1.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
2.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
3.
Villa Borghese gardens
–
Villa Borghese is a landscape garden in the naturalistic English manner in Rome, containing a number of buildings, museums and attractions. It is the third largest public park in Rome after the ones of the Villa Doria Pamphili, the gardens as they are now were remade in the early nineteenth century. In 1605, Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of Pope Paul V and patron of Bernini, the vineyards site is identified with the gardens of Lucullus, the most famous in the late Roman republic. In the 19th century much of the gardens former formality was remade as a garden in the English taste. The Villa Borghese gardens were long informally open, but were bought by the commune of Rome, the large landscape park in the English taste contains several villas. The Spanish Steps lead up to this park, and there is another entrance at the Porte del Popolo by Piazza del Popolo, the Pincio, in the south part of the park, offers one of the greatest views over Rome. A balustrade from the gardens, was taken to England in the late 19th century, and installed in the grounds of Cliveden House, a mansion in Buckinghamshire, in 1896. The Piazza di Siena, located in the villa, hosted the dressage, individual jumping. In 2004, a species of Italian snail was discovered, still living on the balustrade after more than 100 years in England, today the Galleria Borghese is housed in the Villa Borghese itself. The Villa Giulia adjoining the Villa Borghese gardens was built in 1551 -1555 as a residence for Pope Julius III. The Villa Medici houses the French Academy in Rome, and the Fortezzuola a Gothic garden structure that houses a collection memorializing the academic modern sculptor Pietro Canonica, in the 1650s, Diego Velázquez painted several depictions of this Villas garden casino festively illuminated at night. Before electricity, such torchlit illuminations carried an excitement hard to conceive today, other villas scattered through the Villa Borghese gardens are remains of a world exposition in Rome in 1911. The Galleria Nazionale dArte Moderna located in its grounds has a collection of 19th-, architecturally the most notable of the 1911 exposition pavilions is the English pavilion designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, now housing the British School at Rome. The villas gardens feature in one of Respighis Pini di Roma, the garden contains a replica of the Shakespeares Globe Theatre built in 2003. Beside the 1911 Expositions villas, there is the Expositions Zoo, recently redesigned, with minimal caging, as the Bioparco, another version stands in the gardens of the Pincian Hill. Embriaco had presented two prototypes of his invention at the Paris Universal Exposition in 1867 where it won prizes, list of parks and gardens in Rome 1960 Summer Olympics official report
Villa Borghese gardens
–
Siena Square, inside the Villa Borghese gardens.
Villa Borghese gardens
–
The 18th century "Temple of Aesculapius" built purely as a landscape feature, influenced by the lake at
Stourhead,
Wiltshire,
England.
Villa Borghese gardens
–
Painting by
Diego Velázquez
Villa Borghese gardens
–
Water clock in Villa Borghese
4.
Borghese collection
–
The Borghese Collection is a collection of Roman sculptures, old masters and modern art collected by the Roman Borghese family, especially Cardinal Scipione Borghese, from the 17th century on. It includes major collections of Caravaggio, Raphael, and Titian, the Borghese also bought widely from leading painters and sculptors of his day, and Scipione Borgheses commissions include two portrait busts by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Most of the collection intact and on display at the Galleria Borghese. Cardinal Scipione Borghese, an important art collector, was the collections instigator and his collection was poetically described as early as 1613 by Scipione Francucci. In 1607, the Pope gave the Cardinal 107 paintings which had confiscated from the studio of the painter Cavalier DArpino. In 1682, part of Olimpia Aldobrandinis inheritance entered the Borghese collection, it included works from the collections of Cardinal Salviati and Lucretia dEste. Scipione developed an estate and vineyard on the Pincian hill in Rome into a vast garden and complex of palaces. He also used the Villa Mondragone for this purpose, integrating the sculptures of the Borghese collection and existing vast Baroque ceiling decors, they created a spectacular monument to the Borghese family. The Villa still houses a part of the collection, as the Galleria Borghese. Many of the sculptures there are displayed in the spaces they were intended for, boy with a Basket of Fruit St. In addition, the gallery contains three busts, two of Pope Paul V and one marvelously conversive and stunningly innovative portrait of his patron, camillo even bought Correggios celebrated Danäe in Paris in 1827
Borghese collection
–
Bernini's
Apollo and Daphne in the
Galleria Borghese
Borghese collection
–
Titian's Sacred and Profane Love
Borghese collection
–
Danäe by
Correggio.
Borghese collection
–
Ares Borghese in the Louvre
5.
Painting
–
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
Painting
–
The
Mona Lisa, by
Leonardo da Vinci, is one of the most recognizable paintings in the world.
Painting
–
Chen Hongshou (1598–1652), Leaf album painting (
Ming Dynasty)
Painting
–
Circus Sideshow (
French: Parade de cirque),
Georges Seurat, 1887–88
Painting
–
Cave painting of aurochs, (
French: Bos primigenius primigenius),
Lascaux,
France,
prehistoric art
6.
Sculpture
–
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
Sculpture
–
The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul a Roman marble copy of a
Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE
Capitoline Museums, Rome
Sculpture
Sculpture
–
Michelangelo 's
Moses, (c. 1513–1515), housed in the church of
San Pietro in Vincoli in
Rome. The sculpture was commissioned in 1505 by
Pope Julius II for his
tomb.
Sculpture
–
Assyrian
lamassu gate guardian from
Khorsabad, c. 721–800 BCE
7.
Scipione Borghese
–
Scipione Borghese was an Italian Cardinal, art collector and patron of the arts. A member of the Borghese family, he was the patron of the painter Caravaggio and his legacy is the establishment of the art collection at the Villa Borghese in Rome. Originally named Scipione Caffarelli, he was born in Artena, the son of Francisco Caffarelli and his father ran into financial difficulties, so Scipiones education was paid for by his maternal uncle Camillo Borghese. Upon Camillos election to the papacy as Pope Paul V in 1605, he conferred a cardinalship on Scipione and gave him the right to use the Borghese name. In the classic pattern of papal nepotism, Cardinal Borghese wielded enormous power as the Popes secretary, on his own and the Popes behalf he amassed an enormous fortune through papal fees and taxes, and acquired vast land holdings for the Borghese family. Scipione received many honours from his uncle, in each of these offices the cardinal received stipends. His income in 1609 was about 90,000 scudi, with his enormous wealth, he bought the villages of Montefortino and Olevano Romano from Pier Francesco Colonna, Duke of Zagarolo for 280,000 scudi. As Cardinal Nephew, Borghese was placed in charge of both the internal and external affairs of the Papal States. In addition, Paul V entrusted his nephew with the management of the finances of both the papacy and the Borghese family, Borghese aroused a great deal of controversy and resentment by utilizing numerous gifts from the papal government to fund Borghese family investments. Exploiting his authority as Cardinal Nephew, he often compelled owners to sell their holdings to him at substantial discounts, Borghese thus ensured that the fortunes of the family were not permanently dependent on ecclesiastical office. Cardinal Scipione Borghese died in Rome in 1633 and is buried in the Borghese chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore, contemporaries commented on the near-public scandals that resulted on occasions from Scipiones possible homosexuality, reflected in his taste for collecting art with strong homoerotic overtones. In 1605, Scipione allegedly angered his uncle the pope by bringing Stefano Pignatelli, to whom Scipione was closely attached, Scipione subsequently fell into a long and serious sickness, and only recovered when Pignatelli was allowed to come. The pope decided to keep a check on Pignatelli and had him ordained, indeed, the Italian historian Lorenzo Cardella notes that Pignatelli was cleared twice by the Roman Inquisition of having improper influence on Cardinal Borghese. Borghese took special interest in the development of the extensive gardens undertaken by artists at his Roman residences, the Palazzo Borghese on the Quirinal. Both these influential gardens featured innovative elements such as waterfalls, and they incorporated dense groves of trees, during the Ludovisi papacy the major focus of Borghese’s ecclesiastical patronage was on commemorative projects. The first was the embellishment of the Caffarelli chapel in Santa Maria sopra Minerva, the second was the massive timber catafalque decorated with life-size plaster figures designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, erected in Santa Maria Maggiore. Borghese’s first work after entering the Sacred College where he studied was the building and decoration of the chapels of St. Andrew. For Borghese to complete such a project declared his devotion to the city’s Christian heritage, the restoration of San Sebastiano fuori le mura, a church built under Constantine housing the greatest collection of relics known at the time
Scipione Borghese
–
Scipione Borghese
Scipione Borghese
–
The Villa Borghese
Scipione Borghese
–
San Crisogono
Scipione Borghese
–
Apollo and Daphne, Bernini commission (Galleria Borghese, Rome)
8.
Pope Paul V
–
Pope Paul V, born Camillo Borghese, was Pope from 16 May 1605 to his death in 1621. He is best remembered today as the Pope who persecuted Galileo Galilei, Camillo Borghese was born on 17 September 1550 into the noble Borghese family of Siena which had recently fled to Rome, thus the reason as to why ROMANUS appears in most of his inscriptions. He began his career as an educated at Perugia and then in Padua. In June 1596 he was made the Cardinal-Priest of SantEusebio and the Cardinal Vicar of Rome by Pope Clement VIII, during this time, he opted for other titular churches like San Crisogono and Santi Giovanni e Paolo. Clement VIII also bestowed upon him episcopal consecration in 1597 after his appointment as Bishop of Jesi, in character he was very stern and unyielding, a lawyer rather than diplomat, who defended the privileges of the Church to his utmost. His first act was to send home to their sees the bishops who were sojourning in Rome, Paul met with Galileo Galilei in 1616 after Cardinal Bellarmine had, on his orders, warned Galileo not to hold or defend the heliocentric ideas of Copernicus. Whether there was also an not to teach those ideas in any way has been a matter for controversy. Paul V canonised Charles Borromeo on 1 November 1610 and Frances of Rome on 29 May 1608 and he also canonized Pompejanus in 1615 and canonized Cardinal Albert de Louvain on 9 August 1621. He also beatified a number of individuals which included Ignatius Loyola, Philip Neri, Theresa of Avila, and Francis Xavier. Venice passed two laws obnoxious to Paul, one forbidding the alienation of real estate in favour of the clergy, two priests charged by the Venetian state with cruelty, wholesale poisoning, murder and licentiousness, were arrested by the Senate and put in dungeons for trial. Having been found guilty, they were committed to prison, Paul V insisted that they be released to the Church. He demanded the release of the priests as not being amenable to the secular law, when this was refused, the Pope threatened an interdict on account of the property laws and the imprisonment of ecclesiastics, which threat was presented to the Senate on Christmas 1605. The Venetian position was defended by a canon lawyer, Paolo Sarpi. In April 1606 the Pope excommunicated the entire government of Venice, Father Sarpi strongly advised the Venetian government to refuse to receive the Popes interdict, and to reason with him while opposing force by force. The rest of the Catholic clergy sided with the city, with the exception of the Jesuits, the Theatines, the dissenting clergy were forthwith expelled from Venetian territories. Masses continued to be said in Venice, and the feast of Corpus Christi was celebrated with displays of pomp and magnificence. Within a year the disagreement was mediated by France and Spain, the Most Serene Republic refused to retract the laws, but asserted that Venice would conduct herself with her accustomed piety. The Jesuits, which Venice considered subversive Papal agents, remained banned, in September 1607, after unsuccessfully attempting to lure Father Sarpi to Rome, the Pope responded by putting out a contract on his life
Pope Paul V
–
Pope Paul V by
Caravaggio.
