1.
Man Writing a Letter
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Man Writing a Letter is an oil painting on a wood panel by Gabriël Metsu made at the height of his career. It is assumed to be a pair with Woman Reading a Letter, the two genre paintings are regarded as Metsus artistic climax. Since 1987 they can be seen in the collection of the National Gallery of Ireland in Dublin, the painting shows a young man sitting in front of an open window, writing a letter with a quill pen. He is dressed in a silk suit with a white linen shirt underneath. The Persian rug and silver writing set on the table also show his wealth, the globe in the corner indicates his interest, as if he is a merchant or scientist. A pastoral landscape by Jacob van der Does the Elder is hanging on the wall, the Delftware tiles on the baseboard show birds. Man Writing a Letter is a piece to Woman Reading a Letter. The influence of Johannes Vermeer, the light from the left, records indicate the paintings have always been owned as a pair. The paintings were owned by Hendrick Sorgh, an art collector in Amsterdam, after his death they were sold for 560 guilders on 28 March 1720 to George Bruyn. When this underwriter died they were sold on 16 March 1724 for 785 guilders to Johannes Coop, circa 1744, and for 500 guilders, they came into the possession of Gerrit Braamcamp, a collector who owned no fewer than ten works by Metsu. His heirs benefited from the popularity, on 31 July 1771 the two paintings were bought for 5,205 guilders by Jan Hope. In 1898, his descendant Duke Francis Pelham-Clinton-Hope, 8th Duke of Newcastle, sold his entire collection, in 1900 the pair of paintings were bought by Alfred Beit, inherited by his brother Otto Beit and his son Sir Alfred Beit. Both were among artworks stolen from Russborough House in 1974 and again in 1986, in 1987 both paintings were donated to the National Gallery of Ireland, though they remained missing until 1993. The pair of paintings are regarded as some of Metsus best works
2.
National Gallery of Ireland
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The National Gallery of Ireland houses the national collection of Irish and European art. It is located in the centre of Dublin with one entrance on Merrion Square, beside Leinster House, due to ongoing renovations, the Clare Street entrance is the only one currently open. It was founded in 1854 and opened its doors ten years later, the Gallery has an extensive, representative collection of Irish painting and is also notable for its Italian Baroque and Dutch masters painting. The current director is Sean Rainbird, in 1853 an exhibition, the Great Industrial Exhibition, was held on the lawns of Leinster House in Dublin. Among the most popular exhibits was a display of works of art organised. The enthusiasm of the visiting crowds demonstrated a public for art, the moving spirit behind the proposal was the barrister John Edward Pigot, son of David Richard Pigot, Chief Baron of the Irish Exchequer, and he became one of the first Governors of the Gallery. The façade of the National Gallery copies the Natural History building of the National Museum of Ireland which was planned for the facing flank of Leinster House. The building itself was designed by Francis Fowke, based on plans by Charles Lanyon. The Gallery was unlucky not to have been founded around an existing collection, in 1866 an annual purchase grant was established and by 1891 space was already limited. In 1897, the Dowager Countess of Milltown indicated her intention of donating the contents of Russborough House to the Gallery, at around this time Henry Vaughan left 31 watercolours by J. M. W. Turner with the requirement that they could only be exhibited in January, in addition to his involvement in the Gallery, Hugh Lane has also hoped to found a gallery of modern art, something only realised after his death in Dublin City Gallery The Hugh Lane. George Bernard Shaw also made a substantial bequest, leaving the Gallery a third of royalties of his estate in gratitude for the time he spent there as a youth. The Gallery was again extended in 1962 with a new wing designed by Frank DuBerry of the Office of Public Works and this opened in 1968 and is now named the Beit Wing. The Jesuits have generously allowed this painting to be exhibited in the Gallery, the painting was on loan to an Italian gallery from February until July 2010 as part of Caravaggios 400th anniversary. In 1997 Anne Yeats donated sketchbooks by her uncle Jack Yeats, a new wing, called the Millennium Wing, was opened in 2002. Unlike the previous two extensions, this new wing has street frontage and the English architects Benson & Forsyth gave it an imposing Bowers Whitbed, Portland Stone façade and grand atrium. The design originally involved demolishing an adjoining Georgian terrace house and its ballroom mews, however, the circulation space also lacks clarity, but it is generally considered that these flaws are trivial details set against the drama of the building. In line with its Brutalist style, the concrete walls are still unsealed
3.
Leiden
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Leiden is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland. Leiden is located on the Oude Rijn, at a distance of some 20 kilometres from The Hague to its south, the recreational area of the Kaag Lakes lies just to the northeast of Leiden. A university city since 1575, Leiden houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, Leiden is a city with a rich cultural heritage, not only in science, but also in the arts. One of the worlds most famous painters, Rembrandt, was born, other famous Leiden painters include Lucas van Leyden, Jan van Goyen and Jan van Steen. The city has one of Europes most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries. Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave, many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden’s motto, ‘City of Discoveries’. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdoms oldest university, Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences together have around 35,000 students. Leiden is a university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city. Leiden was formed on a hill at the confluence of the rivers Oude. In the oldest reference to this, from circa 860, the settlement was called Leithon, the name is said to be from Germanic *leitha- canal. Leiden has in the past erroneously been associated with the Roman outpost Lugdunum Batavorum and this particular castellum was thought to be located at the Burcht of Leiden, and the citys name was thought to be derived of the Latin name Lugdunum. However the castellum was in closer to the town of Katwijk. The landlord of Leiden, situated in a stronghold on the hill, was subject to the Bishop of Utrecht. This county got its name in 1101 from a domain near the stronghold, Leiden was sacked in 1047 by Emperor Henry III. Early 13th century, Ada, Countess of Holland took refuge here when she was fighting in a war against her uncle, William I. He besieged the stronghold and captured Ada, Leiden received city rights in 1266. In 1389, its population had grown to about 4,000 persons, burgrave Filips of Wassenaar and the other local noblemen of the Hook faction assumed that the duke would besiege Leiden first and send small units out to conquer the surrounding citadels. But John of Bavaria chose to attack the citadels first and he rolled the cannons with his army but one which was too heavy went by ship
4.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
5.
Amsterdam
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Amsterdam is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 851,373 within the city proper,1,351,587 in the urban area, the city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe. Amsterdams name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the citys origin around a dam in the river Amstel, during that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned, the 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered a world city by the Globalization. The city is also the capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the worlds 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city to live in by the Economist Intelligence Unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment, the city was ranked 3rd in innovation by Australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their Innovation Cities Index 2009. The Amsterdam seaport to this day remains the second in the country, famous Amsterdam residents include the diarist Anne Frank, artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city center. After the floods of 1170 and 1173, locals near the river Amstel built a bridge over the river, the earliest recorded use of that name is in a document dated October 27,1275, which exempted inhabitants of the village from paying bridge tolls to Count Floris V. This allowed the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland, paying no tolls at bridges, locks, the certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme. By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam, Amsterdam is much younger than Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean there was already a settlement then, since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat. Amsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306, from the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely from trade with the Hanseatic League
6.
History painting
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History painting is a genre in painting defined by its subject matter rather than artistic style. History paintings usually depict a moment in a story, rather than a specific and static subject. The term is derived from the senses of the word historia in Latin and Italian, meaning story or narrative. Most history paintings are not of scenes from history, especially paintings from before about 1850, History paintings almost always contain a number of figures, often a large number, and normally show some type of action that is a moment in a narrative. The genre includes depictions of moments in religious narratives, above all the Life of Christ, as well as scenes from mythology. These groups were for long the most frequently painted, works such as Michelangelos Sistine Chapel ceiling are therefore history paintings, History painting may be used interchangeably with historical painting, and was especially so used before the 20th century. Where a distinction is made historical painting is the painting of scenes from secular history, in the 19th century historical painting in this sense became a distinct genre. In phrases such as historical painting materials, historical means in use before about 1900 and he placed emphasis on the ability to depict the interactions between the figures by gesture and expression. This view remained general until the 19th century, when artistic movements began to struggle against the establishment institutions of academic art, which continued to adhere to it. Scenes from ancient history had been popular in the early Renaissance, and once again became common in the Baroque and Rococo periods, and still more so with the rise of Neoclassicism. In some 19th or 20th century contexts, the term may refer specifically to paintings of scenes from history, rather than those from religious narratives. Scenes from ancient history and mythology were also popular, artists continued for centuries to strive to make their reputation by producing such works, often neglecting genres to which their talents were better suited. The large works of Raphael were long considered, with those of Michelangelo, un Peintre qui ne fait que des portraits, na pas encore cette haute perfection de lArt, & ne peut prétendre à lhonneur que reçoivent les plus sçavans. He who produces perfect landscapes is above another who only produces fruit, a painter who only does portraits still does not have the highest perfection of his art, and cannot expect the honour due to the most skilled. By the late 18th century, with religious and mytholological painting in decline, there was an increased demand for paintings of scenes from history. Classical history remained popular, but scenes from national histories were often the best-received, the unheroic nature of modern dress was regarded as a serious difficulty. When, in 1770, Benjamin West proposed to paint The Death of General Wolfe in contemporary dress and he ignored these comments and showed the scene in modern dress. Although George III refused to purchase the work, West succeeded both in overcoming his critics objections and inaugurating a more historically accurate style in such paintings. M. W, conveniently their clothes had been worn away to classical-seeming rags by the point the painting depicts
7.
