urban area, there were no fatalities on the ground. The accident drew a crowd, estimated at around 10,000. Investigators with the Accidents Investigation Branch determined that the aircraft had run out of fuel because of a previously unrecognised flaw in the fuel system. The Argonaut has eight fuel tanks connected in pairs by selector valves, each pair of tanks feeds one engine, but there is also a cross-feed system whereby fuel from any pair of tanks can be routed through the system if necessary. It was found if the selector valves in the cross-feed system were a few degrees off the normal off setting. This could make one pair of tanks empty completely in flight, and this tendency had been noticed by pilots of other Argonauts before, but neither British Midland nor the other airlines using the Argonaut had reported it to the manufacturer or to British Midland. Without this information, the AIB believed that it would have been difficult for the pilots of G-ALHG to determine the exact nature of the emergency. A fuel problem had been noted on the five days earlier. A third contributory factor was tiredness, the Captain had been on duty for nearly 13 hours and this was within legal and operational limits but the inquiry noted that he had made several errors in repeating ATC messages. The AIB also examined passenger and crew survivability during the accident, news reports stated that the pilot chose to crash in an open area, but the AIB found no evidence to support this belief. The aircraft happened to be over an area at the time the starboard engines cut out. The captain, who survived, did not remember the accident sequence, the AIB inquiry cleared Captain Marlow of all blame. In 1998 a memorial plaque was unveiled at the scene of the accident, the second memorial, dedicated to the rescuers, was unveiled in October 2002
24.
Stockport
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Stockport /ˈstɒkpɔːrt/ is a large town in Greater Manchester, England,7 miles south-east of Manchester city centre, where the River Goyt and Tame merge to create the River Mersey. The town is the largest settlement in the borough of the same name. Historically, most of the town was in Cheshire, but the area to the north of the Mersey was in Lancashire. Stockport in the 16th century was a small town entirely on the bank of the Mersey. In the 18th century the town had one of the first mechanised factories in the British Isles. However, Stockports predominant industries of the 19th century were the cotton, Stockport was also at the centre of the countrys hatting industry, which by 1884 was exporting more than six million hats a year, the last hat works in Stockport closed in 1997. Dominating the western approaches to the town is the Stockport Viaduct, built in 1840, the viaducts 27 brick arches carry the mainline railways from Manchester to Birmingham and London over the River Mersey. This structure featured as the background in many paintings by L. S. Lowry, Stockport was recorded as Stokeport in 1170. The currently accepted etymology is Old English port, a place, with stoc, a hamlet, hence. Older derivations include stock, a place or castle, with port. The castle probably refers to Stockport Castle, a 12th-century motte-and-bailey first mentioned in 1173, other derivations are based on early variants such as Stopford and Stockford. There is evidence that a ford across the Mersey existed at the foot of Bridge Street Brow, Stopford retains a use in the adjectival form, Stopfordian, for Stockport-related items, and pupils of Stockport Grammar School style themselves Stopfordians. By contrast, former pupils of Stockport School are known as Old Stoconians, Stopfordian is used as the general term, or demonym used for people from Stockport, much as someone from London would be a Londoner. Stockport has never been a sea or river port as the Mersey is not navigable here, in the centre of Stockport it has been culverted and the main shopping street, Merseyway, built above it. The earliest evidence of occupation in the wider area are microliths from the hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic period and weapons. Early Bronze Age remains include stone hammers, flint knives, palstaves, there is a gap in the age of finds between about 1200 BC and the start of the Roman period in about 70 AD, which may indicate depopulation, possibly due to a poorer climate. Despite a strong tradition, there is little evidence of a Roman military station at Stockport. It is assumed that roads from Cheadle to Ardotalia and Manchester to Buxton crossed close to the town centre
25.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
26.
McDonnell Douglas DC-9
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The McDonnell Douglas DC-9 is a twin-engine, single-aisle jet airliner. It was first manufactured in 1965 with its maiden flight later that year, the DC-9 was designed for frequent, short flights. The final DC-9 was delivered in October 1982, the DC-9-based airliners, MD-80, MD-90 and Boeing 717 later followed in production. With the final deliveries of the 717 in 2006, production of the DC-9/MD-80/90/717 aircraft family ceased after 41 years, during the 1950s Douglas Aircraft studied a short- to medium-range airliner to complement their higher capacity, long range DC-8. A medium-range four-engine Model 2067 was studied but it did not receive enough interest from airlines, in 1960, Douglas signed a two-year contract with Sud Aviation for technical cooperation. Douglas would market and support the Sud Aviation Caravelle and produce a licensed version if airlines ordered large numbers, none were ordered and Douglas returned to its design studies after the cooperation deal expired. In 1962, design studies were underway, the first version seated 63 passengers and had a gross weight of 69,000 lb. This design was changed into what would be initial DC-9 variant, Douglas gave approval to produce the DC-9 on April 8,1963. Unlike the competing but larger Boeing 727 trijet, which used as many 707 components as possible, the DC-9 has two rear-mounted Pratt & Whitney JT8D turbofan engines, relatively small, efficient wings, and a T-tail. The DC-9s takeoff weight was limited to 80,000 lb for a flight crew by Federal Aviation Agency regulations at the time. DC-9 aircraft have five seats across for economy seating, the airplane seats 80 to 135 passengers depending on version and seating arrangement. Accessibility and short field characteristics were called for, turnarounds were simplified by built-in airstairs, including one in the tail, which shortened boarding and deplaning times. The tail-mounted engine design facilitated a clean wing without engine pods, for example, flaps could be longer, unimpeded by pods on the leading edge and engine blast concerns on the trailing edge. This simplified design improved airflow at low speeds and enabled lower takeoff and approach speeds, thus lowering field length requirements, the second advantage of the tail-mounted engines was the reduction in foreign object damage from ingested debris from runways and aprons. With this position, the engines could ingest ice streaming off the wing roots, third, the absence of engines in underslung pods allowed a reduction in ground clearance, making the aircraft more accessible to baggage handlers and passengers. The first DC-9, a model, flew on February 25,1965. The second DC-9 flew a few later, with a test fleet of five aircraft flying by July. This allowed the initial Series 10 to gain airworthiness certification on November 23,1965, the initial Series 10 would be followed by the improved -20, -30, and -40 variants
27.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
28.
