1.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
2.
Academic library
–
It is unknown how many academic libraries there are internationally. An academic and research portal maintained by UNESCO links to 3,785 libraries, according to the National Center for Education Statistics, there are an estimated 3,700 academic libraries in the United States. The support of teaching and learning material for class readings. In the past, the material for class readings, intended to supplement lectures as prescribed by the instructor, has been called reserves, in the period before electronic resources became available, the reserves were supplied as actual books or as photocopies of appropriate journal articles. Academic libraries must determine a focus for development since comprehensive collections are not feasible. Librarians do this by identifying the needs of the faculty and student body, as well as the mission, when there are particular areas of specialization in academic libraries, these are often referred to as niche collections. These collections are often the basis of a special department and may include original papers, artwork. There is a deal of variation among academic libraries based on their size, resources, collections. The Harvard University Library is considered to be the largest academic library in the world and has the third largest collection in the United States, another notable example is the University of the South Pacific which has academic libraries distributed throughout its twelve member countries. The first colleges in the United States were intended to train members of the clergy, the libraries associated with these institutions largely consisted of donated books on the subjects of theology and the classics. In 1766, Yale had approximately 4,000 volumes, second only to Harvard, access to these libraries was restricted to faculty members and a few students, the only staff was a part-time faculty member or the president of the college. The priority of the library was to protect the books, not to allow patrons to use them, in 1849, Yale was open 30 hours a week, the University of Virginia was open nine hours a week, Columbia University four, and Bowdoin College only three. Students instead created literary societies and assessed entrance fees in order to build a collection of usable volumes often in excess of what the university library held. Around the turn of the century, this began to change. The American Library Association was formed in 1876, with members including Melvil Dewey, Libraries re-prioritized in favor of improving access to materials, and found funding increasing as a result of increased demand for said materials. Academic libraries today vary in regard to the extent to which they accommodate those who are not affiliated with their parent universities, some offer reading and borrowing privileges to members of the public on payment of an annual fee, such fees can vary greatly. The privileges so obtained usually do not extend to such services as computer usage, other than to search the catalog, alumni and students of cooperating local universities may be given discounts or other consideration when arranging for borrowing privileges. On the other hand, access to the libraries of universities is absolutely restricted to students, faculty
Academic library
–
Southwest Collections / Special Collections Library at
Texas Tech, a university in the United States
Academic library
–
University Library Leiden, the Netherlands, in 1694. La nouvelle bibliothèque, from Les delices de Leide, une des célèbres villes de l'Europe, Leiden: P. van der Aa, 1712
Academic library
–
The interior of
Sofia University 's main library.
Academic library
–
The Main Library Building, University of Glasgow, with the Round Reading Room in the foreground
3.
German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
–
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
–
The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
–
Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
–
German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
4.
Lower Saxony
–
Lower Saxony is a German state situated in northwestern Germany and is second in area, with 47,624 square kilometres, and fourth in population among the sixteen Länder of Germany. In rural areas Northern Low Saxon, a dialect of Low German, and Saterland Frisian, a variety of Frisian, are still spoken, but the number of speakers is declining. Lower Saxony borders on the North Sea, the states of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia, and the Netherlands. Furthermore, the state of Bremen forms two enclaves within Lower Saxony, one being the city of Bremen, the other, its city of Bremerhaven. In fact, Lower Saxony borders more neighbours than any other single Bundesland, the states principal cities include the state capital Hanover, Braunschweig, Lüneburg, Osnabrück, Oldenburg, Hildesheim, Wolfenbüttel, Wolfsburg and Göttingen. The northwestern area of Lower Saxony, which lies on the coast of the North Sea, is called East Frisia, in the extreme west of Lower Saxony is the Emsland, a traditionally poor and sparsely populated area, once dominated by inaccessible swamps. The northern half of Lower Saxony, also known as the North German Plains, is almost invariably flat except for the hills around the Bremen geestland. Towards the south and southwest lie the northern parts of the German Central Uplands, the Weser Uplands, between these two lie the Lower Saxon Hills, a range of low ridges. Thus, Lower Saxony is the only Bundesland that encompasses both maritime and mountainous areas, Lower Saxonys major cities and economic centres are mainly situated in its central and southern parts, namely Hanover, Braunschweig, Osnabrück, Wolfsburg, Salzgitter, Hildesheim and Göttingen. Oldenburg, near the coastline, is another economic centre. To the north, the Elbe river separates Lower Saxony from Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, the banks just south of the Elbe are known as Altes Land. Due to its local climate and fertile soil, it is the states largest area of fruit farming. Most of the territory was part of the historic Kingdom of Hanover. It was created by the merger of the State of Hanover with several states in 1946. Lower Saxony has a boundary in the north in the North Sea. The state and city of Bremen is an enclave surrounded by Lower Saxony. The Bremen/Oldenburg Metropolitan Region is a body for the enclave area. To the southeast the state border runs through the Harz, low mountains that are part of the German Central Uplands, in northeast Lower Saxony is Lüneburg Heath
Lower Saxony
–
Hannover
Lower Saxony
–
Flag
Lower Saxony
–
Braunschweig
Lower Saxony
–
Lüneburg
5.