Still life
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A still life is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life gives the artist more freedom in the arrangement of elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of such as landscape or portraiture. Early still-life paintings, particularly before 1700, often contained religious, some modern still life breaks the two-dimensional barrier and employs three-dimensional mixed media, and uses found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as video and sound. Still life emerged from the painting of details in larger compositions with subjects, the term includes the painting of dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered art, although in practice they were often painted from dead models. The still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration, generally a still life includes a fully depicted background, and puts aesthetic rather than illustrative concerns as primary. Still life occupied the lowest rung of the hierarchy of genres, the trompe-lœil painting, which intends to deceive the viewer into thinking the scene is real, is a specialized type of still life, usually showing inanimate and relatively flat objects. Still-life paintings often adorn the interior of ancient Egyptian tombs and it was believed that food objects and other items depicted there would, in the afterlife, become real and available for use by the deceased. Ancient Greek vase paintings also demonstrate great skill in depicting everyday objects, by the 16th century, food and flowers would again appear as symbols of the seasons and of the five senses. Also starting in Roman times is the tradition of the use of the skull in paintings as a symbol of mortality and earthly remains and these vanitas images have been re-interpreted through the last 400 years of art history, starting with Dutch painters around 1600. As Pliny the Elder recorded in ancient Roman times, Greek artists centuries earlier were already advanced in the arts of painting, genre painting. He singled out Peiraikos, whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few, by 1300, starting with Giotto and his pupils, still-life painting was revived in the form of fictional niches on religious wall paintings which depicted everyday objects. Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, still life in Western art remained primarily an adjunct to Christian religious subjects, painters like Jan van Eyck often used still-life elements as part of an iconographic program. Petrus Christus’ portrait of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith is an example of a transitional still life depicting both religious and secular content. Another similar type of painting is the family portrait combining figures with a table of food. Around this time, simple still-life depictions divorced of figures were beginning to be painted on the outside of shutters of private devotional paintings, another step toward the autonomous still life was the painting of symbolic flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits around 1475. This was a development by Pieter Aertsen, whose A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms introduced the type with a painting that still startles. A small religious scene can often be out in the distance
8.
Portrait
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A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person, for this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c.2144 -2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality. Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypts Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, the art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of a symbol of what that person looked like. In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized, true portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings. Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits and these works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the elite, priests, warriors. They were represented during several stages of their lives, the faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found, there is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting. One of the portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vincis painting titled Mona Lisa. What has been claimed as the worlds oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old. Profile view, full view, and three-quarter view, are three common designations for portraits, each referring to a particular orientation of the head of the individual depicted. Such terms would tend to have greater applicability to two-dimensional artwork such as photography, in the case of three-dimensional artwork, the viewer can usually alter their orientation to the artwork by moving around it
9.
Genre art
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Genre art is the pictorial representation in any of various media of scenes or events from everyday life, such as markets, domestic settings, interiors, parties, inn scenes, and street scenes. Such representations may be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, some variations of the term genre art specify the medium or type of visual work, as in genre painting, genre prints, genre photographs, and so on. Rather confusingly, the meaning of genre, covering any particular combination of an artistic medium. Painting was divided into a hierarchy of genres, with painting at the top, as the most difficult and therefore prestigious. But history paintings are a genre in painting, not genre works, the following concentrates on painting, but genre motifs were also extremely popular in many forms of the decorative arts, especially from the Rococo of the early 18th century onwards. Single figures or small groups decorated a huge variety of such as porcelain, furniture, wallpaper. Genre painting, also called genre scene or petit genre, depicts aspects of life by portraying ordinary people engaged in common activities. A work would often be considered as a genre work even if it could be shown that the artist had used a known member of his family. In this case it would depend on whether the work was likely to have intended by the artist to be perceived as a portrait—sometimes a subjective question. The depictions can be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, because of their familiar and frequently sentimental subject matter, genre paintings have often proven popular with the bourgeoisie, or middle class. Genre themes appear in all art traditions. These were part of a pattern of Mannerist inversion in Antwerp painting, giving low elements previously in the background of images prominent emphasis. The generally small scale of these paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers. Often the subject of a painting was based on a popular emblem from an Emblem book. The merry company showed a group of figures at a party, other common types of scenes showed markets or fairs, village festivities, or soldiers in camp. In Italy, a school of painting was stimulated by the arrival in Rome of the Dutch painter Pieter van Laer in 1625. He acquired the nickname Il Bamboccio and his followers were called the Bamboccianti, whose works would inspire Giacomo Ceruti, Antonio Cifrondi, jean-Baptiste Greuze and others painted detailed and rather sentimental groups or individual portraits of peasants that were to be influential on 19th-century painting. Spain had a tradition predating The Book of Good Love of social observation and commentary based on the Old Roman Latin tradition, practiced by many of its painters and illuminators
10.
Woman Reading a Letter
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Woman Reading a Letter is an oil painting by Gabriël Metsu made in the mid-1660s, shortly before Metsus death. During his lifetime, under the Golden Age of Dutch painting Metsu was a renowned painter and it is assumed to be a pair with Man Writing a Letter. The pair of paintings are regarded as some of Metsus best-known works, Metsu got the idea of a pair of themed paintings from Gerard ter Borch and it has been in the collection of the National Gallery of Ireland in Dublin since 1987. A woman is reading a letter, seated by a window with a blue curtain. She is dressed elegantly in a jacket with an expensive collar of ermine. The red and blue embroidery pillow on her lap and the sewing basket next to her show that she put her aside to read the letter. Beside her, a maid in dark clothing is drawing aside a curtain in front of a painting of a scene in an ebony frame. Visual clues would have made it apparent to Metsus contemporaries that the letter is a love letter. The little spaniel symbolizes fidelity and loyalty, the Cupids arrows on the bucket, the painting, showing a stormy sea, could refer to a tumultuous relationship or indicate that the loved one is on the sea. A final, striking detail is found in the letter the maid is holding, woman Reading a Letter is a companion piece to Man Writing a Letter, in which the young man is writing the letter. Records indicate the paintings have always owned as a pair. The pair of paintings were owned by Hendrick Sorgh, a broker in Amsterdam, after his death they were sold for 560 guilders on 28 March 1720 to George Bruyn. After he in turn died they were sold on 16 March 1724 for 785 guilders to Johannes Coop, on 31 July 1771 the two paintings were bought for 5,205 guilders by Jan Hope. In 1898, his descendant Duke Francis Pelham-Clinton-Hope, 8th Duke of Newcastle, sold his entire collection, the pair of paintings were inherited by Sir Alfred Beit, of London and Blessington. Both were among artworks stolen from Russborough House in 1974 and again in 1986, in 1987 both paintings were donated to the National Gallery of Ireland, though they remained missing until 1993
11.
County of Hainaut
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The County of Hainaut, sometimes given the archaic spellings Hainault and Heynowes, was a historical lordship within the medieval Holy Roman Empire, with its capital at Mons. The name comes from the river Haine, besides Mons, it included the cities of Cambrai and Charleroi. It consisted of what is now the Belgian province of Hainaut, originally a gau of Lotharingia, Hainaut was briefly a part of West Francia before becoming definitively attached to Germany. The county was divided in 958 and only emerged in its more or less final form in 1071, during the High Middle Ages, Hainaut became culturally and linguistically French. In 1432, Hainaut was acquired by the House of Valois-Burgundy and in 1477 passed to the Habsburgs with the rest of the Burgundian Netherlands and it was ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs from 1555 to 1714. In 1659 and 1678 southern Hainaut was acquired by France, and in 1797 the rest of the county was ceded to France by the Emperor Francis II, who was also count of Hainaut. In Roman imperial times, Hainaut was, at least for the most part, as the empire lost control, this entire region came under the lordship of the Salian Franks, within their Neustrian territory. By the time of Charlemagne, the Frankish empire had declared a new Holy Roman Empire. After the death of the last Carolingian king in East Francia, Louis the Child in 911, following Gilberts death in 939, his successors from the House of Reginar failed to retain the ducal title, but continued to rule over the Hainaut region. After Count Reginar III Longneck had unsuccessfully rebelled against Duke Bruno the Great, however, in 998 the Reginars regained control over the County of Mons. When the last Count, Herman, died without issue in 1051, his widow Richilde married Baldwin VI, on the death of his father in 1067, Baldwin VI became the ruler of both Hainaut and Mons. He was succeeded by his son Arnulf III, who was killed at the Battle of Cassel in 1071 in a dispute with his uncle. The victorious Robert acquired Flanders, but his sister-in-law Richilde retained the adjacent Lower Lorraine territories in the Holy Roman Empire as her dowry. Henry IV ordered the Prince-Bishop of Liège to purchase the fiefs and then return them as a county to the countess Richilde. The Counts of Hainaut had several connections with the counts of Flanders and Holland. Throughout its history, the county of Hainaut formed a union with other states. The last independent countess died early on 8 October 1436 in Teylingen Castle, near The Hague, when Charles the Bold of Burgundy was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the male line of the Burgundian dukes became extinct. In the same year, Charles daughter Mary of Burgundy married Archduke Maximilian I of Habsburg, King Louis XI of France hoped to take advantage of the death of his cousin, Charles, and sent an army to invade the Netherlands
12.