Princess Juliana International Airport
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Princess Juliana International Airport is the main airport on the Caribbean island of Saint Martin, located on the Dutch side of the island in the country of Sint Maarten. In 2010, the airport handled 1,645,105 passengers and 60,870 aircraft movements. The airport serves as a hub for Windward Islands Airways and is the gateway for the smaller Leeward Islands, including Anguilla, Saba, St. Barthélemy. It is named after Juliana of the Netherlands, who as crown princess landed here in 1944, there is also an airport on the French side of the island, called Aéroport de Grand Case or LEspérance Airport. The airport is perhaps best known for very low-altitude flyover landing approaches due to one end of its runway being extremely close to the shore, the airport was started as a military airstrip in 1942. It was converted to an airport in 1943. In 1964 the airport was remodeled and relocated, with a new terminal building, the facilities were upgraded in 1985 and 2001. Phase I was a program in order to upgrade existing facilities. This included widening, strengthening and renovating the runway, increasing the capacity of the taxiways, construction of a new apron. Phase I was completed in 2001, the new air traffic control tower and the radar station commenced operations on 29 March 2004, while the new terminal opened in late October 2006. The terminal has 4 jetways for large aircraft like 747s, if traffic develops as forecast, Phase III of the masterplan will be executed, consisting of an extension of the new terminal building and the construction of a full parallel taxiway system. The new terminal building also have more jetways and services etc. In 1994, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and France signed the Franco-Dutch treaty on Saint Martin border controls, after some delay, the treaty was ratified in November 2006 in the Netherlands, and subsequently entered into force on 1 August 2007. In July 2016, KLM announced to serve the airport with flights from Amsterdam instead by a triangle route via Curaçao from October 2016. Due to this change, the airport lost its last regular Boeing 747 service - which was a photo opportunity on the nearby beach - as KLM uses Airbus A330s for the changed schedule. Because the approach to Runway 10 is over water, pilots can become disoriented regarding their perceived altitude when operating under visual flight rules, normal instrument checks, coupled with experience and situational awareness, mitigate potential problems. The departure from Runway 10 presents more difficulties than the approach, arriving aircraft approach the island on the last section of the final approach for Runway 10, following a 3° glide slope flying low over the famous Maho Beach. Pictures of low flying aircraft were published in news magazines worldwide in early 2000
29.
Sint Maarten
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Sint Maarten is an island country in the Caribbean. It is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, before 10 October 2010, Sint Maarten was known as the Island Territory of Sint Maarten, and was one of five island territories that constituted the Netherlands Antilles. However, though he claimed it as a Spanish territory, Columbus never landed there, the French and Dutch, on the other hand, both coveted the island. While the French wanted to colonize the islands between Trinidad and Bermuda, the Dutch found San Martín a convenient halfway point between their colonies in New Amsterdam and Brazil. With few people inhabiting the island, the Dutch easily founded a settlement there in 1631, jan Claeszen Van Campen became its first governor, and soon thereafter the Dutch West India Company began its salt mining operations. French and British settlements sprang up on the island as well, taking note of these successful colonies and wanting to maintain their control of the salt trade, the Spanish now found St. Martin much more appealing. The Eighty Years War which had been raging between Spain and the Netherlands provided further incentive to attack, Spanish forces captured Saint Martin from the Dutch in 1633, seizing control and driving most or all of the colonists off the island. At Point Blanche, they built what is now Old Spanish Fort to secure the territory, although the Dutch retaliated in several attempts to win back St. Martin, they failed. Fifteen years after the Spanish conquered the island, the Eighty Years War ended, since they no longer needed a base in the Caribbean and St. Martin barely turned a profit, the Spanish lost their inclination to continue defending it. In 1648, they deserted the island, with St. Martin free again, both the Dutch and the French jumped at the chance to re-establish their settlements. Dutch colonists came from St. Eustatius, while the French came from St. Kitts, after some initial conflict, both sides realized that neither would yield easily. Preferring to avoid a war, they signed the Treaty of Concordia in 1648. During the treatys negotiation, the French had a fleet of ships off shore. In spite of the treaty, relations between the two sides were not always cordial, between 1648 and 1816, conflicts changed the border sixteen times. The entire island came under effective French control from 1795 when Netherlands became a state under the French Empire until 1815. In the end, the French came out ahead with 53 km2 against 34 km2 on the Dutch side, with the new cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and sugar, the French and the Dutch imported a massive number of slaves to work on the plantations. The slave population grew larger than that of the land owners. Subjected to cruel treatment, slaves staged rebellions, and their overwhelming numbers made it impossible to ignore their concerns, in 1848, the French abolished slavery in their colonies including the French side of St. Martin
30.