Pope Paul V
–
Mosaic depicting the arms of
Pope Paulus V (Camillo Borghese).
Pope Paul V
–
Facade of St Peter's Basilica
Pope Paul V
–
Pope Paul V welcoming the embassy of the Japanese samurai
Hasekura Tsunenaga in
Rome in 1615. Japanese painting, 17th century.
9.
Villa
–
A villa was originally an ancient Roman upper-class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably, after the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became small farming compounds, which were increasingly fortified in Late Antiquity, sometimes transferred to the Church for reuse as a monastery. Then they gradually re-evolved through the Middle Ages into elegant upper-class country homes, in modern parlance, villa can refer to various types and sizes of residences, ranging from the suburban semi-detached double villa to residences in the wildland–urban interface. In ancient Roman architecture a villa was originally a house built for the élite. The Roman villae rusticae at the heart of latifundia were the earliest versions of what later, not included as villae were the domus, a city house for the élite and privileged classes, and insulae, blocks of apartment buildings for the rest of the population. In Satyricon, Petronius described the range of Roman dwellings. Another type of villae is the villa marittima, a seaside villa, a concentration of Imperial villas existed on the Gulf of Naples, on the Isle of Capri, at Monte Circeo and at Antium. Examples include the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, and the Villa of the Mysteries, wealthy Romans also escaped the summer heat in the hills round Rome, especially around Tibur (Tivoand Frascati, such as at Hadrians Villa. Cicero allegedly possessed no fewer than seven villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum, pliny the Younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions. Roman writers refer with satisfaction to the self-sufficiency of their latifundium villas, archeologists have meticulously examined numerous Roman villas in England. The grand villa at Woodchester preserved its mosaic floors when the Anglo-Saxon parish church was built upon its site, grave-diggers preparing for burials in the churchyard as late as the 18th century had to punch through the intact mosaic floors. The even more palatial villa rustica at Fishbourne near Winchester was built as an open rectangle. Villae rusticae are essential in the Empires economy, two kinds of villa-plan in Roman Britain may be characteristic of Roman villas in general. The more usual plan extended wings of all opening onto a linking portico. The other kind featured a central hall like a basilica. The villa buildings were often independent structures linked by their enclosed courtyards, timber-framed construction, carefully fitted with mortises and tenons and dowelled together, set on stone footings, were the rule, replaced by stone buildings for the important ceremonial rooms. Traces of window glass have been found, as well as ironwork window grilles, with the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, the villas were more and more isolated and came to be protected by walls. In England the villas were abandoned, looted, and burned by Anglo-Saxon invaders in the fifth century, in regions on the Continent, aristocrats and territorial magnates donated large working villas and overgrown abandoned ones to individual monks, these might become the nuclei of monasteries
Villa
–
The
Villa Medici in Fiesole with early terraced hillside
landscape: by
Leon Battista Alberti
Villa
–
The
Getty Villa, an adaptation of the
Villa of the Papyri, in
Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles
Villa
–
Model of
Fishbourne Roman Palace, a governor's villa on the grandest scale
Villa
–
The Villa di Medici by
Giuliano da Sangallo -1470:
Poggio a Caiano,
Tuscany
10.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Self-portrait of Bernini, c. 1623
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Apollo and Daphne (1622–25)
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Baldacchino in
St. Peter's Basilica
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Bust of Cardinal Armand de Richelieu (1640–41)
11.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio
–
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was an Italian painter active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily between 1592 and 1610. His paintings, which combine a realistic observation of the human state, in scarcely a year or so’s sojourn in Naples, he rapidly established himself once more as the most prominent painter, exploiting high-ranking connections. It was not long before these connections gave him an opening to travel on in 1607 to Malta, governed by the Order of Knights Hospitallers, Caravaggio probably hoped that the Knights would provide a channel whereby he could obtain a pardon from the Papacy. Once more his talents made an instant impression, along with the support of noble patrons and his hopes dashed, he contrived to escape and flee once, which before the end of 1608 led to his cancellation from the rolls of the Order. He made for Syracuse in Sicily, where he was received as a guest by a friend from his Roman days, the painter’s face was disfigured and rumours started to circulate of his death. Various commentators have formulated opinions about his state from works supposedly executed at this period. In fact, Caravaggio’s end is shrouded in mystery, mystery that is rendered only denser by conflicting hypotheses, some speak of a natural death from a persistent fever, others of an assassination by emissaries of the Knights of Malta. The loss of the paintings put the deal and his future in doubt, there is evidence that dogged by a serious fever, he was tended by a local religious confraternity near Porto Ercole, then in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, but succumbed. His death was certified by them as taking place on 18 July 1610, if the story to this point is exact, it is likely he was buried in a paupers’ common grave. As to the place, though this continues to be contested. Famous while he lived, Caravaggio was forgotten almost immediately after his death, despite this, his influence on the new Baroque style that eventually emerged from the ruins of Mannerism was profound. The 20th-century art historian André Berne-Joffroy claimed, What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting. Caravaggio was born in Milan where his father, Fermo, was an administrator and architect-decorator to the Marchese of Caravaggio. His mother, Lucia Aratori, came from a family of the same district. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague which ravaged Milan, Caravaggios mother died in 1584, the same year he began his four-year apprenticeship to the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of Titian. Following his initial training under Simone Peterzano, in 1592 Caravaggio left Milan for Rome, in flight after certain quarrels, in Rome, where there was a demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palazzos being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for an alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism. Caravaggios innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close observation with a dramatic, even theatrical
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio
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Chalk portrait of Caravaggio by
Ottavio Leoni, circa 1621.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio
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Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy (c.1595)
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio
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The Musicians, 1595–1596,
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio
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Basket of Fruit, c. 1595–1596, oil on canvas,
Pinacoteca Ambrosiana,
Milan.
12.
Boy with a Basket of Fruit
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Boy with a Basket of Fruit, c.1593, is a painting generally ascribed to Italian Baroque master Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, currently in the Galleria Borghese, Rome. The painting dates from the time when Caravaggio, newly arrived in Rome from his native Milan, was making his way in the competitive Roman art world, the model was his friend and companion, the Sicilian painter Mario Minniti, at about 16 years old. Certainly it cannot predate 1593, the year Minniti arrived in Rome, vittorio Sgarbi notes certain Murillesque portraiture qualities in the painting that could easily point to other painters in the Arpino workshop. Caravaggios fruit The British-Canadian band Velcro Hooks open up their video A Love Song to T. S. Eliot with a live reproduction of Boy with a Basket of Fruit
Boy with a Basket of Fruit
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Boy with a Basket of Fruit
13.
Saint Jerome Writing
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Saint Jerome Writing, also called Saint Jerome in His Study or simply Saint Jerome, is an oil painting by Italian painter Caravaggio. Generally dated to 1605-1606, the painting is located in the Galleria Borghese in Rome, in this image, Jerome is reading intently, an outstretched arm resting with quill. It has been suggested that Jerome is depicted in the act of translating the Vulgate, the painting is generally dated to 1605-1606, largely on the statements of 17th-century art historical biographer Gian Pietro Bellori, though Denis Mahon suggests 1602-1604. Whether or not the dating is accurate, the work is believed to have originated from Caravaggios late Roman period and that Saint Jerome Writing is the work of Caravaggio is sometimes brought into question, as it was attributed to Ribera in the Borghese inventories from 1700 until 1893
Saint Jerome Writing
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Saint Jerome
14.
Young Sick Bacchus
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The Young Sick Bacchus, also known as the Sick Bacchus or the Self-Portrait as Bacchus, is an early self-portrait by the Baroque artist Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, dated between 1593 and 1594. It now hangs in the Galleria Borghese in Rome, according to Caravaggios first biographer, Giovanni Baglione, it was a cabinet piece painted by the artist using a mirror. The painting dates from Caravaggios first years in Rome following his arrival from his native Milan in mid-1592, cindy Sherman, as part of her History Portrait series, produced a parody on Sick Bacchus, an ironic photographic self-portrait named Untitled #224
Young Sick Bacchus
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Young Sick Bacchus
15.
Titian
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Tiziano Vecelli or Tiziano Vecellio, known in English as Titian /ˈtɪʃən/, was an Italian painter, the most important member of the 16th-century Venetian school. He was born in Pieve di Cadore, near Belluno, during his lifetime he was often called da Cadore, taken from the place of his birth. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of color, would exercise a profound influence not only on painters of the Italian Renaissance, during the course of his long life, Titians artistic manner changed drastically, but he retained a lifelong interest in color. Although his mature works may not contain the vivid, luminous tints of his pieces, their loose brushwork. The exact date of Titians birth is uncertain, when he was an old man he claimed in a letter to Philip II, King of Spain, to have been born in 1474, but this seems most unlikely. Other writers contemporary to his old age give figures that would equate to birthdates between 1473 and after 1482 and he was the son of Gregorio Vecelli and his wife Lucia. His father was superintendent of the castle of Pieve di Cadore, Gregorio was also a distinguished councilor and soldier. Many relatives, including Titians grandfather, were notaries, and the family of four were well-established in the area, at the age of about ten to twelve he and his brother Francesco were sent to an uncle in Venice to find an apprenticeship with a painter. At that time the Bellinis, especially Giovanni, were the artists in the city. There Titian found a group of men about his own age, among them Giovanni Palma da Serinalta, Lorenzo Lotto, Sebastiano Luciani. Francesco Vecellio, his brother, later became a painter of some note in Venice. A fresco of Hercules on the Morosini Palace is said to have one of Titians earliest works. Others were the Bellini-esque so-called Gypsy Madonna in Vienna, and the Visitation of Mary and Elizabeth, now in the Accademia, a Man with a Quilted Sleeve is an early portrait, painted around 1509 and described by Giorgio Vasari in 1568. Scholars long believed it depicted Ludovico Ariosto, but now think it is of Gerolamo Barbarigo, Rembrandt borrowed the composition for his self-portraits. Titian joined Giorgione as an assistant, but many contemporary critics found his work more impressive—for example in exterior frescoes that they did for the Fondaco dei Tedeschi. Their relationship evidently contained a significant element of rivalry, distinguishing between their work at this period remains a subject of scholarly controversy. A substantial number of attributions have moved from Giorgione to Titian in the 20th century, one of the earliest known Titian works, Christ Carrying the Cross in the Scuola Grande di San Rocco, depicting the Ecce Homo scene, was long regarded as by Giorgione. In 1507–1508 Giorgione was commissioned by the state to create frescoes on the re-erected Fondaco dei Tedeschi, Titian and Morto da Feltre worked along with him, and some fragments of paintings remain, probably by Giorgione
Titian
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Self-Portrait, c. 1567;
Museo del Prado, Madrid.