Clandestine church
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A clandestine church, defined by historian Benjamin J. Schuilkerken are commonly built inside houses or other buildings, and do not show a public façade to the street. In others, the law permitted public worship by minority faiths, the 1648 Treaty of Osnabruck, part of the Peace of Westphalia, specified three types of worship, domestic devotion, public religious services, and private religious services. It is into this last category that clandestine churches fall and these churches were characterized by group religious services carried out by clergy in their own houses or in other houses designated for the purpose, and not in churches at set hours. Kaplan writes that the pretense of clandestinity enabled Europeans to accommodate dissent without confronting it directly, the entrance must not be on the Jodenbreestraat, but behind on a lesser thoroughfare, the Burgwal. There would be no parking of sleds on the Jodenbreestraat, there was to be no waiting for another person on the street after services. The priest was responsible for seeing that no beggars came to ask the worshipers for alms, services were timed so that there would be no chance of Roman Catholics offending Protestants by meeting them in the streets on their way to Dutch Reformed churches. And, finally, the Catholics must not walk to church in groups, nor carry prayer books, rosaries, Benjamin J. Kaplan regards these requirements as typical of those in effect across Europe wherever clandestine churches were permitted. Although early clandestine churches were makeshift spaces, by the 17th century some, usually Catholic, artists who painted works commissioned by clandestine churches include Gerard van Honthorst, Abraham Bloemaert, Jan Miense Molenaer, Pieter de Grebber, Claes Corneliszoon Moeyaert and Jan de Bray. Emperor Joseph IIs Patent specified that these clandestine churches might not ring a bell or build towers or any public entrance on the street. Viennas Stadttempel, a built in 1825 with an extremely handsome interior, is an excellent surviving example. It is completely concealed in the interior of a block of residential buildings, some are freestanding buildings constructed in rear courtyards. What they share is that they are not readily recognizable as a houses of worship by passersby, such churches were built in large numbers during the time of the Dutch Republic for use by Roman Catholics, Remonstrants, Lutherans and Mennonites. In cities schuilkerken were especially established in houses and warehouses, whereas in the countryside such churches generally had the appearance of a shed and so became known as Schuurkerken. All clandestine churches of necessity lacked exterior markers that would identify them as churches, they had no bells, towers, steeples, crosses, St. Ninians Church, Tynet, Scotland, is a typical, rural clandestine Catholic church. Built in 1755, it resembles a long, low barn and it is a dramatic contrast with its replacement, St. Amsterdams Vrijburg is a typical freestanding, urban clandestine church. It is built at the center of the block, completely surrounded by houses on all four sides, so that it neither fronts on, nor is visible from, any public street. The church Ons Lieve Heer op Solder in Amsterdam, currently a museum, is an example of a house Catholic church. A Jewish house synagogue survives in Traenheim in Alsace and it is an upstairs room in a half-timbered house renovated for use as a place of public worship in 1723 over the vociferous objections of the towns pastor but with the permission of the government
13.
Guild
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A guild /ɡɪld/ is an association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a particular town. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of tradesmen and they were organized in a manner something between a professional association, trade union, a cartel, and a secret society. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as meeting places, an important result of the guild framework was the emergence of universities at Bologna, Oxford and Paris, they originated as guilds of students as at Bologna, or of masters as at Paris. Usually the founders were free independent master craftsmen who hired apprentices, there were several types of guilds, including the two main categories of merchant guilds and craft guilds but also the frith guild and religious guild. In many cases became the governing body of a town. The Freedom of the City, effective from the Middle Ages until 1835, gave the right to trade, Trade guilds arose in the 14th century as craftsmen united to protect their common interest. The occasion for these oaths were drunken banquets held on December 26, gregory of Tours tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship, in France, guilds were called corps de métiers. According to Viktor Ivanovich Rutenburg, Within the guild itself there was little division of labour. Thus, according to Étienne Boileaus Book of Handicrafts, by the century there were no less than 100 guilds in Paris. In Catalan towns, specially at Barcelona, guilds or gremis were a basic agent in the society, a shoemakers guild is recorded in 1208. In England, specifically in the City of London Corporation, more than 110 guilds, referred to as companies, survive today. Other groups, such as the Worshipful Company of Tax Advisers, have been formed far more recently, membership in a livery company is expected for individuals participating in the governance of The City, as the Lord Mayor and the Remembrancer. The guild system reached a state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in German cities into the 19th century. In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, the latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the gremios of Spain, e. g. Valencia or Toledo. Not all city economies were controlled by guilds, some cities were free, in order to become a Master, a Journeyman would have to go on a three-year voyage called Journeyman years. The practice of the Journeyman years still exists in Germany and France, in Ghent, as in Florence, the woolen textile industry developed as a congeries of specialized guilds. The appearance of the European guilds was tied to the emergent money economy, before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as commodity money was the normal way of doing business
14.
Utrecht
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Utrecht is the capital and most populous city in the Dutch province of Utrecht. It is located in the corner of the Randstad conurbation and is the fourth largest city in the Netherlands with a population of 330,772 in 2014. Utrechts ancient city centre features many buildings and structures several dating as far back as the High Middle Ages and it has been the religious centre of the Netherlands since the 8th century. It lost the status of prince-bishopric but remains the religious center in the country. Utrecht was the most important city in the Netherlands until the Dutch Golden Age, Utrecht is host to Utrecht University, the largest university in the Netherlands, as well as several other institutions of higher education. Due to its position within the country, it is an important transport hub for both rail and road transport. It has the second highest number of events in the Netherlands. In 2012, Lonely Planet included Utrecht in the top 10 of the world’s unsung places, a series of such fortresses was built after the Roman emperor Claudius decided the empire should not expand north. To consolidate the border the limes Germanicus defense line was constructed along the branch of the river Rhine. These fortresses were designed to house a cohort of about 500 Roman soldiers, near the fort settlements would grow housing artisans, traders and soldiers wives and children. In Roman times, the name of the Utrecht fortress was simply Traiectum, Traiectum became Dutch Trecht, with the U from Old Dutch uut added to distinguish U-trecht from Maas-tricht. In 11th-century official documents it was Latinized as Ultra Traiectum, around the year 200, the wooden walls of the fortification were replaced by sturdier tuff stone walls, remnants of which are still to be found below the buildings around Dom Square. From the middle of the 3rd century Germanic tribes regularly invaded the Roman territories, around 275 the Romans could no longer maintain the northern border and Utrecht was abandoned. Little is known about the next period 270–650, Utrecht is first spoken of again several centuries after the Romans left. Under the influence of the realms of the Franks, during Dagobert Is reign in the 7th century. In ongoing border conflicts with the Frisians this first church was destroyed, by the mid-7th century, English and Irish missionaries set out to convert the Frisians. The pope appointed their leader, Willibrordus, bishop of the Frisians, the tenure of Willibrordus is generally considered to be the beginning of the Bishopric of Utrecht. In 723, the Frankish leader Charles Martel bestowed the fortress in Utrecht, from then on Utrecht became one of the most influential seats of power for the Roman Catholic Church in the Netherlands
15.
Jan Weenix
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Jan Weenix or Joannis Wenix was a Dutch painter. He was trained by his father, Jan Baptist Weenix, together with his cousin Melchior dHondecoeter, like his father, he devoted himself to a variety of subjects, but his fame is chiefly due to his paintings of dead game and of hunting scenes. Many pictures in this genre formerly ascribed to the elder Weenix are now considered to be the works of the son. It is not very sure if Weenix was born in Amsterdam, the year in which his father died is also a puzzle. The family lived in a castle outside Utrecht, but his father died young after he went broke, Weenix was a member of the Utrecht guild of painters in 1664 and 1668. By the age of twenty Jan Weenix rivalled and then surpassed his father in breadth of treatment. In 1679 when Jan Weenix married the 20-year-old Pieternella Backers he told the schepen he was around thirty, between 1680 and 1700 they had 13 children baptized in a hidden church. At least three of them died young, in 1697 he painted a portrait of Peter the Great, visiting the Republic to study shipbuilding, science and the art of fortification building. In Amsterdam Weenix was frequently employed to decorate private houses with wall-paintings on canvas, one was near the Admiralty of Amsterdam. The mansion, on a canal with many rich Sefardim, with a view on the park and into an avenue, was owned by a Spanish merchant. The five fixed paintings or wallpaper on canvas became very popular in the half of the 18th century. The paintings survived in the house until 1922, then the enormous paintings were sold before an auction to William Randolph Hearst in a private arrangement. Between 1702 and 1712 Weenix was occupied with an important series of large hunting pictures for the Elector Palatine Johann Wilhelms castle of Bensberg. The treasury was empty when Jan Wellem, as he was called in Düsseldorf, most of this collection is now at the Munich Gallery, but the paintings of Van der Werff moved to the cellar. His pupils were his daughter Maria Weenix and Dirk Valkenburg, Jan Weenix lived towards the end of his life in a house on the Amstel river, and was buried in Nieuwezijds Kapel a nearby church on the Rokin. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was impressed by the treatment of animals in Weenix pictures which he saw in Munich and he devoted a poem to the masters technique in which he stated that Weenix equaled and even surpassed nature in his treatment of animal textures as hair, feathers and claws. Many of his best works are to be found in English private collections, Jan Weenix is well represented in the galleries of Amsterdam, The Hague, Haarlem, Rotterdam, Berlin, Lisbon and Paris. A medium-sized Weenix, Still Life with Dead Game hangs in the room of the Filoli estate in California
16.