Netherlands Antilles
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The Netherlands Antilles was a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The country consisted of several island territories located in the Caribbean Sea, the islands were also informally known as the Dutch Antilles. The country came into being in 1954 as the successor of the Dutch colony of Curaçao and Dependencies. All the island territories that belonged to the Netherlands Antilles remain part of the kingdom today, as a group they are still commonly called the Dutch Caribbean, regardless of their legal status. The islands of the Netherlands Antilles are all part of the Lesser Antilles island chain, within this group, the country was spread over two smaller island groups, a northern group and a western group. No part of the country was in the southern Windward Islands and this island sub-group was located in the eastern Caribbean Sea, to the east of Puerto Rico. There were three islands, collectively known as the SSS islands, Sint Maarten Saba Sint Eustatius and they lie approximately 800–900 kilometers north-east of the ABC Islands. This island sub-group was located in the southern Caribbean Sea off the north coast of Venezuela, the Leeward islands are subject to hurricanes in the summer months, while those islands located in the Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier. Spanish-sponsored explorers discovered both the leeward and windward island groups, however, the Spanish Crown only founded settlements in the leeward islands. In the 17th century the islands were conquered by the Dutch West India Company, from the last quarter of the 17th century, the group consisted of six undisputedly Dutch islands, Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, Saba and Sint Maarten. In the past, Anguilla, the present-day British Virgin Islands, St. Croix, the various islands were united as a single country — the Netherlands Antilles — in 1954. The country was dissolved on 10 October 2010, in the second half of the 18th century Sint Eustatius became the commercial hub of the north-eastern Caribbean, earning the nickname the Golden Rock. From 1815 onwards Curaçao and Dependencies formed a colony of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, slavery was abolished in 1863, and in 1865 a government regulation for Curaçao was enacted that allowed for some very limited autonomy for the colony. Although this regulation was replaced by a constitution in 1936, the changes to the government structure remained superficial, the island of Curaçao was hit hard by the abolition of slavery in 1863. Its prosperity was restored in the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to service the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields, colonial rule ended after the conclusion of the Second World War. In May 1948 a new constitution for the territory entered into force, among other things, universal suffrage was introduced. The territory was also renamed Netherlands Antilles, after the Dutch constitution was revised in 1948, a new interim Constitution of the Netherlands Antilles was enacted in February 1951. A consolidated version of this remained in force until the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles in 2010
31.
United Airlines Flight 173
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On December 28,1978, the aircraft flying this route ran out of fuel and crashed in a suburban Portland neighborhood near NE 158th Avenue and East Burnside Street. Flight 173 was piloted by a cockpit crew, consisting of Captain Malburn McBroom, First Officer Roderick Beebe. McBroom had been with United Airlines for 27 years, he was one of the airlines most senior pilots with more than 27,600 hours of flight time, Beebe had been with the airline for 13 years and had logged more than 5,200 flight hours. Mendenhall had accrued close to 3,900 flight hours and had been with the airline for 11 years, the first officer and flight engineer had over 2,500 hours of flying experience between them in the DC-8. Flight 173 departed from Denver about 14,47 with 189 people on board, the estimated time en route was 2 hours and 26 minutes. The planned arrival time in Portland was 17,13, according to the automatic flight plan and monitoring system, the total amount of fuel required for the flight to Portland was 31,900 lbs. There was 46,700 lbs. of fuel on board the aircraft when it departed the gate in Denver. As the crew prepared for an approach for an emergency landing into Portland, they lost the number one. This was the last radio transmission from Flight 173 to Air Traffic Control, the plane crashed into a wooded section of a populated area of suburban Portland about 6 nautical miles southeast of the airport. Eight passengers died, and 21 had serious injuries, the 304th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron of the Air Force Reserve, based at Portland International Airport, was conducting routine training flights in the area that evening. Airborne aircraft from this unit were immediately diverted to the crash scene, the NTSB investigation revealed that when the landing gear was lowered, a loud thump was heard. That unusual sound was accompanied by abnormal vibration and yaw of the aircraft, the right main landing gear retract cylinder assembly had failed due to corrosion, and that allowed the right gear to free fall. Those unusual indications led the captain to abort the landing, so that they would have time to diagnose the problem and this resulted in fuel exhaustion to all engines. His inattention resulted from preoccupation with a landing gear malfunction and preparations for a landing emergency. The fuel situation was known to be on the minds of the pilot, transcripts of cockpit recordings confirm this. Media reports at the time suggested that there was a not widely known problem with fuel state gauges on that model aircraft, the problem was not widely known in part because commercial aircraft are expected to fly with not less than a 45-minute reserve of fuel at all times. This last NTSB recommendation following the incident, addressing flightdeck resource management problems, was the genesis for major changes in the way airline crewmembers were trained. This new type of training addressed behavioral management challenges such as poor crew coordination, loss of situational awareness and it is credited with launching the Crew Resource Management revolution in airline training
32.
Douglas DC-8
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The Douglas DC-8 is a four-engine long-range narrow-body jet airliner built from 1958 to 1972 by the Douglas Aircraft Company. The DC-8s design allowed it a larger cargo capacity than the 707. After World War II Douglas had a position in the commercial aviation market. Boeing had pointed the way to the modern all-metal airliner in 1933 with its Model 247, Douglas produced a succession of piston-engined aircraft through the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. When de Havilland flew the first jet airliner, the Comet, in 1949, all three companies were working on a new generation of piston-engined designs, with an eye to turboprop conversion in the future. De Havillands pioneering Comet entered airline service in 1952, initially it was a success, but it was grounded after several fatal crashes in 1953 and 1954. The understanding of metal fatigue that the Comet investigation produced would play a part in the good safety record of later types like the DC-8. In 1952 Douglas remained the most successful of the aircraft manufacturers. They had almost 300 orders on hand for the piston-engined DC-6 and its successor, the DC-7, the Comet disasters, and the airlines subsequent lack of interest in jets, seemed to show the wisdom of their staying with propeller-driven aircraft. Boeing took the step of starting to plan a pure-jet airliner as early as 1949. Boeings military arm had gained experience with large, long-range jets through the B-47 Stratojet, with thousands of jet bombers on order or in service, Boeing had developed a close relationship with the US Air Forces Strategic Air Command. Boeing also supplied the SACs refueling aircraft, the piston-engined KC-97 Stratofreighters, the B-52, in particular, had to descend from its cruising altitude and then slow almost to stall speed to work with the KC-97. Believing that a requirement for a tanker was a certainty. As an airliner it would have seating capacity to the Comet. First presented in 1950 as the Model 473-60C, Boeing failed to any interest at the airlines. Boeing remained convinced that the project was worthwhile, and decided to press ahead with a prototype, after spending $16 million of their own money on construction, the Dash-80 rolled out on May 15,1954, and flew the next month. Boeings plans became obvious, despite the older model number. Douglas secretly began jet transport project studies in mid-1952
33.