Adaptive reuse
–
Adaptive reuse refers to the process of reusing an old site or building for a purpose other than which it was built or designed for. Along with brownfield reclamation, adaptive reuse is seen by many as a key factor in land conservation, however adaptive reuse can become controversial as there is sometimes a blurred line between renovation, facadism and adaptive reuse. It can be regarded as a compromise between historic preservation and demolition, adaptive reuse deals with the issues of conservation and heritage policies. Adaptive reuse is seen as a way of reducing urban sprawl. Through adaptive reuse old, unoccupied buildings can become sites for many different types of use. Some of these criteria include, The societal value of a given site, that is. The potential for the reuse of a site, the physical damage sustained to the site and its support of future use. The historical importance of the site, in terms of both the physicality of the street-scape and the area, as well as of the role of the site in the understanding of the past. The environmental conditions of the site, whether the site is suitable climatically or can support the environmental work needed in the site. There are many outcomes that affect the return of adaptive reuse as an avenue to reuse of a given site. Others claim that the return on investment is enhanced when using a building because of the savings involved. One Canadian developer claims that reusing buildings generally represents a saving of between 10-12% over building new, in terms of profitability, there are also assertions that adaptive reuse projects often have an uncertainty to their profitably that newer developments lack. When looking for funding to build, these considerations must be addressed, with many heritage sites on the agenda for government agencies, there are a number of financial incentives provided in order to increase the use of older sites in many countries. Governing bodies also benefit from the reuse of abandoned sites as once occupied, they generate tax revenue. With the debate of adaptive reuse as an avenue in the development of key sites. One of these advantages is the sites location, in many cases, historical sites are often located in the centers of large cities. Older buildings also often have a period character through the detailing. As mentioned above, adaptive reuse sometimes isn’t the most viable option for all historic sites, adaptive reuse of sites contaminated by hazardous materials such as asbestos also require special precautions during construction, although these procedures are well-established
Adaptive reuse
–
One of the world's most successful examples of adaptive reuse of old buildings is the conversion of the
Bankside Power Station in
London for use as the
Tate Gallery. Formerly off-limits to the general public, it now receives about five million visitors a year.
Adaptive reuse
–
The
Kelso Home for Girls in Baltimore, Maryland was a typical candidate for adaptive reuse, but it was razed to accommodate parking for a new athletic facility when the cost of conversion was found to be too great
Adaptive reuse
–
Toronto's Distillery District was a former whiskey distillery
Adaptive reuse
–
Pratt Street Power Plant in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, converted into retail, restaurants, and offices.
6.
Gutenberg Bible
–
The Gutenberg Bible was the first major book printed using mass-produced movable metal type in Europe. It marked the start of the Gutenberg Revolution and the age of the book in the West. Widely praised for its aesthetic and artistic qualities, the book has an iconic status. Written in Latin, the Catholic Gutenberg Bible is an edition of the Vulgate, printed by Johannes Gutenberg, in Mainz, in present-day Germany, in the 1450s. Since its publication,49 copies have survived, and they are considered to be among the most valuable books in the even though no complete copy has been sold since 1978. In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible, being displayed to promote the edition and it is not known how many copies were printed, with the 1455 letter citing sources for both 158 and 180 copies. The 36-line Bible, believed to be the second printed version of the Bible, is sometimes referred to as a Gutenberg Bible. The Gutenberg Bible, an edition of the Vulgate, contains the Latin version of the Hebrew Old Testament and it is mainly the work of Jerome who began his work on the translation in 380 AD, with emendations from the Parisian Bible tradition, and further divergences. The Bible was not Gutenbergs first work, preparation of the Bible probably began soon after 1450, and the first finished copies were available in 1454 or 1455. It is not known exactly how long the Bible took to print, the first precisely datable printing is the Gutenbergs 31-line Indulgence which is known to already exist on 22 October 1454. Gutenberg made three significant changes during the printing process, the first sheets were rubricated by being passed twice through the printing press, using black and then red ink. This was soon abandoned, with spaces being left for rubrication to be added by hand, some time later, after more sheets had been printed, the number of lines per page was increased from 40 to 42, presumably to save paper. Therefore, pages 1 to 9 and pages 256 to 265, page 10 has 41, and from there on the 42 lines appear. The increase in number was achieved by decreasing the interline spacing. Finally, the print run was increased, necessitating resetting those pages which had already been printed, the new sheets were all reset to 42 lines per page. Consequently, there are two settings in folios 1-32 and 129-158 of volume I and folios 1-16 and 162 of volume II. The most reliable information about the Bibles date comes from a letter, in March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible, being displayed to promote the edition, in Frankfurt. It is not known how many copies were printed, with the 1455 letter citing sources for both 158 and 180 copies
Gutenberg Bible
–
Gutenberg Bible of the
New York Public Library. Bought by
James Lenox in 1847, it was the first copy to be acquired by a United States citizen.