Titian
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A Man with a Quilted Sleeve, an early portrait, c. 1509,
National Gallery, London.
Titian
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Salome with the Head of John the Baptist c. 1515, (
Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome), or
Judith; this religious work also functions as an idealized portrait of a beauty, a genre developed by Titian, supposedly often using Venetian
courtesans as models.
Titian
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Bacchus and Ariadne, c. 1520-1523.
16.
Sacred and Profane Love
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Sacred and Profane Love is an oil painting by Titian, painted c. The painting is presumed to have been commissioned by Niccolò Aurelio and it perhaps depicts the bride dressed in white, sitting beside Cupid and being assisted by Venus in person. Or that it contains a message about Bagarottos fathers innocence. The title itself of the painting is uncertain, in 1693 it was listed as Amor Divino e Amor Profano, a more recent hypothesis declares the clothed figure to be Proserpine the consort of Pluto, and the semi nude her mother Ceres. They are seated on the Fountain Cyane, while the child is Mercury It has been suggested that the scholar Pietro Bembo may have devised the allegorical scheme. The work was bought in 1608 by the art patron Scipione Borghese and is housed with other works from the Borghese collection in the Galleria Borghese in Rome. In 1899, the Rothschilds offer to buy the work from the gallery for 4 million lira was refused, the painting was analyzed in 2000 by a variant of x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy which made it possible to identify the pigments used by Titian. The scientists were able to lead white, azurite, lead-tin yellow, vermilion. An illustrated pigment analysis can be found at ColourLex, archived from the original on 2008-01-13. Verrebbe subito da pensare che la figura vestita a sinistra rappresenti l’Amore Sacro, l’altra figura nuda a destra dovrebbe rappresentare l’Amore Profano Jaffé, David, et al. LAmour sacré et lAmour profane, de Titien, lAmour ingénu et lAmour satisfait, selon les autres, lAmour et la Pruderie, ou encore la Vierge folle et la Vierge sage Moreno, Paolo, et al. The Sacred and Profane Love, A visual analysis, the definitive precursor to understanding the Sacred and Profane Loves complexity. 16,2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Sacred and Profane Love
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Sacred and Profane Love
Sacred and Profane Love
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Detail of the nude Aphrodite.
17.
The Deposition (Raphael)
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The Entombment, also known as the Pala Baglione, Borghese Entombment or The Entombment, is an oil painting by the Italian High Renaissance painter Raphael. Signed and dated Raphael Urbinas MDVII, the painting is in the Galleria Borghese in Rome and it is the central panel of a larger altarpiece commissioned by Atalanta Baglioni of Perugia in honor of her slain son, Grifonetto Baglioni. Like many works, it shares elements of the subjects of the Deposition of Christ, the Lamentation of Christ. The painting is on panel and measures 184 x 176 cm. In the early part of the 16th Century, violence among factions, mostly in the form of combat, was relatively common in Perugia and other parts of Italy. The Baglioni family were the lords of Perugia and surrounding areas, Atalanta changed her mind and rushed after her son, but arrived only in time to see her son being killed by Gian Paolo and his men. A few years later, Atalanta commissioned the young Raphael to paint an altarpiece to commemorate Grifonetto in the chapel in San Francesco al Prato. Raphael took the commission very seriously, over the course of two working on and developing his design through two phases and numerous preparatory drawings. This was the last of major commissions by the young Raphael for Perugia. He had already painted for the church the Oddi Altarpiece for the Baglionis great rival family. The new commission marked an important stage in his development as an artist, the painting remained in its location until in 1608, it was forcibly removed by a gang working for Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of Pope Paul V. In order to pacify the city of Perugia, the Pope commissioned two copies of the painting from Giovanni Lanfranco and the Cavaliere d’Arpino, and that by Arpino is still in Perugia, Raphael made numerous preparatory sketches or drafts as his idea for the composition evolved. He started with the subject of a Lamentation over the dead Christ, the two design phases may broadly be labeled ‘Perugian’ and ‘Florentine’. Giorgio Vasari, the biographer of Italian artists, also understood Raphael’s piece as a narrative painting. Vasari takes a reverential tone in describing The Entombment, taking care to discuss not only the important figures in the painting. Looking at it formally, the scene depicted is neither the Deposition nor the Entombment. We can determine this through the background, on the right is Mount Calvary, the location of the Crucifixion and Deposition, and on the left is the cave where the Entombment will take place. And so two men, lacking halos, use a piece of linen to carry the dead Christ, the two men and Christ form very strong diagonals in the shape of a V
The Deposition (Raphael)
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Deposition, Pala Baglione
The Deposition (Raphael)
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Study in the Louvre
The Deposition (Raphael)
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Faith, one of the
predella panels
The Deposition (Raphael)
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Early works
18.
John Evelyn
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John Evelyn, FRS was an English writer, gardener and diarist. Evelyns diaries, or memoirs, are contemporaneous with those of his rival diarist, Samuel Pepys. Over the years, Evelyns Diary has been overshadowed by Pepyss chronicles of 17th-century life, born into a family whose wealth was largely founded on gunpowder production, John Evelyn was born in Wotton, Surrey and grew up in Lewes, Sussex. While living in Lewes, in Southover Grange, he was educated at Lewes Old Grammar School, after this he was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and at the Middle Temple. In London, he witnessed important events such as the trials and executions of William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford and Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. Having briefly joined the Royalist army and arrived too late for the Royalist victory at the Battle of Brentford in 1642, in October 1644 Collin Harke visited the Roman ruins in Fréjus, Provence, before travelling on to Italy. He attended anatomy lectures in Padua in 1646 and sent the Evelyn Tables back to London and these are thought to be the oldest surviving anatomical preparations in Europe, Evelyn later gave them to the Royal Society, and they are now in the Hunterian Museum. In 1644, Evelyn visited the English College at Rome, where Catholic priests were trained for service in England. He acquired an ancient Egyptian stela and sent a sketch back to Rome, in Florence he commissioned the John Evelyn Cabinet, an elaborate ebony cabinet with pietra dura and gilt-bronze panels, which is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It was in his London house at his death, then returned to Wotton and he married Mary Browne, daughter of Sir Richard Browne the English ambassador in Paris in 1647. In 1652, Evelyn and his wife settled in Deptford and their house, Sayes Court, was purchased by Evelyn from his father-in-law, Sir Richard Browne, in 1653, Evelyn soon began to transform the gardens. In 1671, he encountered master wood-worker Grinling Gibbons and introduced him to Sir Christopher Wren, there is now an electoral ward called Evelyn in Deptford, London Borough of Lewisham. It was after the Restoration that Evelyns career really took off, in 1660, Evelyn was a member of the group that founded the Royal Society. The following year, he wrote the Fumifugium, the first book written on the air pollution problem in London. He was known for his knowledge of trees, and had a friend and correspondent, Philip Dumaresq, who devoted most of his time to gardening, fruit, and tree culture. Evelyns treatise, Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees, was written as an encouragement to landowners to plant trees to provide timber for Englands burgeoning navy, various other editions appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries and feature an inaccurate portrait of Evelyn made by Francesco Bartolozzi. Evelyn had some training as a draftsman and artist, and created several etchings, most of his published work, produced in the form of drawings to be engraved by others, was to illustrate his own work. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War, beginning 28 October 1664, Evelyn served as one of four Commissioners for taking Care of Sick and Wounded Seamen and for the Care and he took an interest in the rebuilding of St Pauls Cathedral by Wren
John Evelyn
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Portrait of John Evelyn by
Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1687
John Evelyn
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Southover Grange, Evelyn's childhood home
John Evelyn
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Evelyn painted by
Robert Walker, 1648 in the fashionable deshabillé.
John Evelyn
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Portrait of John Evelyn by
Hendrik van der Borcht II, 1641
19.
English landscape garden
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The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. The work of Lancelot Capability Brown was particularly influential, by the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a influence on the form of the public parks. These parks featured vast lawns, woods, and pieces of architecture and these gardens, modelled after the gardens of Versailles, were designed to impress visitors with their size and grandeur. William Kent was an architect, painter and furniture designer who introduced Palladian style architecture to England and his gardens were designed to complement the Palladian architecture of the houses he built. He collaborated with Kent on several major gardens, providing the botanical expertise which allowed Kent to realize his architectural visions, Kent created one of the first true English landscape gardens at Chiswick House for Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. Between 1733 and 1736, he redesigned the garden, adding lawns sloping down to the edge of the river, for the first time the form of a garden was inspired not by architecture, but by an idealized version of nature. Rousham House in Oxfordshire is considered by some as the most accomplished, the patron was General Dormer, who commissioned Bridgeman to begin the garden in 1727, then brought in Kent to recreate it in 1737. Bridgeman had built a series of gardens, including a grotto of Venus, on the slope along the river Cherwell, finally, he added cascades modelled on those of the garden of Aldobrandini and Pratolino in Italy, to add movement and drama. Stowe, in Buckinghamshire, was a more radical departure from the formal French garden. In the early 18th century, Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, had commissioned Charles Bridgeman to design a formal garden, bridgemans design included an octagonal lake and a Rotunda designed by Vanbrugh. In the 1730s, William Kent and James Gibbs were appointed to work with Bridgeman, Kent remade the lake in a more natural shape, and created a new kind of garden, which took visitors on a tour of picturesque landscapes. The garden attracted visitors from all over Europe, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau and it became the inspiration for landscape gardens in Britain and on the Continent. Stourhead, in Wiltshire, created by banker Henry Hoare, was one of the first picturesque gardens, Hoare had travelled to Italy on the Grand Tour and had returned with a painting by Claude Lorrain. He sought to create an ideal landscape out of the English countryside and he created artificial lakes and used dams and canals to transform streams or springs into the illusion that a river flowed through the garden. He compared his own role as a designer to that of a poet or composer. Here I put a comma, there, when its necessary to cut the view, I put a parenthesis, there I end it with a period, the most important were, Petworth in 1752, Chatsworth in 1761, Bowood in 1763, Blenheim Palace in 1764. Humphry Repton was the last great English landscape designer of the eighteenth century, to help clients visualize his designs, Repton produced Red Books with explanatory text and watercolors with a system of overlays to show before and after views
English landscape garden
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Rotunda at Stowe Garden (1730-38)
English landscape garden
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The paintings of Claude Lorrain inspired Stourhead and other English landscape gardens
English landscape garden
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Castle Howard (1699-1712), a predecessor of the English garden modelled on the
gardens of Versailles.