Denver
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Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile above sea level, making it the highest major city in the United States. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the reference for the Mountain Time Zone. Denver is ranked as a Beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545, Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U. S. city, and with a 2. 8% increase in 2015, the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States. The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U. S. metropolitan statistical area. The 12-city Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876, which ranks as the 16th most populous U. S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, Denver is the most populous city within a 500-mile radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. In 2016, Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U. S. News & World Report and this was the first historical settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria, Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County but, unbeknownst to him. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne, the site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria, in May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pikes Peak Express in order to secure the regions first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for passengers, mail, freight, and gold, in 1863, Western Union furthered Denvers dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28,1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1,1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the territorial capital, with its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver
34.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
35.
Portland, Oregon
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Portland is a port and the largest city in the U. S. state of Oregon and the seat of Multnomah County. It is in the Willamette Valley region of the Pacific Northwest, at the confluence of the Willamette, the city covers 145 square miles and had an estimated population of 632,309 in 2015, making it the 26th most populous city in the United States. Approximately 2,389,228 people live in the Portland metropolitan statistical area and its Combined Statistical Area ranks 17th with a population of 3,022,178. Roughly 60% of Oregons population resides within the Portland metropolitan area, named after Portland, Maine, the Oregon settlement began to be populated in the 1830s near the end of the Oregon Trail. Its water access provided convenient transportation of goods, and the industry was a major force in the citys early economy. At the turn of the 20th century, the city had a reputation as one of the most dangerous cities in the world. After the citys economy experienced a boom during World War II. Beginning in the 1960s, Portland became noted for its liberal political values, and the city has earned a reputation as a bastion of counterculture. According to a 2009 Pew Research Center study, Portland ranks as the eighth most popular American city, the city operates with a commission-based government guided by a mayor and four commissioners as well as Metro, the only directly elected metropolitan planning organization in the United States. The city government is notable for its planning and investment in public transportation. Its climate is marked by warm, dry summers and cool and this climate is ideal for growing roses, and Portland has been called the City of Roses for over a century. Keep Portland Weird is a slogan for the city. During the prehistoric period, the land that would become Portland was flooded after the collapse of glacial dams from Lake Missoula and these massive floods occurred during the last ice age and filled the Willamette Valley with 300 to 400 feet of water. The Chinook people occupying the land which would become Portland were first documented by Meriwether Lewis, before its European settlement, the Portland Basin of the lower Columbia River and Willamette River valleys had been one of the most densely populated regions on the Pacific Coast. Large numbers of settlers began arriving in the Willamette Valley in the 1830s via the Oregon Trail. In the early 1840s a new settlement began emerging ten miles from the mouth of the Willamette River and this community was initially referred to as Stumptown and The Clearing because of the many trees cut down to allow for its growth. In 1843 William Overton saw potential in the new settlement but lacked the funds to file a land claim. For 25 cents Overton agreed to half of the 640-acre site with Asa Lovejoy of Boston
36.
Gimli Glider
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The Gimli Glider is the nickname of an Air Canada aircraft that was involved in an unusual aviation incident. The flight crew was able to glide the aircraft safely to a landing at an auto racing track that was previously RCAF Station Gimli. The subsequent investigation revealed a combination of failures and a chain of human errors that defeated built-in safeguards. On July 22,1983, Air Canadas Boeing 767 flew from Toronto to Edmonton where it underwent routine checks, the next day, it was flown to Montreal. Following a crew change, it departed Montreal as Flight 143 for the trip to Edmonton, with Captain Robert Pearson,48. Captain Pearson was an experienced pilot, having accumulated more than 15,000 flight hours. First Officer Quintal was also experienced, having logged over 7,000 hours of total flight time. On July 23,1983, Flight 143 was cruising at 12,500 metres over Red Lake, the aircrafts cockpit warning system sounded, indicating a fuel pressure problem on the aircrafts left side. Assuming a fuel pump had failed the pilots turned it off, the aircrafts fuel gauges were inoperative because of an electronic fault indicated on the instrument panel and airplane logs. Effectively, this meant that less than half the amount of intended fuel had been loaded. Because the incorrect fuel weight data had been entered into the system, a few moments later, a second fuel pressure alarm sounded for the right engine, prompting the pilots to divert to Winnipeg. Within seconds, the engine failed and they began preparing for a single-engine landing. Flying with all out was something that was never expected to occur and had therefore not been covered in training. Seconds later, with the engine also stopped, the 767 lost all power. The 767 was one of the first airliners to include a flight instrument system. With both engines stopped, the system went dead, leaving only a few basic battery-powered emergency flight instruments, on airliners the size of the 767, the engines also supply power for the hydraulic systems without which the aircraft cannot be controlled. Such aircraft are required to accommodate this kind of power failure. As the Gimli pilots were to experience on their landing approach, in line with their planned diversion to Winnipeg, the pilots were already descending through 35,000 feet when the second engine shut down
37.