Canals of Amsterdam
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Amsterdam, capital of the Netherlands, has more than one hundred kilometers of canals, about 90 islands and 1,500 bridges. The three main canals, Herengracht, Prinsengracht, and Keizersgracht, dug in the 17th century during the Dutch Golden Age, form concentric belts around the city, alongside the main canals are 1550 monumental buildings. Much of the Amsterdam canal system is the outcome of city planning. In the early part of the 17th century, with immigration rising, known as the grachtengordel, three of the canals are mostly for residential development, and a fourth, outer canal, Singelgracht, for purposes of defense and water management. The defensive purpose of the Nassau/Stadhouderskade was served by moat and earthen dikes, with gates at transit points, construction of the north-western sector was started in 1613 and was finished around 1625. After 1664, building in the sector was started, although slowly because of an economic depression. The eastern part of the canal plan, covering the area between the Amstel river and the IJ Bay, was not implemented for a long time. In the following centuries, the land went mostly for park, several parts of the city and of the urban area are polders, recognisable by their postfix -meer meaning lake, such as Aalsmeer, Bijlmermeer, Haarlemmermeer, and Watergraafsmeer. The canals in Amsterdam are now used as a form of transportation around the city. Inward to outward, the canals are as follows, Singel encircled the city of Amsterdam. It served as a moat around the city from 1480 until 1585, the canal runs from the IJ Bay, near Central Station, to the Muntplein square, where it meets the Amstel river. It is now the inner-most canal in Amsterdams semicircular ring of canals, the canal should not be confused with Singelgracht canal, which became the outer limit of the city during the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th Century. Herengracht is the first of the three canals in the city centre of Amsterdam. The canal is named after the heren regeerders who governed the city in the 16th and 17th century, the most fashionable part is called the Golden Bend, with many double wide mansions, inner gardens and coach houses on Keizersgracht. Samuel Sarphati lived at the house at number 598 and Peter the Great stayed at the house at number 527 during his visit to Amsterdam. Keizersgracht is the second and widest of the three canals in the city centre of Amsterdam, in between Herengracht and Prinsengracht. It is named after Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, Prinsengracht is the fourth and the longest of the main canals in Amsterdam. It is named after the Prince of Orange, most of the canal houses along it were built during the Dutch Golden Age of the United Provinces
17.
Brothel
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A brothel or bordello is a place where people may come to engage in sexual activity with a prostitute, sometimes referred to as a sex worker. Technically, any premises where prostitution takes place qualifies as a brothel. However, for legal or cultural reasons, establishments sometimes describe themselves as massage parlors, bars, strip clubs, body rub parlours, studios, sex work in a brothel is considered safer than street prostitution. Under English criminal law, a brothel is commonly referred to as a disorderly house, attitudes around the world to prostitution and how it should be regulated vary considerably, and have varied over time. Part of the impacts on whether the operation of brothels should be legal. On 2 December 1949, the United Nations General Assembly approved the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons, the Convention came into effect on 25 July 1951 and as at December 2013 has been ratified by 82 states. The Convention seeks to combat prostitution, which it regards as incompatible with the dignity, parties to the Convention agreed to abolish regulation of individual prostitutes, and to ban brothels and procuring. Some countries not parties to the Convention also ban prostitution or the operation of brothels, various United Nations commissions, however, have differing positions on the issue. In the European Union, there is no policy and no consensus on the issue. The European Womens Lobby condemns prostitution as a form of male violence. In February 2014, the members of the European Parliament voted in a resolution, in favor of the Swedish Model of criminalizing the buying. Prostitution and the operation of brothels is illegal in many countries, such situations exist in many parts of the world, but the region most often associated with these policies is Asia. When brothels are illegal they may operate in the guise of a legitimate business, such as massage parlors. In other places, prostitution itself may be legal, but many activities which surround it are illegal and this is the situation, for example, in the United Kingdom, Italy and France. In a few countries, prostitution and operating a brothel is legal, the degree of regulation varies widely by country. Most of these countries allow brothels, at least in theory, in parts of Australia, for example, brothels are legal and regulated. Regulation includes planning controls and licensing and registration requirements, and there may be other restrictions, however, the existence of licensed brothels does not stop illegal brothels from operating. The Netherlands has one of the most liberal prostitution policies in the world, amsterdam is well known for its red-light district and is a destination for sex tourism
18.
Maria de Grebber
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Maria de Grebber, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, who was good with buildings and perspective. Maria de Grebber was the daughter of the painter Frans Pietersz de Grebber and their father ran a respected workshop in Haarlem in the 1620s, where he taught Judith Leyster and his own children how to paint. Maria was not the woman painter in Haarlem. The first woman registered in the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke was Sara van Baalbergen in 1631, both of these women were not members of an established artist family in Haarlem, the way Maria was. Maria worked in her workshop and thus did not need professional qualifications to obtain sales. She was seven years older than Leyster and like Leyster and Baalbergen, married an artist and her daughter Isabelle de Wolff later married the painter Gabriel Metsu. Maria de Grebber on inghist Media related to Maria de Grebber at Wikimedia Commons
19.
Fijnschilder
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The application of paint contrasts with the textures and style of other Dutch painters, such as Frans Hals and Dous teacher Rembrandt van Rijn. In this way they have more in common with earlier traditions in Netherlandish painting, other artists working in the style include Godfried Schalcken, Quirijn van Brekelenkam and, at times, Gabriel Metsu. The fijnschilders are best known for scenes showing everyday life and activities, candle-lit nocturnal subjects. Dutch 17th and 18th century fijnschilders Leidse fijnschilders, van Gerrit Dou tot Frans van Mieris de Jonge 1630-1760, Leiden, Stedelijk Museum de Lakenhal,1988
20.
Pieter de Hooch
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Pieter de Hooch was a Dutch Golden Age painter famous for his genre works of quiet domestic scenes with an open doorway. He was a contemporary of Jan Vermeer in the Delft Guild of St. Luke, with whom his work shares themes, De Hooch was born in Rotterdam to Hendrick Hendricksz de Hooch, a bricklayer, and Annetge Pieters, a midwife. He was the eldest of five children and outlived all of his siblings, little is known of his early life and most archival evidence suggests he worked in Rotterdam, Delft, and Amsterdam. But De Hoochs work seems to continue in the spirit of Hendrik Sorgh, beginning in 1650, he worked as a painter and servant for a linen-merchant and art collector named Justus de la Grange in Rotterdam. His service for the merchant required him to him on his travels to The Hague, Leiden. De Hooch was married in Delft in 1654 to Jannetje van der Burch, while in Delft, de Hooch is also believed to have learned from the painters Carel Fabritius and Nicolaes Maes, who were early members of the Delft School. He became a member of the guild of Saint Luke in 1655. His daughter Anna was born in Delft on 14 November 1656, after starting his family in the mid-1650s, he switched his focus to domestic scenes. These were possibly of his own family, though his works of well-to-do women breastfeeding and caring for children could also indicate that he had attended his mother on her rounds as a midwife. His work showed astute observation of the details of everyday life while also functioning as well-ordered morality tales. These paintings often exhibited a sophisticated and delicate treatment of similar to those of Vermeer. The themes and compositions are very similar between De Hooch and Vermeer. De Hooch also shared themes and compositions with Emanuel de Witte, in the 1660s, he began to paint for wealthier patrons in Amsterdam, and is known for merry company scenes and family portraits in opulent interiors with marble floors and high ceilings. During his time in Amsterdam, he continued to make his domestic scenes, little is known of De Hoochs living arrangements in Amsterdam, though it has been established that he had contact with Emmanuel de Witte. In 1670, he was living in the Konijnenstraat and he lived in an area outside of the city walls but near the Westerkerk where his family attended church. Most scholars believe that de Hoochs work after around 1670 became more stylized and deteriorated in quality and it may be that his work was affected by his distress at the death of his wife in 1667 at age 38, leaving him with a young family. After 1680, de Hoochs painting style became coarser and darker in color and it was once widely assumed that he died in an asylum in 1684, but new documentation* from that institution proves that it was in fact his son who had died there, also named Pieter. The year of the artists death remains a mystery, for a more complete list of paintings attributed to de Hooch, see the list of paintings by Pieter de Hooch, Arrière-cour dune maison hollandaise – 1650–75
21.
Michiel van Musscher
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Michiel van Musscher was a Dutch Golden Age painter. Michiel van Musscher was born in Rotterdam in January 1645 and was baptized on 27 January. According to Houbraken, he showed a talent for drawing at a young age and his first teacher was Martinus Saeghmolen in 1660 for two months, and in 1661, he took lessons from Abraham van den Tempel. In 1665 he took seven lessons with Gabriel Metsu, and in 1667 he spent three months in Haarlem to take lessons with Adriaen van Ostade. Houbraken wrote that he moved to Amsterdam to work for Jonas Witsen and he married twice, first to Eva Visscher in 1678 in Buiksloot, and the second time in 1693 to the widow Elise Klanes. His pupils were Ottmar Elliger the Younger and Dirk Valkenburg and he died on June 20,1705 in Amsterdam and was buried on June 25 in the Nieuwe Kerk. All of his portraits listed here are at the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam unless noted otherwise, weisman collection in Munich Portrait of François Lefort, painted in Holland during the Grand Embassy of Peter the Great, now at the Museum of Art and History, Geneva
22.
Nieuwe Kerk, Amsterdam
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The Nieuwe Kerk is a 15th-century church in Amsterdam, located on Dam Square, next to the Royal Palace. The Nieuwe Kerk is no used for church services but is used as an exhibition space. It is also used for organ recitals, there is a café in one of the buildings attached to the church that has an entrance to the church. There is a store inside the entrance that sells postcards, books. The investitures of Queen Wilhelmina, Juliana and Beatrix also took place there, the Nieuwe Kerk is a burial site for Dutch naval heroes, including Admiral Michiel de Ruyter, Commodore Jan van Galen, and Jan van Speyk. The poet and playwright Joost van den Vondel is also buried in the church, after the Oude Kerk grew too small for the expanding population of the town, the bishop of Utrecht in 1408 gave permission to build a second parish church, the Nieuwe Kerk. This new church was consecrated to St. Mary and St. Catharine, the church was damaged by the city fires of 1421 and 1452 and burned down almost entirely in 1645, after which it was rebuilt in Gothic style. It underwent major renovation in 1892–1914, which added many neo-Gothic details, the second renovation proved expensive for the Dutch Reformed Church, forcing the church to be closed most of the time in order to save money on maintenance. To keep the open, ownership was transferred in 1979 to a newly formed cultural foundation called the Nationale Stichting De Nieuwe Kerk
23.