English landscape garden
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Ionic Temple at Chiswick House
20.
Getty Research Institute
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The Getty Research Institute, located at the Getty Center in Los Angeles, California, is dedicated to furthering knowledge and advancing understanding of the visual arts. The GRI was originally called the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, located in Santa Monica, its first director was Kurt W. Forster. GRIs library had 30,000 volumes in 1983, but grew to 450,000 volumes by 1986, in a statement upon his departure in 1992, Forster summarized his tenure as Beginning with the rudiments of a small museum library. To become one of the nations preeminent research centers for arts, in 1994, Salvatore Settis, a professor of the history of classical art and archeology in Italy, became the director of the Center. By 1996, the Centers name had changed to Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities. Among GRIs special projects was L. A, in collaboration with local organizations, GRI published Cultural Inheritance/L. A. A Resource Directory of Less Visible Archives and Collections in the Los Angeles Region in 1999, in 2000, the L. A. as Subject project was transferred to the University of Southern California, which continues to update and expand an online version of the resource directory. When the Getty Information Institute was dissolved in 1999 as a result of a change of leadership at the Getty Trust, in 2000, Thomas E. Crow was selected as GRI director to replace Settis who had resigned in 1999. Crow announced in October 2006 that he would be leaving for New York University, since November 2007 Thomas W. Gaehtgens has been GRIs director, he was previously a visiting scholar with the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities. Among other holdings, GRIs research library contains over 1 million volumes of books, periodicals, and auction catalogs, special collections, already by 1985, the Getty had acquired the complete archive of the American sculptor Malvina Hoffman. It also owns several art dealers archives, including records for the Goupil & Cie and Boussod Valadon galleries, Knoedler Gallery, the library is located at the Getty Center, and does not circulate its collections, but does extend library privileges to any visitor. GRI holds two exhibitions per year in its two galleries which focus primarily on the special collections of the Research Library or on work produced by artists in residence. For example, in 2005–2006 GRI held an exhibition entitled Julius Shulman, Modernity, the exhibition traveled to the National Building Museum and to the Art Institute of Chicago. In addition to exhibitions, GRI organizes lectures, colloquia, workshops, the residential scholars program seeks to integrate the often isolated territory of art history into the wider sphere of the humanities. The first class of scholars arrived in 1985–1986, they had their salaries paid for, among the notable scholars was German writer Christa Wolf in 1993–1994, who wrote the novel Medea, a modern retelling during her year at GRI. Each year the scholars are invited to work on projects related to an annual theme, in 2008–2009, the theme for the Getty Center was Networks and Boundaries and for the Getty Villa The Power and Function of Ancient Images. In 2011–12, the theme was Artistic Practice, GRI publishes Series Imprints books in the categories of Issues and Debates, Texts & Documents, Introduction To, and ReSources. In addition, GRI publishes exhibition catalogs and other materials in hardcopy form, ISBN 0-89236-135-2 Gaehtgens, Thomas W. and Heinz Ickstadt
Getty Research Institute
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Getty Research Institute
21.
Camillo Filippo Ludovico Borghese
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Don Camillo Filippo Ludovico Borghese, Prince of Sulmona and of Rossano, Duke and Prince of Guastalla was a member of the Borghese family, best known for being a brother-in-law of Napoleon. Camillo Borghese was born in Rome, the son of the pro-Napoleon Marcantonio Borghese, 5th Prince of Sulmona and he entered Frances service in 1796. He became the husband of Napoleons sister Pauline Bonaparte in 1803. He was made a prince of the French Empire in 1804, a troop-commander in the Imperial Guard in 1805 and he became the duke of Guastalla in 1806, and commander of 27th and 28th Division of the French Army in 1809. They led separate lives but did not divorce, and Pauline convinced her brother to give Camillo the governorship of Piedmont in 1808 and guardianship of Napoleons prisoner Pope Pius VII. Napoleon also forced him to sell 344 pieces from the art collection to the French state. Camillo also took an interest in the villa at Porta Pinciana, rearranging the display of the collection within it. After Napoleons fall, Camillos alliance with him proved awkward and he moved to Florence to distance himself from it and her, managing to avoid any of his lands being sequestered by the popes. After 10 years there with a mistress, he was reluctantly convinced by the pope into receiving Pauline back. He then continued in secret and futile Bonapartist plots until his own death and he was succeeded in his non-Napoleonic titles by his brother Francesco
Camillo Filippo Ludovico Borghese
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Portrait of Camillo Borghese
22.
Borghese Gladiator
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The Borghese Gladiator is a Hellenistic life-size marble sculpture portraying a swordsman, created at Ephesus about 100 BCE. The sculpture is signed on the pedestal by Agasias, son of Dositheus and it is not quite clear whether the Agasias who is mentioned as the father of Heraclides is the same person. Agasias, son of Menophilus may have been a cousin and it was found before 1611, in the present territory of Anzio south of Rome, among the ruins of a seaside palace of Nero on the site of the ancient Antium. From the attitude of the figure it is clear that the statue represents not a gladiator, the sculpture was added to the Borghese collection in Rome. At the Villa Borghese it stood in a room named for it. Camillo Borghese was pressured to sell it to his brother-in-law, Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1807, it was taken to Paris when the Borghese collection was acquired for the Louvre, where it now resides. Misnamed a gladiator due to a restoration, it was among the most admired and copied works of antiquity in the eighteenth century. Other copies can be found at Petworth House and in the Green Court at Knole, originally a copy was also located in Lord Burlingtons garden at Chiswick House and later relocated to the gardens at Chatsworth in Derbyshire. In the United States, a copy of The Gladiator at Montalto was among the furnishings of a gallery of instructive art imagined by Thomas Jefferson for Monticello. The figure in the water in Watson and the Shark by John Singleton Copley is based on the sculptures pose, however, it was an anachronism in such a setting since Leonardo died in 1519, about ninety years before the statue was discovered. The headless statue in Thomas Coles 1836 painting Destruction is based on the Borghese warrior, Louvre catalogue Two copies at the Louvre here and here. Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny,1981, taste and the Antique, the Lure of Classical Sculpture, 1500-1900 Cat. no. Lestache copy Selected Works on the Louvres web site The Villa Borghese in 1807, anatomie du gladiateur combattant, applicable aux beaux arts. In the US National Library of Medicines Digital Collections
Borghese Gladiator
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Borghese Gladiator
Borghese Gladiator
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Three Persons Viewing the Gladiator by Candlelight, by
Joseph Wright of Derby, 1765.
23.
Borghese Hermaphroditus
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The Sleeping Hermaphroditus is an ancient marble sculpture depicting Hermaphroditus life size. In 1620, Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini sculpted the mattress upon which the statue now lies, the form is partly derived from ancient portrayals of Venus and other female nudes, and partly from contemporaneous feminised Hellenistic portrayals of Dionysus/Bacchus. It represents a subject that was repeated in Hellenistic times and in ancient Rome. Discovered at Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome, the Sleeping Hermaphroditus was immediately claimed by Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the Borghese Hermaphroditus was later sold to the occupying French and was moved to The Louvre, where it is on display today. The discovery was made either when the foundations were being dug or when espaliers were being planted. In his new Villa Borghese, a called the Room of the Hermaphrodite was devoted to it. A second-century copy of the Sleeping Hermaphroditus was found in 1781, a third Roman marble variant was discovered in 1880, during building works to make Rome the capital of a newly united Italy. It is now on display at the Museo Palazzo Massimo Alle Terme, additional ancient copies can be found at the Uffizi in Florence, Vatican Museums in Vatican City, and the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg. Many copies have been produced since the Renaissance, in a variety of media, full size copies were produced for Philip IV of Spain in bronze, ordered by Velázquez and now in the Prado Museum, and for Versailles. The composition has clearly influenced Velázquezs painting of the Rokeby Venus, a reduced-scale bronze copy, made and signed by Giovanni Francesco Susini, is now at the Metropolitan Museum. Another reduced-scale copy, this produced in ivory by François Duquesnoy, was purchased in Rome by John Evelyn in the 1640s. American artist Barry X Ball produced a copy after the Louvres version, made from Belgian black marble on a Carrara marble base. This sculpture is offered at Christies NY for sale,10 May 2016, Sleeping Hermaphroditos | Louvre Museum - Statue information The first copy, Louvre catalogue page Hermaphrodites at the Villa Borghese
Borghese Hermaphroditus
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Sleeping Hermaphroditus
Borghese Hermaphroditus
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Sleeping Hermaphroditus,
The Louvre, Paris
Borghese Hermaphroditus
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Front
Borghese Hermaphroditus
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Back
24.
Anno Domini
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The terms anno Domini and before Christ are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means in the year of the Lord, There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, the Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the AD abbreviation before the year number, however, BC is placed after the year number, which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is widely used after the number of a century or millennium. Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes concluded that AD means After Death. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be included in either of the BC, astronomical year numbering and ISO8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years. The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was followed by the first year of his table. Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the year during which his birth or conception occurred. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC,1 BC, There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls There were confused summations of emperors regnal years It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesuss birth. It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the day of an event. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hegira, at the time, it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Anno Mundi 6000 was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius. The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. e. On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century
Anno Domini
–
Dionysius Exiguus invented Anno Domini years to
date Easter.
Anno Domini
–
Anno Domini inscription at a cathedral in
Carinthia,
Austria.
Anno Domini
–
Statue of
Charlemagne by
Agostino Cornacchini (1725), at
St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican, Italy. Charlemagne promoted the usage of the Anno Domini epoch throughout the
Carolingian Empire
25.
Gladiator Mosaic
–
The Gladiator Mosaic is a famous mosaic of gladiators, dated to the first half of the 4th century. It was discovered in 1834 on the Borghese estate at Torrenova and it was one of the antiquities which reinvigorated the Borghese collection after it had shrunk following the sale of much of the collection to Napoleon I. The name of each gladiator depicted is given in inscription next to the figure, the inscription is listed as CIL VI10206. A total of 33 names was on the mosaic, some of them now illegible
Gladiator Mosaic
–
Detail of the Gladiator Mosaic.
26.