Boeing 767
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The Boeing 767 is a mid- to large-size, long-range, wide-body twin-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It was Boeings first wide-body twinjet and its first airliner with a glass cockpit. The aircraft has two engines, a conventional tail, and, for reduced aerodynamic drag, a supercritical wing design. Development of the 767 occurred in tandem with a narrow-body twinjet, the 767 is produced in three fuselage lengths. The original 767-200 entered service in 1982, followed by the 767-300 in 1986 and the 767-400ER, the extended-range 767-200ER and 767-300ER models entered service in 1984 and 1988, respectively, while a production freighter version, the 767-300F, debuted in 1995. Engines featured on the 767 include the General Electric CF6, Pratt & Whitney JT9D and PW4000, United Airlines first placed the 767 in commercial service in 1982. The aircraft was flown on domestic and transcontinental routes, during which it demonstrated the reliability of its twinjet design. In 1985, the 767 became the first twin-engined airliner to receive approval for extended overseas flights. The aircraft was used to expand non-stop service on medium- to long-haul intercontinental routes. In 1986, Boeing initiated studies for a higher-capacity 767, ultimately leading to the development of the 777, in the 1990s, the 767 became the most frequently used airliner for transatlantic flights between North America and Europe. The 767 is the first twinjet wide-body type to reach 1,000 aircraft delivered, as of February 2017, Boeing has received 1,204 orders for the 767 from 74 customers,1,097 have been delivered. A total of 742 of these aircraft were in service in July 2016, competitors have included the Airbus A300, A310, and A330-200, while a successor, the 787 Dreamliner, entered service in October 2011. Despite this, the 767 still remains in production, in 1970, Boeings 747 became the first wide-body jetliner to enter service. The 747 was the first passenger jet that was enough to feature a twin-aisle cabin. Two years later, the manufacturer began a development study, code-named 7X7, for a new wide-body aircraft intended to replace the 707 and other early generation narrow-body jets. The aircraft would also provide twin-aisle seating, but in a smaller fuselage than the existing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and this marked the manufacturers first major international joint venture, and both Aeritalia and the CTDC received supply contracts in return for their early participation. At this stage the aircraft featured two or three engines, with possible configurations including over-wing engines and a T-tail. By 1976, a layout, similar to the one which had debuted on the Airbus A300
38.
Units of measurement
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A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same quantity. Any other value of quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the unit of measurement. For example, length is a physical quantity, the metre is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length. When we say 10 metres, we actually mean 10 times the definite predetermined length called metre, the definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in human endeavour from early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be very common, now there is a global standard, the International System of Units, the modern form of the metric system. In trade, weights and measures is often a subject of regulation, to ensure fairness. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures is tasked with ensuring worldwide uniformity of measurements, metrology is the science for developing nationally and internationally accepted units of weights and measures. In physics and metrology, units are standards for measurement of quantities that need clear definitions to be useful. Reproducibility of experimental results is central to the scientific method, a standard system of units facilitates this. Scientific systems of units are a refinement of the concept of weights, science, medicine, and engineering often use larger and smaller units of measurement than those used in everyday life and indicate them more precisely. The judicious selection of the units of measurement can aid researchers in problem solving, in the social sciences, there are no standard units of measurement and the theory and practice of measurement is studied in psychometrics and the theory of conjoint measurement. A unit of measurement is a quantity of a physical property. Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans, primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks, constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials. Weights and measures are mentioned in the Bible and it is a commandment to be honest and have fair measures. As of the 21st Century, multiple unit systems are used all over the world such as the United States Customary System, the British Customary System, however, the United States is the only industrialized country that has not yet completely converted to the Metric System. The systematic effort to develop an acceptable system of units dates back to 1790 when the French National Assembly charged the French Academy of Sciences to come up such a unit system. After this treaty was signed, a General Conference of Weights, the CGPM produced the current SI system which was adopted in 1954 at the 10th conference of weights and measures. Currently, the United States is a society which uses both the SI system and the US Customary system
39.
Gimli Industrial Park Airport
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Gimli Industrial Park Airport, is a former military field located 2 nautical miles west of Gimli, Manitoba, Canada. The field is now operated as a airport, with one of the original parallel runways decommissioned. Flying-related activities here include use by Manitoba Provincial Governments water bomber squadron, the Gimli Cadet Flying Site, and two private flying schools. Gimli is also used by No.435 Transport and Rescue Squadron based out of No.17 Wing Winnipeg, for training purposes, in the summertime the airport hosts glider pilot training for air cadets as Regional Gliding School. Opened as RCAF Station Gimli, the airfield served during World War II as the home of Service Flying Training School #18 under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, the station closed in September 1971. In 1983, the airport became famous when Air Canada Boeing 767 C-GAUN ran out of fuel over southern Manitoba, the aircraft in the incident became popularly referred to as the Gimli Glider. The aircraft nosed sharply up, arced right and nosed into the ground, although there was no explosion, a fire started and consumed the aircrafts remains. The cause was listed as failure to deactivate the planes gust-lock control in the cockpit and this feature was defeated in the planes conversion to turboprop
40.