Enkhuizen
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Enkhuizen is a municipality and a city in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland and the region of West-Frisia. Enkhuizen was one of the harbour-towns of the VOC, just like Hoorn and Amsterdam and it received city rights in 1355. In the mid-17th century, Enkhuizen was at the peak of its power and was one of the most important harbour cities in the Netherlands, however, due to a variety of reasons, notably the silting up of the harbours, Enkhuizen lost its position to Amsterdam. Enkhuizen has one of the largest marinas in the Netherlands, architecturally, the Drommedaris is the oldest building in Enkhuizen, from 1540. Tourists take boat trips to and from the port to Medemblik, industrially, Enkhuizen is home to a number of seed production companies, as well as a plastics factory. Tourism is a part of the economy, too. The municipality of Enkhuizen consists of the cities, towns, villages and/or districts, Enkhuizen, Oosterdijk. Furthermore, during summer ferries for pedestrians and cyclists operate between Enkhuizen and Stavoren, between Enkhuizen and Medemblik, and between Enkhuizen and Urk and it is also possible to drive or cycle across the Houtribdijk to Lelystad, passing under naviduct near the Krabbersgat lock. Media related to Enkhuizen at Wikimedia Commons Enkhuizen travel guide from Wikivoyage Official website
24.
Jan Jacobszoon Hinlopen
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Jan Jacobszoon Hinlopen was a rich Dutch cloth merchant, an officer in the civic guard, a real estate developer in the Jordaan, alderman in the city council and a keen art collector. He would have been elected as a burgomaster, if he had not died at the age of forty, an age considered acceptable to be eligible. He was a prominent patron of the arts in his time, Hinlopen, like his father-in-law, Joan Huydecoper I, is known in art history because of the poems by Jan Vos reciting the paintings in his house and members of the family. These paintings are all over the world, the poems nearly forgotten. Jan J. Hinlopen was born as the son of the merchant Jacob J. Hinlopen, the family origins were in Brabant, then the Southern Netherlands. After Antwerp had been occupied by the Spanish, Protestants, who did not want to convert to Catholicism, were ordered to sell their homes and immoveable possessions, within four years many Flemish cities lost half of their population emigrating to the north. It is possible the family moved in a stage to the North and in 1572 escaped from Naarden. Anyhow, the new immigrants lived in a house on the Nieuwendijk, named Hinlopen, the name of house has to do with Hindelopen, the small town in the North, producing many skippers and sailors. After coming of age, Jan J. Hinlopen lived with his brother Jacob J. Hinlopen on the Leliegracht at the corner of the Keizersgracht, not far from their parents, the brothers made money from a cloth business in Warmoesstraat and through building cheap housing in the Jordaan. Wishing to make a career in city politics, Jan enrolled in the guard as an ensign in 1651-1653. He served under captain Gerrit Reynst, also an art collector, in 1656 he was appointed as a city official in the Nieuwe Kerk. He resigned within a few months, when he was appointed as an administrator in the townhall, in the schutterij Jan was promoted lieutenant. On February 1,1661 Jan was elected as schepen and he may have witnessed the unveiling of Rembrandts painting The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis in the town hall, as well as its removal a couple of months later. On April 3,1657, Jan J. Hinlopen married Leonore Huydecoper of Maarseveen, the daughter of a mayor, Johan Huydecoper van Maarsseveen. There is a sketch by her father for the arrangement of the chairs for the room in his house on Singel. Jan Vos the local director, gave five performances including accompanying poems for the occasion. Jan Hinlopen made distinct notes as to time of birth and date of baptism in the Westerkerk, at time they were born. His diary becomes dramatic when Jan J. Hinlopen lost his youngest daughter developing measles, the next day, on October 29, around ten in the evening the baby was carried to the church by his servant Jan, accompanied by two other men, most probably the undertakers
25.
Arnold Houbraken
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Arnold Houbraken was a Dutch painter and writer from Dordrecht, now remembered mainly as a biographer of artists from the Dutch Golden Age. Houbraken was sent first to learn threadtwisting from Johannes de Haan, after two years he then studied art with Willem van Drielenburch, who he was with during the rampjaar, the year 1672. He then studied 9 months with Jacobus Leveck and finally, four years with Samuel van Hoogstraten, in 1685 he married Sara Sasbout, and around 1709 he moved from Dordrecht to Amsterdam. Arnold Houbraken painted mythological and religious paintings, portraits and landscapes and his first attempt at an instructive manual for artists was his Emblem book, Inhoud van t Sieraad der Afbeelding, which was meant as a guide of possible painting themes. His registered pupils were Matthijs Balen, Johan Graham, and his son Jacob and his son Jacobus Houbraken was an engraver of portraits and book illustrations, including books by his father. His daughter Antonina Houbraken also became an engraver for an Amsterdam publisher and his daughter Christina Houbraken was also an artist. Arnold Houbrakens books sold well during the entire 18th century. Jacob Campo Weyerman published his version in serial form that was published as a complete set in 1769. Houbrakens engravings of the artists are in cases the only surviving portraits of these people. The first to make a sequel to Houbrakens work was Johan van Gool in 1750-51. Houbraken was very careful to check and double check his sources, excepting those cases where the artist died quite young, or whose oeuvre was lost during various wars, very few artists were included in the Schouburg who do not hang in international museums today. The first modern art historian to publish an update of his work was Adriaan van der Willigen, since then he has remained a valuable resource for art historians. The Schouburgh is part of the Basic Library of the dbnl which contains the 1000 most important works in Dutch literature from the Middle Ages to today
26.
Gerrit Dou
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Gerrit Dou, also known as Gerard and Douw or Dow, was a Dutch Golden Age painter, whose small, highly polished paintings are typical of the Leiden fijnschilders. He specialised in genre scenes and is noted for his trompe loeil niche paintings and he was a student of Rembrandt. Dou was born in Leiden, where his father was a manufacturer of stained-glass and he studied drawing under Bartholomeus Dolendo, and then trained in the stained-glass workshop of Pieter Couwenhorn. In February 1628, at the age of fourteen, his father sent him to painting in the studio of Rembrandt who lived nearby. At a comparatively early point in his career, however, he developed a manner of his own which diverged considerably from Rembrandts. He is said to have spent five days in painting a hand, notwithstanding the minuteness of his touch, the general effect was harmonious and free from stiffness, and his colour was always fresh and transparent. He often represented subjects in lantern or candle light, the effects of which he reproduced with an unparalleled fidelity and he often painted with the aid of a concave mirror, and to obtain exactness looked at his subject through a frame crossed with squares of silk thread. His practice as a painter, which was at first considerable, gradually declined. His pictures were small in size. More than 200 are attributed to him, and examples are to be found in most of the public collections of Europe. His chef-doeuvre is generally considered to be The dropsical woman, and The Dutch Housewife, the Evening School, in the Amsterdam Rijksmuseum, is the best example of the candlelight scenes in which he excelled. In the National Gallery, London, favorable specimens are to be seen in the Poulterers Shop, and a self-portrait. Queen Christina of Sweden owned eleven paintings by Dou, and Cosimo III de Medici visited his house, the Dutch royal court itself, however, preferred work of a more classical tendency. His most noted pupils were Frans van Mieris the Elder. angels also stresses how Dou’s paintings expressed the paragone debate current around that time. The debate was a competition between painting, sculpture and poetry as to which was the best representation of nature. It was especially popular in Leiden where the painters were seeking to obtain the rights of a guild from the council in order to have laws for their economic protection. The paragone debate is not only addressed in writings from that time but is reflected in the subject matter of several of Dou’s paintings. An example of this is the Old Painter at work, in which an old painter is shown working on a canvas behind a table displaying objects that show his capabilities of imitation
27.
Emblem book
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An emblem book is a book collecting emblems with accompanying explanatory text, typically morals or poems. This category of books was popular in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, but if someone asks me what Emblemata really are. Some early emblem books were unillustrated, particularly those issued by the French printer Denis de Harsy, with time, however, the reading public came to expect emblem books to contain picture-text combinations. The picture was subject to interpretations, only by reading the text could a reader be certain which meaning was intended by the author. Thus the books are related to the personal symbolic picture-text combinations called personal devices, known in Italy as imprese. Emblem books, both secular and religious, attained enormous popularity throughout continental Europe, though in Britain they did not capture the imagination of readers to quite the same extent, the books were especially numerous in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and France. Early European studies of Egyptian hieroglyphs, like that of Athanasius Kircher, assumed that the hieroglyphs were emblems, a similar collection of emblems, but not in book form, is Lady Drurys Closet. Andrea Alciato Guillaume de La Perrière Georgette de Montenay Otto van Veen Jacob Cats Albert Flamen Dunn, breaking a tradition, Hester Pulter and the English emblem book. Stronks, E. Dutch religious love emblems, Reflections of faith, Literature in the Light of the Emblem, Structural Parallels Between the Emblem and Literature in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. University of Toronto Press The English Emblem Tradition. Volumes 1-5. University of Toronto Press Peter Maurice Daly, G. Richard Dimler, corpus Librorum Emblematum, Primary literature - The Jesuit Series. Parts 1 -5. University of Toronto Press Arthur Henkel & Albrecht Schöne, Emblemata, jahrhunderts, Verlag J. B. Metzler, Stuttgart - Weimar 1996, ISBN 3-476-01502-5. Massive catalog reproducing emblems with texts from all known 16th and 17th century emblem books, daniel Russell, The Emblem and Device in France, French Forum, Lexington, KY,1985
28.