Gladiator
–
A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their lives and their legal and social standing by appearing in the arena, most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death. Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered spectators an example of Romes martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious, the origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate. There is evidence of it in funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BC and its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly games. The gladiator games lasted for nearly a thousand years, reaching their peak between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD. The games finally declined during the early 5th century after the adoption of Christianity as state church of the Roman Empire in 380, early literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games. In the late 1st century BC, Nicolaus of Damascus believed they were Etruscan, a generation later, Livy wrote that they were first held in 310 BC by the Campanians in celebration of their victory over the Samnites. This was accepted and repeated in most early modern, standard histories of the games, reappraisal of pictorial evidence supports a Campanian origin, or at least a borrowing, for the games and gladiators. Campania hosted the earliest known gladiator schools, tomb frescoes from the Campanian city of Paestum show paired fighters, with helmets, spears and shields, in a propitiatory funeral blood-rite that anticipates early Roman gladiator games. Compared to these images, supporting evidence from Etruscan tomb-paintings is tentative, the Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC. This is described as a munus, a duty owed the manes of a dead ancestor by his descendants. The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger, the enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps, the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver, the Dictator, as decreed by the senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour. His plain Romans virtuously dedicate the magnificent spoils of war to the Gods and their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role. Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded, most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome. The munus became a morally instructive form of historic enactment in which the only option for the gladiator was to fight well. In 216 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, late consul and augur, was honoured by his sons with three days of gladiatora munera in the Forum Romanum, using pairs of gladiators
Gladiator
–
Part of the
Zliten mosaic from
Libya (Leptis Magna), about 2nd century CE. It shows (left to right) a
thraex fighting a
murmillo, a
hoplomachus standing with another murmillo (who is signaling his defeat to the referee), and one of a matched pair.
Gladiator
–
Gladiatorial shows at a banquet.
Gladiator
–
A
retiarius stabs at a
secutor with his
trident in this mosaic from the villa at
Nennig, Germany, c. 2nd–3rd century AD.
Gladiator
–
A 5th-century mosaic in the
Great Palace of Constantinople depicts two venatores fighting a tiger.
27.
Venus Victrix (Canova)
–
Pauline Bonaparte as Venus Victrix is a semi-nude life-size reclining neo-Classical portrait sculpture by the Italian sculptor Antonio Canova. It then moved to Camillos house in Turin, then to Genoa, nude portraits were unusual, subjects of high rank usually having strategically placed drapery. It is a matter of debate as to whether she posed naked for the sculpture, since only the head is a realistic portrait. She holds an apple in her hand evoking Aphrodites victory in the Judgement of Paris, Canova was first instructed to depict Pauline Bonaparte fully clothed as the chaste goddess Diana, but Pauline insisted on Venus. She had a reputation for promiscuity, and may have enjoyed the controversy of posing naked, the subject of the sculpture may have also been affected by the Borghese familys mythical ancestry, they traced their descent to Venus, through her son Aeneas, the founder of Rome. In the era of its production, viewers would also admire the sculpture by candlelight, the sculptures lustre was not only due to the fine quality of the marble but also to the waxed surface, which has been recently restored
Venus Victrix (Canova)
–
Pauline Bonaparte as
Venus Victrix
28.
Fresco
–
Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly-laid, or wet lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the fresco technique has been employed since antiquity and is closely associated with Italian Renaissance painting. Buon fresco pigment mixed with water of temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster. Because of the makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours, many artists sketched their compositions on this underlayer, which would never be seen, in a red pigment called sinopia, a name also used to refer to these under-paintings. Later, new techniques for transferring paper drawings to the wall were developed. The main lines of a drawing made on paper were pricked over with a point, the paper held against the wall, if the painting was to be done over an existing fresco, the surface would be roughened to provide better adhesion. This area is called the giornata, and the different day stages can usually be seen in a large fresco, buon frescoes are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying plaster. Once a giornata is dried, no more buon fresco can be done, if mistakes have been made, it may also be necessary to remove the whole intonaco for that area—or to change them later, a secco. An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, the eyes of the people of the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique which causes the eyes to seem deeper and more pensive. Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark outlining of his central figures within his frescoes, in a wall-sized fresco, there may be ten to twenty or even more giornate, or separate areas of plaster. After five centuries, the giornate, which were nearly invisible, have sometimes become visible, and in many large-scale frescoes. Additionally, the border between giornate was often covered by an a secco painting, which has fallen off. One of the first painters in the period to use this technique was the Isaac Master in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. A person who creates fresco is called a frescoist, a secco or fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster. The pigments thus require a medium, such as egg. Blue was a problem, and skies and blue robes were often added a secco, because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli. By the end of the century this had largely displaced buon fresco
Fresco
–
Fresco in the church Mariä Verkündigung in Fuchstal,
Bavaria, Germany from Thomas Springer
Fresco
–
Fresco
Sistine Chapel in the
Vatican, Rome, Italy.
Fresco
–
Etruscan fresco of Velia Velcha from the
Tomb of Orcus,
Tarquinia.
Fresco
–
Fresco of "
Sappho " from
Pompeii, c. 50 CE.
29.
Salon (room)
–
A drawing room is a room in a house where visitors may be entertained. The name is derived from the sixteenth-century terms withdrawing room and withdrawing chamber, which remained in use through the seventeenth century and it was often off the great chamber and usually led to a formal, or state bedroom. During the American Civil War, in the White House of the Confederacy in Richmond, Virginia, president Jefferson Davis greeted his guests. At the conclusion of these greetings, the men remained in the parlor to talk politics and this was common practice in the affluent circles of the Southern United States. If a Morning-room be not provided, it is properly the only Sitting-room of the family, in it in any case the ladies receive calls throughout the day, and the family and their guests assemble before dinner. After dinner the ladies withdraw to it, and are joined by the gentlemen for the evening and it is also the Reception-room for evening parties. In size, a small Drawing-room will be about 16 feet wide by from 18 to 20 feet long,18 by 24 feet is a size,20 by 30 to 26 by 40 is enough for a very superior apartment. Until the mid-twentieth century, after a dinner the ladies of a dinner party withdrew to the room, leaving the gentlemen at table. After an interval of conversation, the gentlemen rejoined the ladies in the drawing room and this term is still widely used in India and Pakistan, probably dating from the colonial days, in the larger urban houses of the cities where there are many rooms. The term parlour initially designated the more modest reception rooms of the middle classes, parlor remained the common usage in North America into the 20th century. An example, named as such, was a Midland Drawing Room Car in 1874 which was a Pullman Import from the USA, in North America, it meant a room which slept three or more persons, with a private washroom. The drawing room, being a room in the house to visitors, gave its name to drawing room plays. Beginning with the forms of drama, the drawing room play has evolved to encompass comedy as well as to include the forms of the dramatic monologue. The play format itself has grown out of the traditional drawing room performance and back into main street theater. While the drawing room itself has fallen out of favor, the format has continued to provide a source of entertainment. Drawing room comedy typically features wit and verbal banter among wealthy, leisured, genteel, Drawing room comedy is also sometimes called the comedy of manners. Oscar Wildes The Importance of Being Earnest and several of the plays of Noël Coward are typical works of the genre, george Bernard Shaws Heartbreak House adds an undercurrent of social criticism to the genre. Cary Grant appeared in a number of filmed drawing-room comedies, ernst Lubitsch was especially known as a director of drawing-room comedies
Salon (room)
–
Reconstructed drawing room of
Sir William Burrell; part of the
Burrell Collection in
Glasgow,
Scotland
Salon (room)
–
Middle-class drawing room in Blackheath, London, 1841, painted by
James Holland
Salon (room)
–
An Indian drawing room
30.
Foreshortening
–
Perspective in the graphic arts is an approximate representation, on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. If viewed from the spot as the windowpane was painted. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the side of the window. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to that viewer, an object is often not scaled evenly, a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening, Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite the viewers eye, represents objects infinitely far away and they have shrunk, in the distance, to the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to the Earths horizon, any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that the drawing has a vanishing point, usually directly opposite the viewers eye. All lines parallel with the line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the standard receding railroad tracks phenomenon, a two-point drawing would have lines parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing, one for each set of lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing. Perspectives consisting of parallel lines are observed most often when drawing architecture. In contrast, natural scenes often do not have any sets of parallel lines, the only method to indicate the relative position of elements in the composition was by overlapping, of which much use is made in works like the Parthenon Marbles. Chinese artists made use of perspective from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique, some authorities suggest that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the Ukiyo-e paintings of Torii Kiyonaga. This was detailed within Aristotles Poetics as skenographia, using flat panels on a stage to give the illusion of depth, the philosophers Anaxagoras and Democritus worked out geometric theories of perspective for use with skenographia. Alcibiades had paintings in his house designed using skenographia, so this art was not confined merely to the stage, Euclids Optics introduced a mathematical theory of perspective, but there is some debate over the extent to which Euclids perspective coincides with the modern mathematical definition
Foreshortening
–
Staircase in two-point perspective.
Foreshortening
–
15th century illustration from the
Old French translation of
William of Tyre 's Histoire d'Outremer.
Foreshortening
–
Geometrically incorrect attempt at perspective in a 1614 painting of
Old St Paul's Cathedral. (
Society of Antiquaries)
Foreshortening
–
Codex Amiatinus (7th century). Portrait, of Ezra, from folio 5r at the start of
Old Testament
31.
Rape of Proserpine (Bernini)
–
The Rape of Proserpina is a large Baroque marble sculptural group by Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini, executed between 1621 and 1622. Bernini was only 23 years old at its completion and it depicts the Abduction of Proserpina, where Proserpina is seized and taken to the underworld by the god Pluto. The sculpture was begun in 1621 and completed in 1622, quite soon after completion, the statue was given by Scipione to Cardinal Ludovisi in 1622, who transported it to his villa. Purchased by the Italian State, it returned to the Villa Borghese in 1908, most critics have also been quick to praise the work. Rudolf Wittkower noted that representations of such rape scenes depended on Berninis new, dynamic conception for the next hundred and fifty years. The choice of incident to depict the story is cited as well—Plutos hands encircle the waist of Proserpina just as she throws her arms out in an attempt to escape. Berninis own son and biographer, Domenico, called it an amazing contrast of tenderness, however, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when Berninis reputation was at a low ebb, critics found fault with the statue. It is not a true divinity, but a decorative god, others have remarked on the twisted contrapposto or figura serpentinata pose of the group. While reminiscent of Mannerism, particularly Giambolognas The Rape of the Sabine Women, while other views provide further details, a spectator can see the desperation of Persephone and the lumbering attempts of Pluto to grab her. This was in contrast to the Mannerist sculpture of Giambologna, which required the spectator to walk around the sculpture to gain a view of each of characters expressions, in 1811, the Russian sculptor Vasily Demut-Malinovsky created a sculpture also titled The Abduction of Proserpina. The statue currently resides in Saint-Petersburg, jeff Koonss Pluto and Proserpina is an 11-foot-tall stainless steel sculpture with transparent color coating and live flowering plants. Argentine developer and art collector Eduardo Costantini purchased it to place in the breezeway at his luxury oceanfront condo in Bal Harbour, Florida, during the First World War, the sculpture was protected by a box and sandbags to protect it from damage
Rape of Proserpine (Bernini)
–
The Rape of Proserpina
Rape of Proserpine (Bernini)
–
Detail of the sculpture
32.