Gutenberg Bible
–
A
vellum copy of the Gutenberg Bible owned by the U.S.
Library of Congress
Gutenberg Bible
–
First page of the first volume: The
Epistle of St. Jerome from the University of Texas copy. The page has 40 lines.
Gutenberg Bible
–
Detail showing both
rubrication and
illumination.
7.
Open access
–
Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access and free of many restrictions on use. These additional usage rights are granted through the use of various specific Creative Commons licenses. There are multiple ways authors can provide access to their work. One way is to publish it and then self-archive it in a repository where it can be accessed for free, such as their institutional repository and this is known as green open access. Some publishers require delays, or an embargo, on when an output in a repository may be made open access. Several initiatives provide an alternative to the American and English language dominance of existing publication indexing systems, including Index Copernicus, SciELO and Redalyc. A second way authors can make their work open access is by publishing it in such a way that makes their research output immediately available from the publisher. This is known as open access, and within the sciences this often takes the form of publishing an article in either an open access journal. Pure open access journals do not charge fees, and may have one of a variety of business models. Many, however, do charge an article processing fee, widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the late 1990s and early 2000s fueled the open access movement, and prompted both the green open access way and the creation of open access journals. Conventional non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, some non-open access journals provide open access after an embargo period of 6–12 months or longer. The Budapest statement defined open access as follows, There are many degrees, despite these statements emerging in the 2000s, the idea and practise of providing free online access to journal articles began at least a decade before the term open access was formally coined. Computer scientists had been self-archiving in anonymous ftp archives since the 1970s, the Subversive Proposal to generalize the practice was posted in 1994. Gratis OA refers to online access, and libre OA refers to free online access plus some additional re-use rights. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions had corresponded only to libre OA, the re-use rights of libre OA are often specified by various specific Creative Commons licenses, these almost all require attribution of authorship to the original authors. Open access itself began to be sought and provided worldwide by researchers when the possibility itself was opened by the advent of Internet, the momentum was further increased by a growing movement for academic journal publishing reform, and with it gold and libre OA. Electronic publishing created new benefits as compared to paper publishing but beyond that, rather than applying traditional notions of copyright to academic publications, they could be libre or free to build upon. The intended audience of research articles is usually other researchers, Open access helps researchers as readers by opening up access to articles that their libraries do not subscribe to
Open access
–
authors may use form language like this to request an open access license when submitting their work to a publisher
Open access
–
Open access logo, originally designed by
Public Library of Science. Whilst no official open access logo exists, organisations are free to select the logo style that best supports their visual language. Other logos are also in use (see
Signalling OA-ness).
8.
German Research Foundation
–
The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft is a German research funding organization and the largest such organization in Europe. The DFG supports research in science, engineering, and the humanities through a variety of grant programmes, prizes, the self-governed organization is based in Bonn and financed by the German states and the federal government. As of 2017, the organization consists of approx,100 research universities and other research institutions. The DFG endows various research prizes, including the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize, in 1937, the Notgemeinschaft der Wissenschaft was renamed the Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderung der Forschung, for short known as the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. By the end of World War II in Germany, in 1945, in 1949, after formation of the Federal Republic, it was re-founded as the NG and again from 1951 as the DFG. On 9 June 2012, DFG launced a centre in Hyderabad, the German-based research foundation and Indias Department of Science and Technology are together working on 40 bilateral research projects in science and engineering. The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft is a member of Science Europe, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2008, ISBN 978-3-527-32064-6. Die DFG und die menschliche Vererbungswissenschaft, 1920–1970, franz Steiner, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-515-09099-5. Notker Hammerstein, Die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft in der Weimarer Republik und im Dritten Reich, wissenschaftspolitik in Republik und Diktatur 1920 –1945. Thomas Nipperdey, Ludwig Schmugge,50 jahre forschungsförderung in deutschland, bad Godesberg, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft 1970 Official website DFG Science TV YouTube channel
German Research Foundation
–
Site of DFG in
Bonn, Germany
German Research Foundation
9.