Cessna 208 Caravan
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The Cessna 208 Caravan is an American single-engined turboprop, fixed-tricycle landing gear, short-haul regional airliner and utility aircraft that is built in the United States by Cessna. The airplane typically seats nine passengers with a pilot, although with a FAR Part 23 waiver it can seat up to fourteen passengers. The aircraft is used for cargo feederliner operations. The Cessna 208 is a high-wing braced cabin monoplane powered by a single Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A turboprop in tractor configuration and it has a fixed tricycle landing gear but can also be fitted with floats or skis. The cabin has room for nine passengers and two crew when used as an aircraft with four doors, one for each crew member and an airstair door on right-side. The aircraft can be fitted with an underslung cargo pod. The basic 208 airframe can be outfitted with various types of landing gear, some common adaptations include skis, enlarged tires for unprepared runways, and floats on the Caravan Amphibian model. The Caravan interior can be outfitted with seats or as cargo holds, the standard high-density airline configuration has four rows of 1-2 seating behind the two seats in the cockpit. This variant is capable of holding up to thirteen passengers, although it is marketed as being able to make a profit carrying just four. The cabin can be configured in a low density passenger configuration, with 1-1 seating, as a combination of passengers and cargo, many variants include an underbelly cargo pod, which can be used for additional freight capacity, or for passenger baggage. A number of Caravans are operated as skydiving aircraft with the cargo hatch converted to a roll-up door. The prototype first flew in December 1982, the production model was certified by the FAA in October 1984. Since then, the Caravan has undergone a number of design evolutions, working with FedEx, Cessna produced first the Cargomaster and followed that with the stretched and upgraded Super Cargomaster. The passenger model, the Grand Caravan, was derived from the Super Cargomaster, in January 2013 a higher-powered version, the Grand Caravan EX, received FAA certification. This higher-powered version will be produced by a Cessna-AVIC joint venture in China, on April 28,2008, Cessna announced that the Garmin G1000 glass cockpit will be standard equipment on all new Caravans. In May 2012 Cessna announced that a line for the 208 would be established in China. The government-owned China Aviation Industry General Aircraft will conduct final assembly of Caravans at its plant in Shijiazhuang for the Chinese market, the move was made to make room for the Citation Longitude and Cessna Denali in Wichita. 208 Caravan I First production variant with a PT6A-114 turboprop engine, official named Caravan it is sometimes known as Caravan I to distinguish it from later variants
41.
Parachuting
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Parachuting, or skydiving, is a method of transiting from a high point to Earth with the aid of gravity, involving the control of speed during the descent with the use of a parachute. It may involve more or less free-fall, a time during which the parachute has not been deployed, the first parachute jump in history was made by Andre-Jacques Garnerin, the inventor of the parachute, on October 22nd,1797. Garnerin tested his contraption by leaping from a hydrogen balloon 3,200 feet above Paris, garnerins parachute bore little resemblance to todays parachutes however as it was not packed into any sort of container and did not feature a ripcord. The first intentional freefall jump with a deployment was not made until over a century later by Leslie Irvin in 1919. While Georgia Broadwick made an earlier freefall in 1914 when her static line became entangled with her jump aircrafts tail assembly, Broadwick cut her static line and deployed her parachute manually, only as a means of freeing her self from the aircraft to which she had become entangled. The military developed parachuting technology as a way to save aircrews from emergencies aboard balloons and aircraft in flight, early competitions date back to the 1930s, and it became an international sport in 1952. Parachuting is performed as recreational activity, and a sport which is widely considered an extreme sport due to the risks involved. Manually exiting an aircraft and parachuting to safety has been used by aviators. While this method of escape is relatively rare in modern times, it was used in World War I by military aviators. In modern times, the most common means of escape from an aircraft in distress is via an ejection seat, said system is usually operated by the pilot, aircrew member, or passenger, by engaging an activation device manually. In most designs, this lead to the seat being propelled out of and away from the aircraft carrying the occupant with it. Once clear of the aircraft, the seat will deploy a parachute. Despite the perception of danger, fatalities are rare, about 21 skydivers are confirmed killed each year in the US, roughly one death for every 150,000 jumps. In the US and in most of the world, skydivers are required to carry two parachutes. The reserve parachute must be inspected and re-packed by a certified parachute rigger. Many skydivers use an automatic device that opens the reserve parachute at a pre-determined altitude if it detects that the skydiver is still in free fall. Depending on the country, AADs are often mandatory for new jumpers, most skydivers wear a visual altimeter, and an increasing number also use audible altimeters fitted to their helmets. One of the most common sources of injury is a low turn under a high-performance canopy, swooping is the advanced discipline of gliding at high-speed parallel to the ground during landing
42.
Jenkinsburg, Georgia
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Jenkinsburg is a city in Butts County, Georgia, United States. The population was 370 at the 2010 census, Jenkinsburg is located near the northwest border of Butts County at 33°19′30″N 84°2′6″W, along U. S. Route 23. It lies 5 miles northwest of Jackson, the Butts County seat, according to the United States Census Bureau, Jenkinsburg has a total area of 1.2 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 203 people,76 households, the population density was 258.4 people per square mile. There were 84 housing units at a density of 106.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 72. 41% White,21. 67% African American,0. 49% Asian,0. 49% Pacific Islander, and 4. 93% from two or more races. 25. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.13. In the town the population was out with 26. 1% under the age of 18,8. 9% from 18 to 24,29. 6% from 25 to 44,25. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 91.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.2 males, the median income for a household in the town was $40,417, and the median income for a family was $45,625. Males had an income of $31,786 versus $29,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,437. About 4. 3% of families and 13. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15. 9% of those under the age of eighteen and 9. 5% of those sixty five or over
43.