Apollo and Daphne (Bernini)
–
Apollo and Daphne is a life-sized Baroque marble sculpture by Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini, executed between 1622 and 1625. Housed in the Galleria Borghese in Rome, the work depicts the climax of the story of Daphne, the sculpture was the last of a number of artworks commissioned by Cardinal Scipione Borghese, early on in Berninis career. Apollo and Daphne was commissioned after Borghese had given a work of his patronage, Berninis Pluto and Persephone. Much of the work was done in 1622–1623, but a pause, quite possibly to work on the sculpture of David, interrupted its completion. Indeed, the sculpture itself was not moved to the Cardinals Villa Borghese until September 1625, some historians, however, discount the importance of Finellis contribution. When Phoebus, fated by Cupids love-exciting arrow, sees the daughter of Peneus. But Daphne has been fated by Cupids love-repelling arrow and denies the love of men, as the Nymph flees he relentlessly chases her—boasting, pleading, and promising everything. When her strength is finally spent she prays to her father Peneus, Destroy the beauty that has injured me, or change the body that destroys my life. Yet Phoebus lost none of his passion for Daphne, Even like this Phoebus loved her and, placing his hand against the trunk and he clasped the branches as if they were parts of human arms, and kissed the wood. But even the wood shrank from his kisses, and the god said, Since you cannot be my bride, laurel, with you my hair will be wreathed, with you my lyre, with you my quiver. You will go with the Roman generals when joyful voices acclaim their triumph, and you will stand outside Augustuss doorposts, a faithful guardian, and keep watch over the crown of oak between them. And just as my head with its hair is always young. Paean had done, the laurel bowed her newly made branches, despite Berninis reputation falling after his death, Apollo and Daphne continued to be praised. A French traveller in 1839 commented that the group is astonishing both for mechanism of art and elaborateness, is full of charm in the ensemble and the details, one 19th century literary journal considered it the only Bernini work worthy of lasting praise. More recent historians have been more positive. Robert Torsten Petersson calls it an extraordinary masterpiece, suffused with an energy that works out of the tips of the laurel leaves and Apollos hand and drapery. Media related to Apollo and Daphne at Wikimedia Commons 3D Model of Apollo and Daphne Image of Sculpture on Web Gallery of Art
Apollo and Daphne (Bernini)
–
Apollo and Daphne
33.
David (Bernini)
–
David is a life-size marble sculpture by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The sculpture was one of many commissions to decorate the villa of Berninis patron Cardinal Scipione Borghese – where it resides today. It was completed in the course of seven months from 1623 to 1624, the subject of the work is the biblical David, about to throw the stone that will bring down Goliath, which will allow David to behead him. Compared to earlier works on the theme, the sculpture broke new ground in its implied movement. Between 1618 and 1625 Bernini was commissioned to undertake various sculptural work for the villa of one of his patrons, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. In 1623 – only yet 24 years old – he was working on the sculpture of Apollo and Daphne, according to records of payment, Bernini had started on the sculpture by mid–1623, and his contemporary biographer, Filippo Baldinucci, states that he finished it in seven months. David was Scipione Borgheses last commission for Bernini, even before it was finished, Berninis friend and protector Maffeo Barberini was elected pope, as Pope Urban VIII. The sculpture shows a scene from the Old Testament First Book of Samuel, the Israelites are at war with the Philistines whose champion, Goliath, has challenged the Israelite army to settle the conflict by single combat. The young shepherd David has just taken up the challenge, and is about to slay Goliath with a stone from his sling, at his feet lies the armour of Israels King, Saul, given to David for battle. The armor was shed, as David was unaccustomed to it, also at his feet is his harp, often included as an iconographic device of David in reference to David the Psalmist and being a talented harpist. The biblical David was a popular subject among Renaissance artists and had treated by sculptors such as Donatello, Verrocchio. Berninis David, though engaging with these works, differed from them in significant ways. For one thing, the sculpture is no longer self-contained, not since the sculptures of the Hellenistic period, such as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, had sculptures been involved in their surroundings like those of Bernini. A likely source for Berninis figure was the Hellenistic Borghese Gladiator, Another difference lies in the moment that Bernini has chosen to depict. Michelangelos David differs from those of Donatello and Verrocchio in that it shows David preparing for the battle, Bernini, on the other hand, chose to portray David in the act of throwing the stone. This represented a novelty, throwing figures were extremely rare in post-Antiquity sculptures, the motion motif did exist in painting, however, and one example was Annibale Carraccis fresco of the Cyclops Polyphemus throwing a stone. Bernini is likely to have known Carraccis Polyphemus, not only was it to be found in the Galleria Farnese in Rome, Bernini may also have been familiar with the writings of Leonardo da Vinci on the subject. Da Vinci, in his Treatise on Painting, deals with exactly the question of how to portray a throwing figure and it is possible that Bernini applies this theory to his David, Another potential candidate as inspiration for Berninis David is the celebrated 5th century BC Discobolus by Myron
David (Bernini)
–
Statue of David by Gian Lorenzo Bernini
34.
Baroque
–
The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
Baroque
–
The Triumph of the Immaculate by
Paolo de Matteis
Baroque
–
The Church of
Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, designed by
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
Baroque
–
Brooch of an African,
Walters Art Museum
Baroque
–
Aeneas Flees Burning Troy,
Federico Barocci, 1598
35.
Bust of Pope Paul V
–
The Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini made two Busts of Pope Paul V. The first is currently in the Galleria Borghese in Rome,1618 is the commonly accepted date for the portrait of the pope. A second bust has, as of 2015, been acquired by the Getty Museum in Los Angeles and it was created by Bernini 1621, shortly after the death of Paul V, and commissioned by his nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. A bronze version of this exists in the Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen. For most of the century, the second bust had been presumed lost. It was sold by the Borghese family in 1893, and an art historian recorded its existence in Vienna in 1916. However, little more was known about the presence of the bust until it appeared in auction in Slovakia in 2014 - the piece had been in the collection of the Slovakian artist Ernest Zmeták. Unrecognised by the sellers, it was bought by a resident of Bratislava, Clément Guenebeaud, who sold the bust via Sothebys to the current holders
Bust of Pope Paul V
–
Bronze version of the bust, Copenhagen
36.
Two Busts of Cardinal Scipione Borghese
–
Two Busts of Cardinal Scipione Borghese are marble portrait sculptures executed by the Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini in 1632. Cardinal Scipione Borghese was the nephew of Pope Paul V, and had commissioned other works from Bernini in the 1620s, both versions of this portrait are in the Galleria Borghese, Rome. The busts are quarter length, showing Scipione Borghese in his robes and biretta, the movement and liveliness of the sitter is one of the busts’ most pertinent feature. The cardinal looks to this right and opens his lips as if to begin speaking, both of Bernini’s early biographers, Domenico Bernini and Filippo Baldinucci, recount the history of the busts and explain the creation of the second version. After Bernini had completed the first version, the ‘allustratori’ were polishing the bust when they discovered a significant fracture in the marble across the forehead, disfiguring the face. Bernini was notified and immediately set to work to create a version with a new block of marble. The biographers then recount slightly different stories about how the two versions were unveiled, according to Domenico Bernini, Cardinal Borghese saw the unpolished version and was so impressed he asked that the bust be completed and be shown to his uncle, Pope Paolo V. It was then the defect was discovered and Bernini created the second version, but the Cardinal noticed that this was a different version and Bernini revealed the creation of the second bust. Baldinucci’s tale differs somewhat - unaware there is a second version, while the continuing existence of the scar across first version explains why the second version was created, both stories should be treated with some suspicion. Much documentation, cited below, proves the busts were finished in 1632 - Pope Paolo V, another document written by Lelio Guidiccioni on 4 June 1633 gives further credence that the portrait was done in 1632. Finally, a receipt in the Borghese archives for 23 December 1632 reveals a payment from the Borghese household to Bernini of 500 scudi On completion, both busts were taken to the Villa Borghese. They were purchased by the Italian State in 1892, and shown at the Galleria dell’Academia in Venice, restoration on the works took place in 1997. The first version is considered the superior version with Howard Hibbard describing Bernini’s handling of the marble as giving it a ‘new dimension of reality’. Whilst the second is still clearly the work of Bernini, it is considered much less spontaneous, with Wittkower commenting that it lacks the animation and vitatlity of the first one. There is also a drawing of Scipione Borghese, done in red chalk and graphite, finally, there is a caricature of the same sitter done by Bernini in the Vatican Library, Italy
Two Busts of Cardinal Scipione Borghese
–
Second Bust of Scipione Borghese, By Gianlorenzo Bernini, 1632, Galleria Borghese, Rome
37.
Museo Nazionale Etrusco
–
The National Etruscan Museum is a museum of the Etruscan civilization, housed in the Villa Giulia in Rome, Italy. The villa was built for pope Julius III, for whom it was named and it remained in papal property until 1870, when, in the wake of the Risorgimento and the demise of the Papal States, it became the property of the Kingdom of Italy. The museums most famous treasure is the terracotta funerary monument. The Villa Giulia National Etruscan Museum, Short Guide, roma, LErma di Bretschneider, Ingegneria per la cultura. Tarquinia National Museum Museo Nazionale Etrusco information
Museo Nazionale Etrusco
–
Facade of the
Villa Giulia in Rome, home of the National Etruscan Museum.
Museo Nazionale Etrusco
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Sarcophagus of the Spouses, late 6th century BC.
Museo Nazionale Etrusco
–
History
38.