Rooster
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A rooster, also known as a cockerel or cock, is a male gallinaceous bird, usually a male chicken. Mature male chickens less than one year old are called cockerels, the term rooster originates in the United States, and the term is widely used throughout North America, as well as Australia and New Zealand. The older terms cock or cockerel, the latter denoting a young cock, are used in the United Kingdom, roosting is the action of perching aloft to sleep at day, which is done by both sexes. The rooster is polygamous, but cannot guard several nests of eggs at once and he guards the general area where his hens are nesting, and attacks other roosters that enter his territory. During the daytime, a rooster often sits on a perch, usually 0.9 to 1.5 m off the ground. He sounds an alarm call if predators are nearby. Roosters almost always start crowing before four months of age, although it is possible for a hen to crow as well, crowing is one of the clearest signs of being a rooster. The rooster is often portrayed as crowing at the break of dawn, however, while many roosters crow shortly after waking up, this idea is not exactly true. A rooster can and will crow at any time of the day, some roosters are especially vociferous, crowing almost constantly, while others only crow a few times a day. These differences are dependent both upon the breed and individual personality. A rooster can often be sitting on fence posts or other objects. Roosters have several other calls as well, and can cluck, Roosters occasionally make a patterned series of clucks to attract hens to a source of food, the same way a mother hen does for her chicks. Rooster crowing contests are a sport in several countries, such as Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium. Depending on the breed, either the duration of the crowing or the times the rooster crows within a time is measured. A capon is a castrated rooster, in the caponization procedure, the birds testes are completely removed, a surgical procedure is required for this as the roosters sexual organs are internal. The hackle, tail and saddle feathers grow unusually long, caponization also affects the disposition of the bird. Removal of the birds testes eliminates the male sex hormones, lessening the male sex instincts and changing their behaviour, the birds become more docile, less active and this procedure produces a unique type of poultry meat which is favoured by a specialized market. The meat of normal uncastrated roosters has a tendency to become coarse, stringy and this process does not occur in the capon
29.
Rijksmuseum
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The Rijksmuseum is a Dutch national museum dedicated to arts and history in Amsterdam. The museum is located at the Museum Square in the borough Amsterdam South, close to the Van Gogh Museum, the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, and the Concertgebouw. The Rijksmuseum was founded in The Hague in 1800 and moved to Amsterdam in 1808, the current main building was designed by Pierre Cuypers and first opened its doors in 1885. On 13 April 2013, after a renovation which cost €375 million. In 2013 and 2014, it was the most visited museum in the Netherlands with record numbers of 2.2 million and 2.47 million visitors and it is also the largest art museum in the country. The museum also has a small Asian collection, which is on display in the Asian pavilion, in 1795, the Batavian Republic was proclaimed. The Minister of Finance Isaac Gogel argued that a museum, following the French example of The Louvre. On 19 November 1798, the government decided to found the museum, on 31 May 1800, the National Art Gallery, precursor of the Rijksmuseum, opened its doors in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The museum exhibited around 200 paintings and historic objects from the collections of the Dutch stadtholders, in 1805, the National Art Gallery moved within The Hague to the Buitenhof. In 1806, the Kingdom of Holland was established by Napoleon Bonaparte, on the orders of king Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, the museum moved to Amsterdam in 1808. The paintings owned by city, such as The Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the museum opened its doors in the Royal Palace in Amsterdam, in 1817, the museum moved to the Trippenhuis. The Trippenhuis turned out to be unsuitable as a museum, in 1820, the historical objects were moved to the Mauritshuis in The Hague, and in 1838 the 19th-century paintings were moved to Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. In 1863, there was a design contest for a new building for the Rijksmuseum, Pierre Cuypers also participated in the contest and his submission reached the second place. In 1876 a new contest was held and this time Pierre Cuypers won, the design was a combination of gothic and renaissance elements. The construction began on 1 October 1876, on both the inside and the outside, the building was richly decorated with references to Dutch art history. Another contest was held for these decorations, the winners were B. van Hove and J. F. Vermeylen for the sculptures, G. Sturm for the tile tableaus and painting and W. F. Dixon for the stained glass. The museum was opened at its new location on 13 July 1885, in 1890 a new building was added a short distance to the south-west of the Rijksmuseum
30.
Carpet
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A carpet is a textile floor covering typically consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a backing. The pile was made from wool, but, since the 20th century, synthetic fibers such as polypropylene, nylon or polyester are often used. The pile usually consists of twisted tufts which are typically heat-treated to maintain their structure, Carpets can be made in any colour by using differently dyed fibers. Carpets can have different types of patterns and motifs used to decorate the surface. In the 2000s, carpets are used in industrial and commercial establishments such as stores and hotels. Carpet is commonly made in widths of 12 feet and 15 feet in the USA,4 m and 5 m in Europe. Wall-to-wall carpet is distinguished from rugs or mats, which are loose-laid floor coverings, as wall-to-wall carpet is fixed to the floor, child labour has often been used in Asia for hand knotting rugs. The term carpet comes from Old French carpite, one derivation of the term states that the French term came from the Old Italian carpita, from the verb carpire meaning to pluck. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the carpet was first used in English in the late 13th century, with the meaning coarse cloth. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the term comes, the meaning of the term carpet shifted in the 15th century to refer to floor coverings. The term carpet is used interchangeably with the term rug. Some sources define a carpet as stretching from wall to wall, another definition treats rugs as of lower quality or of smaller size, with carpets quite often having finished ends. A third common definition is that a carpet is fixed in place while a rug is simply laid out on the floor. Historically, the carpet was also applied to table and wall coverings. The term rug was first used in English in the 1550s, the term is of. Scandinavian origin, compare Norwegian dialectal rugga coarse coverlet, from Old Norse rogg shaggy tuft, from Proto-Germanic *rawwa-, perhaps related to rag and rough. The meaning of rug. evolved to coverlet, wrap, then mat for the floor, the carpet is produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric. The pile can be plush or Berber, plush carpet is a cut pile and Berber carpet is a loop pile. There are new styles of carpet combining the two styles called cut and loop carpeting, normally many colored yarns are used and this process is capable of producing intricate patterns from predetermined designs
31.
Oriental rug
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An oriental rug is a heavy textile, made for a wide variety of utilitarian and symbolic purpose, produced in “Oriental countries” for home use, local sale, and export. Oriental carpets can be woven or flat woven without pile, using various materials such as silk, wool. Since the High Middle Ages, oriental rugs have been a part of their cultures of origin, as well as of the European and, later on. Geographically, oriental rugs are made in a referred to as the “Rug Belt”, which stretches from Morocco across North Africa, the Middle East. It includes countries such as northern China, Tibet, Turkey, Iran, the Maghreb in the west, the Caucasus in the north, people from different cultures, countries, racial groups and religious faiths are involved in the production of oriental rugs. The beginning of carpet weaving remains unknown, as carpets are subject to use, deterioration, there is little archaeological evidence to support any theory about the origin of the pile-woven carpet. The earliest surviving fragments are spread over a wide geographic area. Woven rugs probably developed from earlier floor coverings, made of felt, flat-woven rugs are made by tightly interweaving the warp and weft strands of the weave to produce a flat surface with no pile. The technique of weaving carpets further developed into a known as extra-weft wrapping weaving, a technique which produces soumak. Loop weaving is done by pulling the strings over a gauge rod. The rod is then removed, leaving the loops closed, or the loops are cut over the protecting rod. Typically, hand-woven pile rugs are produced by knotting strings of thread individually into the warps, the fabric is then further stabilized by weaving in one or more strings of weft, and compacted by beating with a comb. It seems likely that knotted-pile carpets have been produced by people who were familiar with extra-weft wrapping techniques. Probably the oldest existing texts referring to carpets are preserved in writing on clay tablets from the royal archives of the kingdom of Mari. The Akkadian word for rug is mardatu, and specialist rug weavers referred to as kāşiru are distinguished from other specialized professions like sack-makers. Palace inventories from the archives of Nuzi, from the 15th/14th century BC, there are documentary records of carpets being used by the ancient Greeks. Homer writes in Ilias XVII,350 that the body of Patroklos is covered with a “splendid carpet”, in Odyssey Book VII and X “carpets” are mentioned. Around 400 BC, the Greek author Xenophon mentions “carpets” in his book “Anabasis” and it is unknown whether these were flatweaves or pile weaves, as no detailed technical information is provided in the texts
32.
Lotto carpet
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It is characterized by a lacy arabesque, usually in yellow on a red ground, often with blue details. Lotto is also documented as owning a large carpet, though its pattern is unknown, the type was common and long-lasting, and is also known as Arabesque Ushak. They are still found in paintings by Murillo and Zurbarán in the 17th century, ellis distinguishes three principle design groups for Lotto carpets, the Anatolian-style, kilim-style, and ornamental style. In the 16th and 17th centuries they were copied in Italy, Spain, the European part of the Ottoman Empire, and even in England, and many modern copies have also been produced. Ushak carpet Brown, David Alan, Peter Humfrey and Mauro Lucco Lorenzo Lotto, Rediscovered Master of the Renaissance, New Haven, king, Donald and Sylvester, David eds
33.