German National Library of Science and Technology
–
The German National Library of Science and Technology, abbreviated TIB, is the national library of the Federal Republic of Germany for all fields of engineering, technology, and the natural sciences. It is jointly funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, founded in 1959, the library operates in conjunction with the Leibniz Universität Hannover. In addition to acquiring scientific literature, it also conducts applied research in areas as the archiving of non-textual materials, data visualization. The library is involved in a number of open access initiatives. With a collection of over 9 million items in 2017, the TIB is the largest science, the TIB acquires literature in all engineering fields as well as architecture, information technology, chemistry, mathematics, physics and other basic sciences. It is a particular specialist in the acquisition of literature, difficult to obtain. It also holds a number of standards, norms, patents, source data, scientific conference proceedings, government research papers. Special collections include the Albrecht Haupt Collection of digitally rendered architectural drawings, the film and audiovisual material previously held by IWF Wissen und Medien is now by TIB. In 2005 the TIB became the worlds first Digital Object Identifier registration agency for research data sets in the fields of technology, natural sciences, today it offers registration for the results of any publicly funded research conducted in Europe. In support of the Associations open access goals, the TIB operates the LeibnizOpen repository in cooperation with Leibniz Institute for Information Infrastructure Fachinformationszentrum Karlsruhe, the TIB advises the Leibniz Associations various member organizations, scientists and staff on depositing publications in the repository according to open access guidelines. The amount, usage and importance of materials such as 3D models, AV media and research data is continually increasing. The goal of the TIB Competence Centre for Non-Textual Materials is to improve access to. In addition, the center is dedicated to the preservation of multimedia objects. The TIB also makes scientific videos of lectures, conferences, computer animations, simulations and these video items can be searched free-of-charge and can be downloaded via Flash Player. The TIB partners with a variety of national and international libraries and it also collaborates with numerous organizations in China, Japan and Eastern Europe. Notable institutional partnerships include, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing DataCite e. V, in cooperation with a variety of other institutions, these projects focus on the areas of visual searching, data visualization, the Semantic Web, and the Future Internet. Important projects include, PROBADO is a project to develop of tools for the automatic indexing, storage and its goal is to enable academic libraries to deal with multimedia objects just as easily as with textual information. Tools include searching by intuitive drawing in 2D and 3D and delivery of results while drawing, for this initiative the TIB partnered with the Technical University of Darmstadt, the University of Bonn and the Technical University of Graz
German National Library of Science and Technology
–
German National Library of Science and Technology Technische Informationsbibliothek (TIB)
German National Library of Science and Technology
10.
Bergakademie Freiberg
–
The Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg is a German university of technology with about 5000 students in the city of Freiberg, Saxony. The chemical elements indium and germanium were discovered by scientists of Freiberg University, the polymath Alexander von Humboldt studied mining at the Bergakademie Freiberg in 1791/1792. Admission to all programs from Bachelor through PhD is without tuition fees, Website of the Freiberg University of Mining and Technology Website of the International Center Alexander von Humboldt
Bergakademie Freiberg
–
Campus of the TU Bergakademie Freiberg, 2007
Bergakademie Freiberg
–
TU Bergakademie Freiberg
11.
Berlin State Library
–
The Berlin State Library is a universal library in Berlin, Germany and a property of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation. It is one of the largest libraries in Europe, and one of the most important academic research libraries in the German-speaking world. It collects texts, media and cultural works from all fields in all languages, from all periods and all countries of the world. The history of the Berlin State Library closely parallels that of German history and it has lived through creation, neglect, expansion, war damage, division, unification and re-creation like few other libraries. In the early period, the fortunes of the State Library rose, in 1658 Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg decreed that his private books be organized, cataloged and made available to the public. His library opened in 1661 at Cölln as the Library of the Elector, in 1699, Frederick I more than doubled the collection, extended opening hours and introduced the first Prussian legal deposit law. In 1701 it was renamed the Royal Library upon Frederick Is accession as first King of Prussia, Frederick William I then cancelled the acquisition budget in 1722 and gave away the valuable scientific collection to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1735. Frederick the Great also cared little for the library at first, however, in 1770 he granted the library substantial assets and it made several important acquisitions. To avoid the problems caused by its dependence on the crown, with new resources and authority, construction began on a Royal Library building on the Bebelplatz in the center of Berlin. Built between 1775 and 1785 by Georg Christian Unger to plans by Joseph Emanuel Fischer von Erlach, the collection then underwent nearly continuous improvement and expansion. By 1905 it had become the largest and most influential repository of materials in the German language, today the old Royal building houses the Faculty of Law of Humboldt University. At the founding of the Weimar Republic the library was renamed the Prussian State Library, after 1919, economic effects of war and inflation on the library were mitigated through the active support of the Emergency Association of German Sciences. The Nazi period severely damaged the institution through political intimidation, employee dismissals, restrictions on foreign acquisitions, today a glass plate set into the Bebelplatz, giving a view of empty bookcases, commemorates the event. After an Allied bomb hit the Unter den Linden building in 1941, with the formal dissolution of the State of Prussia in 1947, support for the library ended and the Prussian State Library ceased to exist. After 1945, parts of the collection that had hidden in what became the Soviet occupation zone were returned to the war-damaged Unter den Linden building in East Berlin. It first opened in 1946 as the Public Scientific Library, when further restoration work was completed in 1955, the library was renamed the German State Library. The great domed reading room, however, remained a ruin in the center of the building and this collection first opened to the public as the Hessian Library and in 1949, as the last lost stores arrived, it was renamed the West German Library. Those parts of the collection that had been in the French occupation zone, in 1962 the Federal Republic passed a law giving administrative responsibility for all these collections to Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation and endowed it with State funding
Berlin State Library
Berlin State Library
–
Old Royal Library on Bebelplatz
Berlin State Library
–
Book burning on the Bebelplatz, May 1933.