Etruscan civilization
–
The Etruscan civilization is the modern name given to a powerful and wealthy civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio. Culture that is identifiably Etruscan developed in Italy after about 800 BC, the latter gave way in the 7th century BC to a culture that was influenced by ancient Greece, Magna Graecia, and Phoenicia. The decline was gradual, but by 500 BC the political destiny of Italy had passed out of Etruscan hands, the last Etruscan cities were formally absorbed by Rome around 100 BC. Politics were based on the city, and probably the family unit. In their heyday, the Etruscan elite grew very rich through trade with the Celtic world to the north and the Greeks to the south, archaic Greece had a huge influence on their art and architecture, and Greek mythology was evidently very familiar to them. The study also excluded recent Anatolian connection, the ancient Romans referred to the Etruscans as the Tuscī or Etruscī. Their Roman name is the origin of the terms Tuscany, which refers to their heartland, and Etruria, which can refer to their wider region. In Attic Greek, the Etruscans were known as Tyrrhenians, from which the Romans derived the names Tyrrhēnī, Tyrrhēnia, the word may also be related to the Hittite Taruisa. The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna, which was syncopated to Rasna or Raśna, the origins of the Etruscans are mostly lost in prehistory, although Greek historians as early as the 5th century BC, repeatedly associated the Tyrrhenians with Pelasgians. Strabo as well as the Homeric Hymn to Dionysus make mention of the Tyrrhenians as pirates, pliny the Elder put the Etruscans in the context of the Rhaetian people to the north and wrote in his Natural History, Adjoining these the Noricans are the Raeti and Vindelici. All are divided into a number of states, the Raeti are believed to be people of Tuscan race driven out by the Gauls, their leader was named Raetus. Historians have no literature and no original Etruscan texts of religion or philosophy, therefore, much of what is known about this civilization is derived from grave goods, another source of genetic data on Etruscan origins is from four ancient breeds of cattle. Analyzing the mitochondrial DNA of these and seven other breeds of Italian cattle, the other Italian breeds were linked to northern Europe. Etruscan expansion was focused both to the north beyond the Apennine Mountains and into Campania, some small towns in the sixth century BC disappeared during this time, ostensibly consumed by greater, more powerful neighbours. However, it is certain that the structure of the Etruscan culture was similar to, albeit more aristocratic than. The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean Sea. Here, their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the sixth century BC and this led the Etruscans to ally themselves with Carthage, whose interests also collided with the Greeks. Around 540 BC, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean, from the first half of the 5th century BC, the new political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline after losing their southern provinces
Etruscan civilization
–
Etruscan pendant with
swastika symbols,
Bolsena,
Italy, 700-650 BC.
Louvre Museum
Etruscan civilization
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Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.
Etruscan civilization
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Etruscan riders, Silver panel 540-520BC, Castel San Marino, near
Perugia
Etruscan civilization
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Etruscan walled town,
Civita di Bagnoregio.
39.
Dosso Dossi
–
From 1514 to his death he was court artist to the Este Dukes of Ferrara and of Modena, whose small court valued its reputation as an artistic centre. He often worked with his younger brother Battista Dossi, who had worked under Raphael and he painted many mythological subjects and allegories with a rather dream-like atmosphere, and often striking disharmonies in colour. His figures cannot be said to be very well drawn and his portraits also often show rather unusual poses or expressions for works originating in a court. Dossi was born in San Giovanni del Dosso, a village in the province of Mantua and his early training and life is not well documented, his father, originally of Trento, was a bursar for the Dukes of Ferrara. He may have had training locally with Lorenzo Costa or in Mantua, by 1514, he would begin three decades of service for dukes Alfonso I and Ercole II dEste, becoming principal court artist. Dosso worked frequently with his brother Battista Dossi, who had trained in the Roman workshop of Raphael, the works he produced for the dukes included the ephemeral decorations of furniture and theater sets. He is known to have worked alongside il Garofalo in the Costabili polyptych, one of his pupils was Giovanni Francesco Surchi. Freedberg uses the term sprezzatura to refer to the style of Dossis caricature-like, primitivist, Dossi is also known for the atypical choices of bright pigment for his cabinet pieces. Some of his works, such as the Deposition have lambent qualities that suggest some of Correggios works, most of his works feature Christian and Ancient Greek themes and use oil painting as a medium. The frieze paintings were based on the Aeneid, this scene by Dossi is book 6, lines 635-709, orpheus with the lyre flits in the forest, in the background are the ghostly horses of dead warriors. In Hercules and the Pygmies, Hercules has fallen asleep after defeating Antaeus, and is set upon by an army of thumb-size pygmies and he gathers them in his lion skin. Paintings depicting a powerful Hercules were commonly made for the then-ruler Duke Ercole II dEste, the subjects of the Mythological Scene and Tubalcain are unknown. In Ferrara, among his pupils were Gabriele Capellini, Jacopo Panicciati, Dosso and Battista Dossi, court painters at Ferrara. Francis P. Smyth and John P. ONeill (Editors in Chief, national Gallery of Art, Washington DC, ed. The Age of Correggio and the Carracci, Emilian Painting of the 16th and 17th Centuries, freedberg, Sydney J. Pelican History of Art, ed. Ciammitti, Luisa, Ostrow, Steven F. Settis, Salvatore, dossos fate, painting and court culture in Renaissance Italy. Los Angeles, Getty Research Institute for the History of Art, Gallery at MuseumSyndicate Works by Dosso Dossi at Census of Ferrarese Paintings and Drawings
Dosso Dossi
–
self-portrait
Dosso Dossi
–
Portrait of a Youth, the only confirmed portrait of
Lucrezia Borgia by Dosso Dossi (1514-1516), at the
National Gallery of Victoria.
40.
John the Baptist (Caravaggio)
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John the Baptist was the subject of at least eight paintings by the Italian Baroque artist Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio. The story of John the Baptist is told in the Gospels, John was the cousin of Jesus, and his calling was to prepare the way for the coming of the Messiah. He lived in the wilderness of Judea between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea, his raiment of camels hair, and a girdle about his loins. He baptised Jesus in the Jordan, and was killed by Herod Antipas when he called upon the king to reform his evil ways. John was frequently shown in Christian art, identifiable by his bowl, reed cross, camels skin, John alone in the desert was less popular, but not unknown. For the young Caravaggio, John was invariably a boy or youth alone in the wilderness. This image was based on the statement in the Gospel of Luke that the child grew and was strengthened in spirit and these works allowed a religious treatment of the partly clothed youths he liked to paint at this period. The ascription of this painting to Caravaggio is disputed - the alternative candidate is Bartolomeo Cavarozzi, according to Mancini the prior afterwards took them with him to his homeland, unfortunately, one version of Mancinis manuscript says the priors homeland was Seville, while another says Sicily. There was a Spanish prior of the hospital in 1593, Gash cites scholar A. E. is much more characteristic of Caravaggio. If this and other paintings by Caravaggio were indeed in Seville at a date they may have influenced Velázquez in his early works. However, the arguments in favour of Cavarozzi are strong, Peter Robb, taking the painting to be by Caravaggio, dates it to about 1598, when the artist was a member of the household of his first patron, Cardinal Francesco Maria Del Monte. Robb points out that the Baptist is evidently the same boy who modelled for Isaac in the Sacrifice of Isaac, unfortunately this Sacrifice of Isaac is also disputed, and so the problem of authorship is not solved. John is shown against a background of green grape vines and thorny vine stems, seated on a red cloak, holding a reed cross. The red cloak would become a staple of Caravaggios works, one with many precedents in previous art, John the Baptist carries over many of the concerns which animated Caravaggios other work from this period. The grape leaves stand for the grapes from which the wine of the Last Supper was pressed, while the call to mind the Crown of Thorns. Nevertheless, it was not totally without precedent, the model for Amor Vincit was a boy named Cecco, Caravaggios servant and possibly his pupil as well. He has been identified with an artist active in Rome about 1610-1625. The most striking feature of Amor was the young models evident glee in posing for the painting, the same sense of the real-life model overwhelming the supposed subject was transferred to Matteis John the Baptist
John the Baptist (Caravaggio)
–
John the Baptist (John in the Wilderness)
John the Baptist (Caravaggio)
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Sacrifice of Isaac, Caravaggio, c. 1598 (detail showing the head of Isaac). Private collection, Princeton, New Jersey - the resemblance between the two heads suggests that the disputed John the Baptist in Toledo is by the same artist.
John the Baptist (Caravaggio)
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John the Baptist (Youth with a Ram)
John the Baptist (Caravaggio)
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Amor Vincit Omnia,
Caravaggio, c. 1602.
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin.
41.
Jacopo Bassano
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Jacopo Bassano, known also as Jacopo dal Ponte, was an Italian painter who was born and died in Bassano del Grappa near Venice, from which he adopted the name. Bassano is considered to be the first modern landscape painter and he was born around 1510 in the town of Bassano del Grappa, located about 65 km from the city of Venice. His father, Francesco il Vecchio, was a successful painter who had established a family workshop which primarily produced religious works in the local style. During his early youth Bassano was an apprentice in his fathers workshop and he eventually made his way to Venice in the 1530s, during which he studied under Bonifazio de Pitati and was exposed to such famous artists as Titian and il Pordenone. After his fathers death in 1539 he returned to Bassano del Grappa and permanently set up there, even taking a local woman, Elisabetta Merzari. This is attributed to his exposure to prints by these artists, Bassanos ability to experiment and absorb stylistic qualities from other contemporary artists is evident in the four distinct periods seen in his artistic legacy. Each period shows the struggle to reconcile his own aesthetics with the styles of his peers. Jacopo Bassanos early works from about 1530s and onward, Bonifazio de Pitati imparted upon his young pupil a lasting appreciation of Titians work, the influence of which is clearly seen in his early pieces. Bassanos earliest paintings exhibit his lifelong obsession with brilliant colors that he had seen in Titians beginning works, in this commission for a local church, Bassano fills the canvas with rich, luminous colors that help the distinguish the figures from their surrounding environment. They are also unique in their dress, instead of clothing his figures in the draping, shapeless fabrics many Renaissance artists equated with Classical Roman fashion, Bassano chose to feature figures in 16th-century clothing. The details of this piece are the most often discussed aspect of it, Bassanos piece, The Last Supper is a work that shows Bassanos new interest in the trend of Mannerism in Italian art. Jacopo Bassano started experimenting with light and his subjects around 1550s–1570s and it was during this period that Bassano was one of the first artists to paint a nocturne, or a painting in a nighttime landscape with artificial lighting. This type of painting was popular with local audiences and made Bassano paintings highly valued. His works also began to more heavily the pastoral elements he had inherited both from his father and from his environment. He began to show scenes not in Classical Roman settings but placed the figures in a more natural landscape where the trees. Paintings Media related to Jacopo da Ponte at Wikimedia Commons Jacopo Bassano in the Web Gallery of Art Jacopo Bassano, Founder of Landscape Style Bryan, walter Armstrong & Robert Edmund Graves, ed. Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, Biographical and Critical, york St. #4, Covent Garden, London, Original from Fogg Library, Digitized May 18,2007, George Bell and Sons
Jacopo Bassano
–
Self-portrait in later age
Jacopo Bassano
–
The
Good Samaritan
Jacopo Bassano
–
Jacopo da Ponte, called Jacopo Bassano - Adoration of the Magi
Jacopo Bassano
–
The Way to Calvary
42.