Portrait of the Family Hinlopen
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The Portrait of the Family Hinlopen or Family of burgomaster Gillis Valckenier is a painting in the Berlin Gemäldegalerie by the Dutch Golden Age painter Gabriël Metsu of about 1663. It is now accepted that the family are the Hinlopens. In his diary Jan J. Hinlopen made distinct notes about his marriage and family births, dates of baptisms in the Westerkerk Amsterdam, Hinlopen and Leonore Huydecoper, the sister of Joan Huydecoper, had four children by 1663, Jacob, Johanna Maria, Sara, and Geertrui. In the second half of 1663 two members of the family died, Jan J. Hinlopen lost his youngest daughter, Geertrui, who died of measles on August 14. On October 28 his wife had a miscarriage, the next day, around ten in the evening, his servant, accompanied by two other men, most probably the undertakers, buried a small coffin in the church. On November 1, his wife Leonora died at 5.30 in the morning and his only son Jacob died at Pijnenburg, Jans and Leonoras country estate. Jacob was kept isolated and it is likely he died of the plague, after the Geelvinck family, heirs of Sara, ceased to exist in the early 19th century, the traces to the real origins were lost. The Swiss family Tschiffely sold the painting in 1832, in the end of the 19th century it was known as depicting the Familie des Kaufmanns Gelfing. In 1907 the known Dutch art-historian Hofstede de Groot mentioned the parrot in the painting of the Familie Geelvinck, remarkably he described the painting as langweilig. In 1984 also Bob Haak describes it as depicting the Geelvinck family, in 1976 Van Eeghen renamed the painting to De familie van burgemeester Gillis Valckenier, and dated it in 1657. This was mainly based on the bird in the painting, which van Eeghen imagined to be a falcon, irene Groeneweg reasons that the bird, held by the boy, is a Cuban amazon parrot. Another reason to doubt the classification is that, according to the Amsterdam City Archives, judith van Gent discovered that there was a resemblance with another Hinlopen family portrait by Bartholomeus van der Helst and that depicted by Metsu in the painting in Berlin. Additionally she discovered support for her view in Hinlopens will, nevertheless, the painting is still sometimes referred to as, The Family of burgomaster Gillis Valckenier. The atmosphere of the painting indicates a family painted in the luxury of their own home, unfortunately the interior mantelpiece and paintings portrayed are unrecognizable. However, it was fashionable for members of the Amsterdam regency to depict ones family in the Amsterdam City Hall, being open to the councilmen and containing high windows with lots of light, the mayors room would have enabled easy sketching for artists. This painting possibly shows the mantelpiece of the hearth by Artus Quellinus the Elder there with a painting completed by Govert Flinck in 1656, other similar scenes are also influenced by the same mantelpiece construction
34.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
35.
Jacob J. Hinlopen
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Jacob J. Hinlopen lived in a house with Hinlopen in the gable, now at 155 Nieuwendijk. He traded in cloth and Indian wares, in 1602 he was co-founder of the Dutch East India Company in Enkhuizen, his descendants inherited very old stocks. He also was the first person of Flemish origin, that in 1617 obtained a seat in the City Council, Jacob J. Hinlopen became a friend of Joost van den Vondel, at that time also an Arminian. His wife was Sara the Wael, the daughter of a Haarlem burgomaster, beerbrewer and investor in the new development, the couple inhabited Herengracht 130, a double wide mansion. His brother Tijmen, to whom the Hinlopen Street on Svalbard has been named was the director of the Noordsche Company, after the death of their mother the two sons inherited the mansion, designed by Philips Vingboons. Today Pijnenburg in the surroundings of Soest is still the largest domain in private possession, the ancestral house near the harbour was sold. The brothers bought lots in the Jordaan, hired a carpenter, Jacob became commissioner of the Desolate Boedelkamer and was involved in the selling of Rembrandt possessions and the inheritance of Titus van Rijn, the son of Rembrandt. Just like its brother Jan also Jacob J. Hinlopen is known as a collectioneur of paintings, among paintings, a Samson and Christ. That last work he had bought in 1657 for 1500 guilders on an auction from Joannes the Renialme and that painting was then regarded higher than any other work by Rembrandt. Jacob lived on the Kloveniersburgwal, opposite of Jan Six who was related to his wife, Jacob J. Hinlopen was until his dead tutor of Johanna Maria and Sara, the two children of his brother Jan J. Hinlopen. After his burial the paintings, formerly belonging to his brother, were assigned by lot to his nieces, Jacob J. Hinlopen had married with Deborah Popta. This Jacob had very many functions, among which director of the VOC, schout and he moved in 1680 to Golden Bend, in a house nowadays the Goethe Institute. He was the owner of renowned Rembrandt Christ in the storm on the lake, the fairly large painting was stolen in 1990, in a brutal manner from a museum in Boston. The thieves rang at the door and walked around for 81 minutes, according to Elvin Post the guard got stoned, before he started his job. Hinlopen Street, Spitsbergen On domain Pijnenburg Rembrandt, Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery FBI top ten Art crimes Elvin Post behandelt in Vals beeld de kunstroof
36.
Royal Palace of Amsterdam
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The Royal Palace in Amsterdam is one of three palaces in the Netherlands which are at the disposal of the monarch by Act of Parliament. The palace was built as a city hall during the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century, the building became the royal palace of King Louis Napoleon and later of the Dutch Royal House. It is situated on the west side of Dam Square in the centre of Amsterdam, opposite the War Memorial and next to the Nieuwe Kerk. The palace was built as the Town Hall of the City of Amsterdam and was opened as such on 29 July 1655 by Cornelis de Graeff and it was built by Jacob van Campen, who took control of the construction project in 1648. It was built on 13,659 wooden piles and cost 8.5 million gulden, a yellowish sandstone from Bentheim in Germany was used for the entire building. The stone has darkened considerably in the course of time, marble was the chosen material for the interior. Jacob van Campen was inspired by Roman administrative palaces and public buildings and he wanted to build a new capitol for the Amsterdam burgomasters who thought of themselves as the consuls of the new Rome of the North. The technical implementation was looked after by the town construction master Daniël Stalpaert, the sculptures were executed by Artus Quellijn. The central hall is 120 feet long,60 feet wide and 90 feet high, on the marble floor there are two maps of the world with a celestial hemisphere. The Western and Eastern hemispheres are shown on the maps, the hemispheres detail the area of Amsterdams colonial influence. The terrestrial hemispheres were made in the mid-18th century and they replaced an earlier pair made in the late 1650s. The originals showed the regions explored by the Dutch East India Companys ships in the first half of the 17th century. This feature may have inspired by the map of the Roman Empire that had been engraved on marble and placed in the Porticus Vipsania. On top of the palace is a domed cupola, topped by a weather vane in the form of a cog ship. This ship is a symbol of Amsterdam, just underneath the dome there are a few windows. From here one could see the ships arrive and leave the harbour, in the cupola is the famous carillon by François and Pieter Hemony cast in 1664 in Amsterdam. It was renovated by Eijsbouts in 1965, only 9 bells by François and Pieter Hemony remained. 38 new bells by Eijsbouts were made and tuned in meantone temperament, the old corroded Hemony bells are kept inside the palace
37.
Persian carpet
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Carpet weaving is an essential part of Persian culture and art. Within the group of Oriental rugs or Islamic carpets produced by the countries of the rug belt. Persian carpets and rugs of various types were woven in parallel by nomadic tribes, in village and town workshops, as such, they represent different, simultaneous lines of tradition, and reflect the history of Iran and its various peoples. Their patterns and designs have set a tradition for court manufactories which was kept alive during the entire duration of the Persian Empire up to the last royal dynasty of Iran. Town manufactories like those of Tabriz have played an important historical role in reviving the tradition of carpet weaving after periods of decline, Rugs woven by the villages and various tribes of Iran are distinguished by their fine wool, bright and elaborate colours, and specific, traditional patterns. Gabbeh rugs are the type of carpet from this line of tradition. The art and craft of weaving has gone through periods of decline during times of political unrest. It particularly suffered from the introduction of synthetic dyes during the half of the nineteenth century. Carpet weaving still plays a part in the economy of modern Iran. Hand-woven Persian carpets and rugs were regarded as objects of artistic and utilitarian value and prestige from the first time they were mentioned by ancient Greek writers. In 2010, the skills of carpet weaving in Fārs. The beginning of carpet weaving remains unknown, as carpets are subject to use, deterioration, woven rugs probably developed from earlier floor coverings, made of felt, or a technique known as flat weaving. Flat-woven rugs are made by tightly interweaving the warp and weft strands of the weave to produce a surface with no pile. The technique of weaving carpets further developed into a known as loop weaving. Loop weaving is done by pulling the strings over a gauge rod. The rod is then removed, leaving the loops closed, or the loops are cut over the protecting rod. Hand-woven pile rugs are produced by knotting strings of thread individually into the warps, the Pazyryk carpet was excavated in 1949 from the grave of a Scythian nobleman in the Pazyryk Valley of the Altai Mountains in Siberia. Radiocarbon testing indicated that the Pazyryk carpet was woven in the 5th century BC and this carpet is 183 by 200 centimetres and has 36 symmetrical knots per cm²
38.
Vermilion
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Vermilion is a brilliant red or scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the resulting color. The word vermilion came from the Old French word vermeillon, which was derived from vermeil, from the Latin vermiculus and it has the same origin as the English word vermin. The name originated because it had a color to the natural red dye made from an insect, the Kermes vermilio. The words for the color in Portuguese, Galician and Catalan have the same origin, the first recorded use of vermilion as a color name in English was in 1289. The term cinnabar was used interchangeably with vermilion until the 17th century, by the late 18th century cinnabar applied to the unground natural mineral only. Vermilion is a dense, opaque pigment with a clear, brilliant hue, the pigment was originally made by grinding a powder of cinnabar, which contains mercury. The chemical formula of the pigment is HgS, like most mercury compounds, Vermilion is not one specific hue, Mercuric sulfides make a range of warm hues – from bright orange-red to a duller reddish-purple that resembles fresh duck liver. Differences in hue are caused by the size of the particles of pigment. Larger crystals produce duller and less-orange hue, Cinnabar pigment was a side-product of the mining of mercury, and mining cinnabar was difficult, expensive and dangerous, because of the toxicity of mercury. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus described the process in De Lapidibus, efforts began early to find a better way to make the pigment. The Chinese were probably the first to make a synthetic vermilion as early as the 4th century BC, the Greek alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis wrote that such a method existed. In the early ninth century the process was described by the Arab or Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan in his book of recipes of colors. The process described by Jabir ibn Hayyan was fairly simple, Mercury and sulfur were mixed together, forming a black compound of sulphide of mercury, called Aethiopes mineralis. This was then heated in a flask, the compound vaporized, and recondensed in the top of the flask. The flask was broken, the vermilion was taken out, when first created the pigment was almost black, but as it was ground the red color appeared. The longer the color was ground, the finer the color became, the Italian Renaissance artist Cennino Cennini wrote, if you were to grind it every day even for twenty years it would keep getting better and more perfect. During the 17th century a new method of making the pigment was introduced, Mercury and melted sulfur were mashed to make black mercury sulfide, then heated in retort, producing vapors condensing as a bright, red mercury sulfide. To remove the sulfur these crystals were treated with an alkali, washed
39.