Boeing 737
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The Boeing 737 is an American short- to medium-range twinjet narrow-body airliner. The 737 is Boeings only narrow-body airliner in production, with the 737 Next Generation variants currently being built, production has also begun on the re-engined and redesigned 737 MAX, which is set to enter service in 2017. Originally envisioned in 1964, the initial 737-100 made its first flight in April 1967, Next, the lengthened 737-200 entered service in April 1968. In the 1980s Boeing launched the -300, -400, and -500 models, the 737 Classics added capacity and incorporated CFM56 turbofan engines along with wing improvements. In the 1990s, Boeing introduced the 737 Next Generation, with changes including a redesigned, increased span laminar flow wing, upgraded glass cockpit. The 737 Next Generation comprises the four -600, -700, -800, Boeing Business Jet versions of the 737 Next Generation are also produced. The 737 series is the best-selling jet commercial airliner in history, the 737 has been continuously manufactured by Boeing since 1967 with 9,401 aircraft delivered and 4,423 orders yet to be fulfilled as of February 2017. Assembly of the 737 is performed at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington, many 737s serve markets previously filled by 707,727,757, DC-9, and MD-80/MD-90 airliners, and the aircraft currently competes primarily with the Airbus A320 family. As of 2006, there were an average of 1,250 Boeing 737s airborne at any given time, Boeing had been studying short-haul jet aircraft designs and wanted to produce another aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11,1964, and Boeings intense market research yielded plans for a 50- to 60-passenger airliner for routes 50 to 1,000 mi long, consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter resulted in an increase in capacity to 100 seats. On April 5,1965, Boeing announced an order by United Airlines for 40 737s, United wanted a slightly larger airplane than the original 737. So Boeing stretched the fuselage 91 centimeters ahead of, and 102 cm behind the wing, the longer version was designated 737-200, with the original short-body aircraft becoming the 737-100. Detailed design work continued on both variants at the same time, Boeing was far behind its competitors when the 737 was launched, as rival aircraft BAC-111, Douglas DC-9, and Fokker F28 were already into flight certification. To expedite development, Boeing used 60% of the structure and systems of the existing 727 and this fuselage permitted six-abreast seating compared to the rival BAC-111 and DC-9s five-abreast layout. Design engineers decided to mount the nacelles directly to the underside of the wings to reduce the landing gear length and kept the low to the ground for easy ramp inspection. Originally, the arrangement of the airfoil sections of the 737 wing was planned to be very similar to that of the 707 and 727. However, an improvement in drag at high Mach numbers was achieved by altering these sections near the nacelle. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-1 low-bypass ratio turbofan engine, with the wing-mounted engines, Boeing decided to mount the horizontal stabilizer on the fuselage rather than the T-tail style of the Boeing 727
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Varig Flight 254
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Prior to takeoff from Marabá, Pará, towards the final destination, the crew entered an incorrect heading into the flight computer. Instead of flying northeast toward its destination, the plane flew due west, attempts to reach an alternative airport were unsuccessful, and the plane eventually ran out of fuel. The pilot made a landing in the jungle,1,050 mi northwest of Rio de Janeiro. There were 54 occupants on board—48 passengers and a crew of six,13 passengers died, the survivors were rescued two days later. The flight was a service from São Paulo to Belém with stopovers in Uberaba, Uberlândia, Goiânia, Brasília, Imperatriz, Marabá. The São Paulo–Belém route had a duration of eight hours and 20 minutes. At 9,43, flight 254 left Guarulhos International Airport, São Paulo, the flight crew consisted of 32-year-old Captain Cézar Augusto Padula Garcez, First Officer Nilson de Souza Zille,29, and four flight attendants. The flight went smoothly through all the stops, and at 17,20, while First Officer Zille was making an external inspection of the aircraft, Captain Garcez consulted the flight plan for the magnetic heading to Belém, the flight plan read 0270. Garcez interpreted this as 270 degrees, but the meaning was 027.0 degrees. That confusion was the cause for the disaster, along with other minor errors. The captain therefore set the left-side Horizontal Situation Indicator to 270 degrees and this heading is clearly inconsistent with a route from Marabá to Belém. After setting the HSI, Garcez programmed the performance management system to the distance to Belém. The flight plan indicated an altitude of 29,000 feet, and a leg duration of 48 minutes. When co-captain Zille got to his seat, instead of checking his own plan to adjust his HSI – as he was required to do – he only referenced the captains indicator. It is reported that the mistake may have been due in part to the listening to a Brazil v Chile World Cup football qualifying match on the radio. When Garcez believed the aircraft to be close to the destination, failing to do so directly, he used another Varig airliner operating flight RG266, as a radio relay to talk to Belém Airport. When Garcez managed to establish communications with Belém, he requested descent clearance, in 1989, Belém airport still had no radar, and so the Controller informed Flight 254 that it was the only one in its airspace, and gave it landing clearance. After the PMS started indicating negative distance to its destination, Captain Garcez decided to execute a 180-degree turn and he also descended the aircraft to 4,000 feet and reduced its speed to 200 knots
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Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
46.
Avianca Flight 52
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Avianca Flight 52 was a regularly scheduled flight from Bogotá to New York, via Medellín that crashed on January 25,1990, at 21,34. Eight of the nine members and 65 of the 149 passengers on board were killed. The flight left Medellín with more than enough fuel for the journey, while en route, the flight was placed in three holding patterns. Due to poor communication between the air crew and the air controllers, as well as an inadequate management of the fuel load by the pilots. This dire situation was not recognized as an emergency by the controllers because of the failure of the pilots to use the word emergency. The flight attempted to make a landing at JFK, but bad weather, coupled with communication and inadequate management of the aircraft, forced it to abort. The flight ran out of fuel before it was able to make a landing attempt. The airplane crashed approximately 20 miles from JFK, hundreds of emergency personnel responded to the crash site and helped save victims. Many of those who survived were injured and required months or years to physically recover. NTSB investigators looked at various factors contributed to the crash. This conclusion was controversial, with disagreement between investigators, passengers, and Avianca as to who was ultimately responsible, eventually, the U. S. government joined with Avianca and settled to pay for the damages to the victims and their families. The crash was also portrayed in a variety of media, the Avianca Flight 52 aircraft was a Boeing 707-321B. The aircraft was manufactured in June 1967 and was purchased by Avianca from Pan Am in 1977, by the time of the crash, the aircraft was 22 years old and had over 61,000 flight hours. The 707 was equipped with four JT3D-3B engines modified with a kit to reduce noise pollution. Additionally, maintenance crews had noted recurring issues with the aircrafts autopilot, the flight was manned by a crew of nine, including six flight attendants and three flight crewmen. The flight crew was captained by 51-year-old Laureano Caviedes with 28-year-old first officer Mauricio Klotz and 45-year-old flight engineer Matias Moyano. At the time of the crash, Captain Caviedes had been employed with Avianca for over 27 years and had logged over 16,000 hours of flight time, Caviedes had 478 hours of night flying experience in the 707 and had no record of any prior accidents. Copilot Klotz had been employed with Avianca for three years and had 1,837 hours of flight time, Klotz had transitioned to the 707 the previous October and had logged 64 flight hours in the airframe, including 13 at night
47.