Berlin State Library
–
Haus Unter den Linden
12.
Johann Matthias Gesner
–
Johann Matthias Gesner was a German classical scholar and schoolmaster. He was born at Roth an der Rednitz near Ansbach and his father, Johann Samuel Gesner, a pastor in Auhausen, died in 1704, leaving the family in straitened circumstances. Gesners mother, Maria Magdalena, remarried, and Johann Matthiass stepfather, Johann Zuckermantel, noticing the boys gifts, he prepared him for the Ansbach Gymnasium. Gesner later called his Gymnasium years the most pleasant in his life, despite Buddeuss support, however, he was passed over for a position in Jena. In 1714 he published a work on the Philopatiis ascribed to Lucian, having probably become familiar with a similar organization in Leipzig, in 1738 he founded the Deutsche Gesellschaft, devoted to the advancement of German literature. Gesner won a reputation as a reformer, a scholar. 305 H Sauppe, Göttinger Professoren CH Pöhnert, J. M. article name needed
Johann Matthias Gesner
–
Frontispiece of Gesner's Novus Linguae et Eruditionis Romanae Thesaurus, 1747.
13.
Christian Gottlob Heyne
–
Christian Gottlob Heyne was a German classical scholar and archaeologist as well as long-time director of the Göttingen State and University Library. He was a member of the Göttingen School of History, Heyne was born in Chemnitz, Saxony. His father was a weaver who had left Silesia and moved to Saxony to maintain his Protestant faith. In 1748 he entered the University of Leipzig, where he was short of the necessaries of life. He was helped by the classicist Johann Friedrich Christ, who encouraged him and loaned him Greek and he obtained a position as tutor in the family of a French merchant in Leipzig, which enabled him to continue his studies. In 1752 law professor Johann August Bach awarded Heyne a masters degree, an elegy written by Heyne in Latin on the death of a friend attracted the attention of Count von Brühl, the prime minister, who expressed a desire to see the author. Accordingly, in April 1752, Heyne journeyed to Dresden, believing that his fortune was made and he was well received, promised a secretaryship and a good salary, but nothing came of it. Another period of poverty followed, and only by persistent solicitation was Heyne able to obtain the post of under-clerk in the counts library, with a salary of less than twenty pounds sterling. Heyne increased this pittance by translation, in addition to some French novels, he rendered into German The Loves of Chaereas and Callirrhoe of Chariton and he published his first edition of Tibullus in 1755, and in 1756 his Epictetus. In the latter year the Seven Years War broke out and the library was destroyed, in 1757 he was offered a tutorship in the household of Frau von Schönberg, where he met his future wife. In January 1758 Heyne accompanied his pupil to the University of Wittenberg, the bombardment of Dresden, on 18 July 1760, destroyed all his possessions, including an almost finished edition of Lucian, based on a valuable codex of the Dresden Library. In the summer of 1761, still without any fixed income, he married, and became land-steward to the Baron von Löben in Lusatia. At the end of 1762, however, he was able to return to Dresden and his emoluments were gradually augmented, and his growing celebrity brought him most advantageous offers from other German governments, which he persistently refused. Heyne was simultaneously given the post of director of the university library, unlike Gottfried Hermann, Heyne regarded the study of grammar and language only as the means to an end, not as the chief object of philology. But, although not a scholar, he was the first to attempt a scientific treatment of Greek mythology. Of Heynes numerous writings, the following may be mentioned and his Antiquarische Aufsätze is a valuable collection of essays connected with the history of ancient art. His contributions to the Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen are said to have been between 7000 and 8000 in number, see biography by Heeren which forms the basis of the interesting essay by Thomas Carlyle, Hermann Sauppe, Göttinger Professoren, Conrad Bursian in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie xii. 36-44, Friedrich Klingner, Christian Gottlob Heyne, Heyne was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in April 1789
Christian Gottlob Heyne
–
by
Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein
Christian Gottlob Heyne
–
Odysseus and
Eurycleia, by Christian G. Heyne.