Purple
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Purple is a color intermediate between blue and red. It is similar to violet, but unlike violet, which is a color with its own wavelength on the visible spectrum of light, purple is a composite color made by combining red. According to surveys In Europe and the U. S. purple is the color most often associated with royalty, magic, mystery, when combined with pink, it is associated with eroticism, femininity and seduction. Purple was the color worn by Roman magistrates, it became the color worn by the rulers of the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Similarly in Japan, the color is associated with the Emperor. The complementary color of purple is yellow, the first recorded use of the word purple in the English language was in the year 975 AD. In heraldry, the word purpure is used for purple, in the traditional color wheel used by painters, violet and purple are both placed between red and blue. Purple occupies the space closer to red, between crimson and violet, violet is closer to blue, and is usually less saturated than purple. While the two look similar, from the point of view of optics there are important differences. There is no such thing as the wavelength of purple light, monochromatic violet light cannot be produced by the red-green-blue color system, the method used to create colors on a television screen or computer display. This means that when light strikes the eye, the S-cone should be stimulated strongly. The resulting color has the same hue as pure violet, however, one curious psychophysical difference between purple and violet is their appearance with an increase in luminance. Violet, as it brightens, looks more and more blue, the same effect does not happen with purple. This is the result of what is known as the Bezold–Brücke shift, while the scientific definitions of violet and purple are clear, the cultural definitions are more varied. The color known in antiquity as Tyrian purple ranged from crimson to a deep bluish-purple, in France, purple is defined as a dark red, inclined toward violet. The color called purple by the French, pourpre, contains red and half the amount of blue of the color called purple in the United States. In German, this color is sometimes called Purpurrot to avoid confusion, Purple first appeared in prehistoric art during the Neolithic era. These works have been dated to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC, as early as the 15th century BC the citizens of Sidon and Tyre, two cities on the coast of Ancient Phoenicia, were producing purple dye from a sea snail called the spiny dye-murex
40.
Bolognese dog
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The Bolognese is a small breed of dog of the bichon type, originating in Italy. The name refers to the central Italian city of Bologna and it is part of the Toy dog group and is considered a companion dog. They love attention, and make good house pets and they are good at socializing with other dogs, big and small. They have a bond with the person/s with whom they spend the most time. The Bolognese is a small, white, compact dog with a distinctive single coat. It is of size, stocky and compact. It is of square build and well-muscled, the head is of medium length. The muzzle is large, black and almost square and it has a developed jaw and the upper lips don’t cover the bottom lips. It has white, strong and evenly aligned teeth and its eyes are well developed, open and round. The rims of the eyelids are black and the iris is an ochre color. The ears are set high and are long and hanging but rigid at the base, the tail is carried curved over the back. The Bologneses height varies 10.5 to 12 inches for a male, the weight varies between 6 and 14 lbs. The distinctive single coat falls in loose open ringlets/flocks all over the body, the hairs texture is woolly, as opposed to silky, and is never trimmed or clipped unless kept as pets. The hair sheds very little, but requires regular combing to prevent matting, the Bolognese often appears on lists of dogs that allegedly do not shed. It is true that these dogs do not seasonally moult or lose large amounts of fur as many other breeds do, however, they do eventually lose and replace individual hairs, similar to human hair growth cycles. Each hair grows from a hair follicle, which has a three phase cycle, as do most mammals. These cycles are, anagen, growth of hair, catagen growth slows, and hair shaft thins, telegen, hair growth stops, follicle rests. At the end of the phase, the follicle begins the cycle again
41.
J. P. Morgan
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John Pierpont J. P. Morgan was an American financier and banker who dominated corporate finance and industrial consolidation in late 19th and early 20th Century United States. In 1892, Morgan arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and he was instrumental in the creation of the United States Steel Corporation, International Harvester and AT&T. He directed the banking coalition that stopped the Panic of 1907 and he was the leading financier of the Progressive Era, and his dedication to efficiency and modernization helped transform American business. Morgan has been described as America’s greatest banker, Morgan died in Rome, Italy, in his sleep in 1913 at the age of 75, leaving his fortune and business to his son, John Pierpont Morgan, Jr. His fortune was estimated at only US$80 million, prompting John D. Rockefeller to say, Morgan was born into the influential Morgan family in Hartford, Connecticut, and was raised there. He was the son of Junius Spencer Morgan and Juliet Pierpont, Pierpont, as he preferred to be known, had a varied education due in part to the plans of his father. In the fall of 1848, Pierpont transferred to the Hartford Public School and then to the Episcopal Academy in Cheshire, Connecticut, boarding with the principal. In September 1851, Morgan passed the exam for The English High School of Boston. In the spring of 1852, an illness struck which was to more common as his life progressed. Rheumatic fever left him in so much pain that he could not walk and he convalesced there for almost a year, then returned to the English High School in Boston to resume his studies. After he graduated, his father sent him to Bellerive, a school near the Swiss village of Vevey and his father then sent him to the University of Göttingen in order to improve his German. He attained a level of German within six months and also a degree in art history, then traveled back to London via Wiesbaden. Morgan went into banking in 1857 at the London branch of merchant banking firm Peabody, in 1858, he moved to New York City to join the banking house of Duncan, Sherman & Company, the American representatives of George Peabody and Company. Morgan had avoided serving during the war by paying a substitute $300 to take his place, from 1860 to 1864, as J. Pierpont Morgan & Company, he acted as agent in New York for his fathers firm, renamed J. S. Morgan & Co. upon Peabodys retirement in 1864, from 1864–72, he was a member of the firm of Dabney, Morgan, and Company. In 1871, he partnered with the Drexels of Philadelphia to form the New York firm of Drexel, at that time, Anthony J. Drexel became Pierponts mentor at the request of Junius Morgan. After the death of Anthony Drexel, the firm was rechristened J. P. Morgan & Company in 1895, retaining close ties with Drexel & Company of Philadelphia, Morgan, Harjes & Company of Paris, and J. S. By 1900, it was one of the most powerful banking houses of the world, Morgan had many partners over the years, such as George W. Perkins, but always remained firmly in charge
42.
Speed Art Museum
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The Speed Art Museum, originally known as the J. B. Speed Memorial Museum, now referred to as the Speed by locals, is the oldest, largest. It is located in Louisville, Kentucky on Third Street next to the University of Louisville Belknap campus, the Speed houses ancient, classical, and modern art from around the world. The focus of the collection is Western art, from antiquity to the present day, holdings of paintings from the Netherlands, French and Italian works, and contemporary art are particularly strong, with sculpture prominent throughout. The museum was built in 1927 by Arthur Loomis in the Neo-Classical style, Loomis was already well known in Louisville for landmarks like the Louisville Medical College and Levi Brothers. The original building was designed as an understated Beaux-Arts limestone facade, hattie Bishop Speed established the museum in memorial of her husband James Breckenridge Speed, a prominent Louisville businessman, art collector, and philanthropist. Ms. Speed set up the endowment to fund the museum, the museum underwent a $60 million expansion and renovation project from September 2012 to March 2016, designed by architect Kulapat Yantrasast of wHY architecture. During the closure, the museum opened Local Speed, a space in Louisvilles East Market District for rotating exhibitions, programs. Local Speed is located at 822 East Market Street, the 62, 500-square-foot North Building doubled the overall square footage and nearly tripled the gallery space from the previous wing. Additionally, the new Elizabeth P. and Frederick K. Cressman Art Park, timeline 1927 – The Speed Art Museum is built. More than 74,000 visitors fill the museum in the first year,1928 – The centenary of Kentucky portrait painter Matthew Harris Jouett is celebrated with a major exhibition of his portraits, many owned by prominent Louisvillians. 1933 – The museum is incorporated as an endowed institution. 1934 – The museum received its first major donation, a collection of North American Indian artifacts given by Dr. Frederick Weygold. 1941 – Dr. Preston Pope Satterwhite makes a significant gift to the museum – his collection of 15th century and 16th century French and Italian Decorative Arts including tapestries,1944 – Satterwhite donates the English Renaissance room, which was moved in its entirety from Devon, England. Dr. Satterwhites gift necessitated an enlargement of the museum and in his will he provided for the addition that bears his name, completed in 1954, it was the first of three additions to the original building. 1946 – Paul S. Harris becomes the first professional director of the museum, during his tenure, acquisitions to the collection were made mostly in the areas of decorative arts and furniture. 1964 – Recently donated paintings and furniture from the collection of Mrs. W.1966 – Charter Collectors Group forms to assist museum in the acquisition of pre-1940 art,1970 – New Art Collectors Group forms to assist museum to acquire contemporary art. 1973 – The North Wing of the museum opens, giving new space for a theatre, offices, indoor sculpture court,1977 – The Speed celebrates its 50th anniversary in 1977 with the acquisition of Rembrandts Portrait of a Woman, one of the museums most significant acquisitions
43.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
44.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
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