Boeing 707
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The Boeing 707 is a mid-sized, long-range, narrow-body, four-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1958 to 1979. Its name is pronounced as seven oh seven. Versions of the aircraft have a capacity from 140 to 219 passengers, developed as Boeings first jet airliner, the 707 is a swept-wing design with podded engines. Although it was not the first jetliner in service, the 707 was the first to be commercially successful, dominating passenger air transport in the 1960s and remaining common through the 1970s, the 707 is generally credited with ushering in the Jet Age. It established Boeing as one of the largest manufacturers of passenger aircraft, the later 720,727,737, and 757 share elements of the 707s fuselage design. The 707 was developed from the Boeing 367-80, a prototype jet first flown in 1954, a larger fuselage cross-section and other modifications resulted in the initial-production 707-120, powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines, which first flew on December 20,1957. Pan American World Airways began regular 707 service on October 26,1958, later derivatives included the shortened long-range 707-138 and the stretched 707-320, both of which entered service in 1959. A smaller short-range variant, the 720, was introduced in 1960, the 707 has been used on domestic, transcontinental, and transatlantic flights, and for cargo and military applications. A convertible passenger-freighter model, the 707-320C, entered service in 1963, military derivatives include the E-3 Sentry airborne reconnaissance aircraft and the C-137 Stratoliner VIP transports. Boeing produced and delivered 1,011 airliners including the smaller 720 series, ten Boeing 707s were in commercial service in July 2013. During and after World War II, Boeing was known for its military aircraft, the company had produced innovative and important bombers, from the B-17 Flying Fortress and B-29 Superfortress, to the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress. The companys civil aviation department lagged far behind Douglas and other competitors, during 1949–1950, Boeing embarked on studies for a new jet transport, realizing that any design must be aimed at both the military and civilian markets. At the time, aerial refueling was becoming a standard technique for military aircraft, with the advent of the Jet Age, a new tanker was required to meet the USAFs fleet of jet-powered bombers, this was where Boeings new design would potentially win military orders. Boeing studied numerous wing and engine layouts for its new transport/tanker, some of which were based on the B-47 and C-97, before settling on 367–80. The Dash 80 took less than two years from launch in 1952 to rollout on May 14,1954, then first flew on July 15,1954. The prototype was an aircraft for both military and civilian use. The United States Air Force was the first customer, using it as the basis for the KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling platform, whether the passenger 707 would be profitable was far from certain. In a demonstration flight over Lake Washington outside Seattle, on August 7,1955, the 132-inch wide fuselage of the Dash 80 was large enough for four-abreast seating like the Stratocruiser
48.
Wind shear
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Wind shear, sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere. Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as vertical or horizontal wind shear. Vertical wind shear is a change in speed or direction with change in altitude. Horizontal wind shear is a change in speed with change in lateral position for a given altitude. Wind shear has a significant effect during take-off and landing of aircraft due to its effects on control of the aircraft and this phenomenon is a concern for architects. Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by shear, which can bend the wave front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not. The thermal wind concept explains how differences in speed at different heights are dependent on horizontal temperature differences. Wind shear refers to the variation of wind over either horizontal or vertical distances, airplane pilots generally regard significant wind shear to be a horizontal change in airspeed of 30 knots for light aircraft, and near 45 knots for airliners at flight altitude. Vertical speed changes greater than 4.9 knots also qualify as significant wind shear for aircraft, Low level wind shear can affect aircraft airspeed during take off and landing in disastrous ways, and airliner pilots are trained to avoid all microburst wind shear. Wind shear is also a key factor in the creation of severe thunderstorms, the additional hazard of turbulence is often associated with wind shear. Weather situations where shear is observed include, Weather fronts, significant shear is observed when the temperature difference across the front is 5 °C or more, and the front moves at 30 knots or faster. Because fronts are three-dimensional phenomena, frontal shear can be observed at any altitude between surface and tropopause, and therefore be seen both horizontally and vertically, vertical wind shear above warm fronts is more of an aviation concern than near and behind cold fronts due to their greater duration. Associated with upper level jet streams is a known as clear air turbulence. The CAT is strongest on the anticyclonic shear side of the jet, when a nocturnal low-level jet forms overnight above the Earths surface ahead of a cold front, significant low level vertical wind shear can develop near the lower portion of the low level jet. This is also known as wind shear since it is not due to nearby thunderstorms. When winds blow over a mountain, vertical shear is observed on the lee side, if the flow is strong enough, turbulent eddies known as rotors associated with lee waves may form, which are dangerous to ascending and descending aircraft. When on a clear and calm night, an inversion is formed near the ground. The change in wind can be 90 degrees in direction and 40 kt in speed, even a nocturnal low level jet can sometimes be observed