Christian Gottlob Heyne
–
Christian Gottlob Heyne
14.
Heinrich Heine
–
Christian Johann Heinrich Heine was a German poet, journalist, essayist, and literary critic. He is best known outside Germany for his lyric poetry. Heines later verse and prose are distinguished by their satirical wit and he is considered part of the Young Germany movement. His radical political views led to many of his works being banned by German authorities, Heine spent the last 25 years of his life as an expatriate in Paris. Heine was born at Düsseldorf in what was then the Duchy of Berg and he was called Harry in childhood but became known as Heinrich after his conversion to Lutheranism in 1825. Heines father, Samson Heine, was a textile merchant and his mother Peira, née van Geldern, was the daughter of a physician. Heinrich was the eldest of four children, Heine was also a third cousin once removed of philosopher and economist Karl Marx, also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland, with whom he became a frequent correspondent in later life. Düsseldorf was then a town with a population of around 16,000. The French Revolution and subsequent Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars involving Germany complicated Düsseldorfs political history during Heines childhood and it had been the capital of the Duchy of Jülich-Berg, but was under French occupation at the time of his birth. It then went to the Elector of Bavaria before being ceded to Napoleon in 1806 and it was first ruled by Joachim Murat, then by Napoleon himself. Upon Napoleons downfall in 1815 it became part of Prussia, thus Heines formative years were spent under French influence. The adult Heine would always be devoted to the French for introduction of the Napoleonic Code and he glossed over the negative aspects of French rule in Berg, heavy taxation, conscription, and economic depression brought about by the Continental Blockade. Heines parents were not particularly devout, as a young child they sent him to a Jewish school where he learned a smattering of Hebrew, but thereafter he attended Catholic schools. Here he learned French, which would be his second language - although he spoke it with a German accent. He also acquired a love for Rhineland folklore. In 1814 Heine went to a school in Düsseldorf where he learned to read English. The most successful member of the Heine family was his uncle Salomon Heine, in 1816 Heine moved to Hamburg to become an apprentice at Heckscher & Co, his uncles bank, but displayed little aptitude for business. He learned to hate Hamburg with its ethos, but it would become one of the poles of his life alongside Paris
Heinrich Heine
–
A painting of Heine by
Moritz Daniel Oppenheim
Heinrich Heine
–
Heine's mother, "Betty"
Heinrich Heine
–
The
Brocken, in the
Harz Mountains, described in Heine's
Die Harzreise
Heinrich Heine
–
Hegel with his Berlin students, by
Franz Kugler
15.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer and statesman. In addition, numerous literary and scientific fragments, more than 10,000 letters and he was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. He also contributed to the planning of Weimars botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace and his first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. During this period, Goethe published his novel, Wilhelm Meisters Apprenticeship, the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808. Goethes comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, Goethes father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house in Frankfurt, then an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar married Goethes mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister, Cornelia Friederica Christiana and his father and private tutors gave Goethe lessons in all the common subjects of their time, especially languages. Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing, Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethes great passion was drawing, he became interested in literature, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also took pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period, Goethe became also acquainted with Frankfurt actors, among early literary attempts, he was infatuated with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner, a wealthy Worms traders daughter and friend of his sister, Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with Anna Katharina Schönkopf, in 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, already at this time, Goethe wrote a good deal, but he threw away nearly all of these works, except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Fausts 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768, Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, during convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Goethe in 1828
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Goethe's birthplace in
Frankfurt, Germany (Großer Hirschgraben)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
Goethe, age 38, painted by
Angelica Kauffman 1787
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
–
A Goethe watercolor depicting a
liberty pole at the border to the short-lived
Republic of Mainz, created under influence of the French Revolution and destroyed in the
Siege of Mainz in which Goethe participated
16.
German Aerospace Center
–
The German Aerospace Center, abbreviated DLR, is the national center for aerospace, energy and transportation research of the Federal Republic of Germany. Its headquarters are located in Cologne and it has multiple locations throughout Germany. The DLR is engaged in a range of research and development projects in national and international partnerships. In addition to conducting its own projects, DLR also acts as the German space agency. As such, it is responsible for planning and implementing the German space programme on behalf of the German federal government, as a project management agency, DLR also coordinates and answers the technical and organizational implementation of projects funded by a number of German federal ministries. DLR has approximately 7400 employees at 16 locations in Germany and it has 29 institutes and facilities, spread over 13 sites, as well as offices in Brussels, Paris and Washington, D. C. DLR has a budget of about 670 million euro to cover its own research, development, approximately one third of this sum comes from competitively allocated third-party funds. In addition to this, DLR administers around 500 million euro in German funds for the European Space Agency, in its capacity as project management agency, it manages over 650 million euro in research on behalf of German federal ministries. DLR is a member of the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems. In the DLR School Labs, school pupils can become acquainted with the aspects of natural. The members of the DLR Executive Board are, Prof. Dr. -Ing, johann-Dietrich Wörner since March 2007 Klaus Hamacher since April 2006 Prof. Dr. rer. nat. The modern DLR was created in 1997, but was the culmination of over half a dozen space, aerospace, the oldest predecessor organization of DLR was established by Ludwig Prandtl in Göttingen in 1907. This Modellversuchsanstalt der Motorluftschiff-Studiengesellschaft later became the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt, in the 1940s the DVL funded Konrad Zuses work on the Z3 and Z4 computers. In 1947 the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Weltraumfahrt was formed, leading to the Gesellschaft für Weltraumforschung being formed in 1948, in 1954, the Research Institute of Jet Propulsion Physics was established at the Stuttgart airport. What was later called the DLR was formed in 1969 as the Deutsche Forschungs- und Versuchsanstalt für Luft- und Raumfahrt through the merger of several institutions and these were the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt, the Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt, the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luftfahrt and the Gesellschaft für Weltraumforschung. In 1989, the DFVLR was renamed Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luft- und Raumfahrt, also in 1989, the Deutsche Agentur für Raumfahrtangelegenheiten was created. The shorter translation German Aerospace Center is used in English-language publications, other German space organizations include the Institut für Raumfahrtsysteme, founded in 1970. This should not be confused with DLRs Institut für Raumfahrtsysteme located in Bremen, also, significant contributions are made to the European Space Organization
German Aerospace Center
–
Aerial view of DLR's
HQ at
Lind,
Cologne in 2010
German Aerospace Center
–
German Aerospace Center Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V.
German Aerospace Center
–
German Space Operations Center (GSOC) in
Oberpfaffenhofen near
Munich.
German Aerospace Center
–
The DLR Institute of Flight Systems operates this helicopter as part of the Flying Helicopter Simulator (FHS)
17.
Johann Sebastian Bach Institute
–
The Johann Sebastian Bach Institute was an institute dedicated to Johann Sebastian Bach in Göttingen, Germany. It was founded in 1951 as one of two institutes preparing the New Bach Edition, the complete edition of the composers works. The partner organisation was the Leipzig Bach Archive in what was then East Germany on the side of the Iron Curtain from Göttingen. The new edition met rigorous scientific requirements and at the time served musical practice. The institute ended its activities in 2006 and the volume of the New Bach Edition set appeared the following year. However, the Bach Archive Leipzig remains active and has issued revisions of single volumes
Johann Sebastian Bach Institute
–
Compositions
18.
Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry
–
The Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen is a research institute of the Max Planck Society. Currently,850 people work at the institute, about half of them are scientists, founded in 1971, its initial focus was set on physical and chemical problems. It has since undergone a continuous evolution manifested by a range of core subjects and work areas such as neurobiology, biochemistry. The history of the Institute goes back to the year 1949, at that time, the Max Planck Society established the Max Planck Institute for Physical Chemistry in Göttingen as follow-up of the former Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry in Berlin. Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer, who worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. He was one of the first researchers who applied physical-chemical methods in biological research, the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry was created in 1971 by merging the Max Planck Institutes for Physical Chemistry and for Spectroscopy in Göttingen. This was mainly initiated by Nobel Prize laureate Manfred Eigen, who was at that time director of the Max Planck Institute for Physical Chemistry and his vision of an interdisciplinary approach to biological research was decisive and the creative impulse for the development of the institute. In honour of Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer, the new institute was named after him, as a consequence, many licensing agreements and start-up firms have arisen from research conducted at the institute, e. g. Research at the institute focuses on the mechanisms that regulate and control life processes. How do nerve cells communicate with each other, on the organismal level, researchers at the Institute study the circadian rhythms of the vertebrate, or differentiation and development in multicellular organisms. At the same time the Institute concentrates on developing novel measurement, helmut Grubmüller - Theoretical and Computational Biophysics Prof. Peter Gruss - Molecular Cell Biology Prof. Stefan W. Hell - NanoBiophotonics Prof. Herbert Jäckle - Molecular Developmental Biology Prof. Reinhard Jahn - Neurobiology Prof. Reinhard Lührmann - Cellular Biochemistry Prof, marina Rodnina - Physical Biochemistry Prof. Alec M. Wodtke - Dynamics at Surfaces The Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry is particularly engaged in the support of junior scientists,31 independent research groups pursue their own research goals. After retiring, directors of the Institute can actively continue their research for a couple of years, Prof. Thomas Jovin - Laboratory for Cellular Dynamics Prof. Erwin Neher - Membrane Biophysics Prof. Some of the former directors pursue their research even after their Emeritus Group has expired, Prof. Otto D. Creutzfeldt - Neurobiology Prof. Manfred Eigen - Biochemical Kinetics Prof. Dieter Gallwitz - Molecular Genetics Prof. Manfred Kahlweit - Kinetics of Phase Transformations Prof. Hans Kuhn - Molecular Systems Prof. Leo de Maeyer - Experimental Methods Prof. Bert Sakmann - Cell Physiology Prof. Fritz-Peter Schäfer - Laser Physics Prof. Hans Strehlow - Electrochemistry and Reaction Kinetics Prof. Klaus Weber - Biochemistry, victor P. Whittaker - Neurochemistry The institute also accommodates the independent Biomedizinische NMR Forschungs GmbH headed by Jens Frahm, which was founded in 1993. The focus of this association is the development and application of spatially resolved NMR techniques for studies of the central nervous system in animals
Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry
–
Aerial picture of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen (Picture: Jörg Winkler, 2007)
19.
Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine
–
The Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine is located in Göttingen, Germany. It was founded as Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research in 1947 and it is one of 80 institutes in the Max Planck Society. Prof. Dr. Klaus-Armin Nave is currently the director of the institute. The research focus of the institute is on neuroscience, a major focus of their research is on neuron-glia interactions that result in the assembly of myelin in the nervous system. Neuronal processes exhibit signaling molecules that are recognized by Schwann cells and these highly specialized glial cells wrap and electrically insulate axons in the peripheral and central nervous system, respectively. Myelin allows the fast propagation of impulses, but glial cells are also required for axonal maintenance. This line of research helps us to understand the mechanisms of human neurological diseases in which genetic mutations cause myelin loss and defects of motor. The Department of Molecular Neurobiology, led by Nils Brose, focuses on molecular mechanisms of synapse development, by combination of Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy with Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer methods protein interactions at cell membranes are studied. In the focus of the team is the analysis of physiological functions of ion channels during neuronal interactions and development
Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine
–
Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine
20.
Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research
–
The exploration of the solar system is the central theme for research done at this institute. MPS is a part of the Max Planck Society, which operates 80 research facilities in Germany, over the last five years, members of the Institute have each year published about 270 articles in international journals and books and given 360 conference presentations. MPS is organised in three departments, Sun and Heliosphere Planets and Comets Solar and Stellar Interiors In addition, since 2002 there is also an International Max Planck Research School, subjects of research at the Institute are the various objects within the solar system. A major area of concerns the Sun, its atmosphere. The second area of research involves the interiors, surfaces, atmospheres, ionospheres, a further essential part of the activities at the Institute is the development and construction of instruments for space missions. The analysis and interpretation of the datasets are accompanied by intensive theoretical work. Physical models are proposed and then tested and further developed with the aid of computer simulations, the researchers at the MPS are studying the complete range of dynamic and often spectacular processes occurring on the Sun – from the interior to the outer heliosphere. At the heart of research is the magnetic field, which plays a decisive role in these processes. It is generated by gas currents in the interior of the Sun and causes, among other things, answers to the following questions are being sought, Why does the magnetic field change with an eleven-year cycle. How does the field produce the various structures on the Sun. How is the corona heated to millions of degrees. Another important research topic at the The Sun and Heliosphere department is the influence on the Earth due to the Sun’s variable activity. The physical processes involved in the origin and development of fields on the Sun take place on very small scales. The balloon-borne telescope Sunrise, built under Institute leadership and flown in June 2009, was able to make out structures on the Sun’s surface as small as 100 kilometers, future projects will stress research into the physical causes of the Sun’s variations. The Institute develops scientific instruments that fly with spacecraft to other planets, highly specialized cameras have investigated the Saturn moon Titan, analyse the surface of Mars, and probe the clouds and winds of Venus. Microwave instruments determine the composition of atmospheres while infrared spectrometers examine surface rocks, a novel laser altimeter on board BepiColumbo will survey the topography of Mercury to within a meter. Further MPS instruments identify the atoms, electrons, and dust that move around the planets, here the influence of the solar wind on the atmospheric gases is of particular interest. Theoretical studies and intensive computer simulations help to understand the processes both inside and surrounding the planets and to interpret the measured data, in addition, the Institute has along tradition in cometary research
Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research
–
New Institute building in Göttingen, built in 2013 and occupied in 2014.
Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research
–
Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research - April 2006
Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research
–
Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research in Lindau, about a year before relocating - March 2013.
Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research
–
Prof. Ulrich Christensen (left), Prof. Dr. Laurent Gizon (centre) and Prof. Dr. Sami K. Solanki (right)
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