Domenichino
–
Domenico Zampieri, known as Domenichino for his shortness, was an Italian Baroque painter of the Bolognese or Carracci School of painters. Domenichino was born in Bologna, son of a shoemaker, and he left Bologna for Rome in 1602 and became one of the most talented apprentices to emerge from Annibale Carraccis supervision. As a young artist in Rome he lived with his slightly older Bolognese colleagues Albani and Guido Reni, and worked alongside Lanfranco, meanwhile, he had completed frescoes c. Following Annibale Carraccis death in 1609, Annibales Bolognese pupils, foremost Domenichino, Albani, Reni and Lanfranco, became the leading painters in Rome. One of Domenichinos masterpieces, his frescoes of Scenes of the Life of Saint Cecilia in the Polet Chapel of San Luigi dei Francesi, was commissioned in 1612 and completed in 1615. Concurrently he painted his first, and most celebrated, altarpiece and it subsequently would be judged as being comparable to Raphaels great Transfiguration and even as the best picture in the world. With the election of a Bolognese pope in 1621, Domenichino returned to Rome, appointed Papal Architect, he nonetheless continued to be most active as a painter, obtaining many commissions for altarpieces in Roman churches. His Scenes from the Life of San Gennaro occupied him for the rest of his life and he painted four large lunettes, four pendentives, and twelve scenes in the soffits of the arches, all in fresco, plus three large altarpieces in oil on copper. He died, perhaps by poison at the hands of the jealous Cabal of Naples, before completing the fourth altarpiece or the cupola, at the time of his death, Domenichinos chief assistant was an obscure painter from Assisi, Francesco Raspantino, who inherited his masters studio. Earlier, Domenichinos principal pupils were Alessandro Fortuna, Giovanni Battista Ruggieri, Antonio Alberti called Barbalonga, Francesco Cozza, Andrea Camassei, others who studied in his studio include Poussin, Pietro Testa, and his future biographer, Giovanni Pietro Bellori. The portrait of Agucchi in York used to be attributed to Domenichino, Imitation in this sense is not copying but a creative process inspired by rhetorical theory whereby revered models are not only emulated but surpassed. Jerome from an altarpiece of the subject in Bologna by his former teacher. Like Domenichinos paintings, its sources were in ancient models and aimed at clarity of expression capable of moving its audience, as the Florentine composer Giulio Caccini held and Domenichino surely believed, the aim of the composer/artist was to move the passion of the mind. To achieve that goal, Domenichino paid particular attention to expressive gestures, Domenichinos composite score of 58 nonetheless was surpassed only by Raphael and Rubens, and it equalled that of the Carracci. The Balance reflects Domenichinos high standing in the history of European taste— until John Ruskin in the 1840s wrote his devastating attacks on Bolognese Baroque painting in his Modern Painters, the Carracci and their followers were condemned by Ruskin as being insincere. For Ruskin, there was no entirely sincere nor any great art from the seventeenth century, in 1996 the first major exhibition of his work was held at the Palazzo Venezia in Rome. 1620, Royal Collection, Hampton Court Madonna of Loreto with Saints John the Baptist, Paterniano, 1618–19, North Carolina Museum of Art) Rinaldo and Armida, c. 1620–21, Louvre, Paris Martyrdom of St Peter Martyr, c, 1622-23, Louvre, Paris Saint Ignatius de Loyola’s Vision of Christ and God the Father, c
Domenichino
–
St. John the Evangelist, c. 1621–29
Domenichino
–
Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri) The Way to Calvary
Domenichino
–
Domenico Zampieri, The Adoration of the Shepherds, c. 1607-10, Oil on canvas, 143 x 115cm, National Gallery of Scotland
Domenichino
–
Domenichino - Landscape with Tobias
43.
Sisto Badalocchio
–
Sisto Badalocchio Rosa was an Italian painter and engraver of the Bolognese School. Born in Parma, he worked first under Agostino Carracci in Bologna, then Annibale Carracci and he worked with Annibale till 1609, then moved back to Parma. His best known work as an engraver was the Raphaels Bible series, the images depict a series of frescoes by Raphaels workshop in the Vatican loggia. As a painter, his most important work is the frescoes the church of San Giovanni Evangelista, Reggio Emilia and he executed the decoration of the cupula and pendentives of the church of San Giovanni Evangelista in Reggio. Nevertheless, he is recognized today as an important figure in bringing the artistic styles of the Italian Baroque to northern Italy, francis P. Smyth and John P. ONeill, ed. The Age of Correggio and the Carracci, Emilian Painting of the 16th and 17th Centuries, washington DC, National Gallery of Art
Sisto Badalocchio
–
The Entombment of
Christ,
Galleria Borghese, 1610.
Sisto Badalocchio
–
Dead Christ
Sisto Badalocchio
–
Holy Family
Sisto Badalocchio
–
Susanna and the Elders
44.
Paolo Veronese
–
Known as a supreme colorist, and after an early period with Mannerism, Paolo Veronese developed a naturalist style of painting, influenced by Titian. His most famous works are elaborate narrative cycles, executed in a dramatic and colorful style, full of architectural settings. Nonetheless, many of the greatest artists, may be counted among his admirers, including Rubens, Watteau, Tiepolo, Delacroix and Renoir. Veronese took his name from his birthplace of Verona, then the largest possession of Venice on the mainland. The census in Verona attests that Veronese was born sometime in 1528 to a stonecutter, or spezapreda, named Gabriele and it was common for surnames to be taken from a fathers profession, and thus Veronese was known as Paolo Spezapreda. He later changed his name to Paolo Caliari, because his mother was the daughter of a nobleman called Antonio Caliari. He was often called Paolo Veronese before the last century to him from another painter from Verona, Alessandro Veronese. By 1541, Veronese was apprenticed with Antonio Badile, who was later to become his father-in-law, although trained in the culture of Mannerism then popular in Parma, he soon developed his own preference for a more radiant palette. In 1552 Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga, great-uncle of the ruling Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, commissioned an altarpiece for Mantua Cathedral and his panel of Jupiter Expelling the Vices for the former is now in the Louvre. He then painted a History of Esther in the ceiling for the church of San Sebastiano and it was these ceiling paintings and those of 1557 in the Marciana Library that established him as a master among his Venetian contemporaries. Already these works indicate Veroneses mastery in reflecting both the subtle foreshortening of the figures of Correggio and the heroism of those by Michelangelo. By 1556 Veronese was commissioned to paint the first of his monumental banquet scenes, the Feast in the House of Simon, owing to its scattered composition and lack of focus, however, it was not his most successful refectory mural. In the late 1550s, during a break in his work for San Sebastiano, Veronese decorated the Villa Barbaro in Maser, Veroneses decorations employed complex perspective and trompe loeil, and resulted in a luminescent and inspired visual poetry. The encounter between architect and artist was a triumph, the Wedding at Cana, painted in 1562–1563, was also collaboration with Palladio. It was commissioned by the Benedictine monks for the San Giorgio Maggiore Monastery, on an island across from Saint Marks. The contract insisted on the size, and that the quality of pigment. For example, the contract specified that the blues should contain the precious mineral lapis-lazuli, the contract also specified that the painting should include as many figures as possible. There are a number of portraits staged upon a canvas surface nearly ten meters wide
Paolo Veronese
–
Self portrait
Paolo Veronese
–
Deposition of Christ, c. 1547
Paolo Veronese
–
The Conversion of Mary Magdalene, c. 1548
Paolo Veronese
–
St Mark,
San Sebastiano (1556-57)
45.
Antonello da Messina
–
His work shows strong influences from Early Netherlandish painting although there is no documentary evidence that he ever travelled beyond Italy. Giorgio Vasari credited him with the introduction of oil painting into Italy, unusually for a south Italian artist of the Renaissance, his work proved influential on painters in northern Italy, especially in Venice. Antonello was born at Messina around 1429–1431, to Giovanni de Antonio Mazonus and this account of his training is accepted by most art historians. Antonello returned to Messina from Naples during the 1450s, in around 1455 he painted the so-called Sibiu Crucifixion, inspired by Flemish treatments of the subject, which is now in the Muzeul de Artǎ in Bucharest. A Crucifixion in the Royal Museum of Antwerp dates from the same period, in his biography of the artist, Giorgio Vasari remarked that Antonello saw an oil painting by Jan Van Eyck belonging to King Alfonso V of Aragon at Naples. Another theory, supported only by vague documentary evidence, suggests that in 1456 Antonello visited Milan, however, neither is known for certain to have been in Milan at the time. Between the years of 1456 and 1457, Antonello proved himself to be a painter in Messina. He also shared his home with Paolo di Ciacio, a student from Calabria, at this date, he was already married, and his son Jacobello had been born. In 1460, his father is mentioned leasing a brigantine to bring back Antonello, also from around 1460 are two small panels depicting Abraham Served by the Angels and St. Jerome Penitent now in the Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia in Reggio Calabria. In 1461 Antonellos younger brother Giordano entered his workshop, signing a three-year contract, in that year Antonello painted a Madonna with Child for the Messinese nobleman Giovanni Mirulla, now lost. Historians believe that Antonello painted his first portraits in the late 1460s, john Pope-Hennessy described him as the first Italian painter for whom the individual portrait was an art form in its own right. In 1474, he painted the Annunciation, now in Syracuse, Antonello went to Venice in 1475 and remained there until the fall of 1476. His works of this begin to show a greater attention to the human figure. His most famous pictures from this include the Condottiero, the San Cassiano Altarpiece. While in Venice he was offered, but did not accept, Antonello had returned to Sicily by September 1476. Works from near the end of his include the famous Virgin Annunciate, now in the Palazzo Abatellis in Palermo. He died at Messina in 1479 and his testament dates from February of that year, and he is documented as no longer alive two months later. Some of his last works remained unfinished, but were completed by his son Jacobello, Antonellos style is remarkable for its union of Italian simplicity with Flemish concern for detail
Antonello da Messina
–
Portrait of Man, possibly a self-portrait.
Antonello da Messina
–
Antonello da Messina,
Salting Madonna
Antonello da Messina
–
The
Virgin Annunciate in the
Palazzo Abatellis in
Palermo
46.
Raphael
–
Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, known as Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of composition, together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. Raphael was enormously productive, running a large workshop and, despite his death at 37. Many of his works are found in the Vatican Palace, where the frescoed Raphael Rooms were the central, the best known work is The School of Athens in the Vatican Stanza della Segnatura. After his early years in Rome much of his work was executed by his workshop from his drawings and he was extremely influential in his lifetime, though outside Rome his work was mostly known from his collaborative printmaking. Raphael was born in the small but artistically significant central Italian city of Urbino in the Marche region and his poem to Federico shows him as keen to show awareness of the most advanced North Italian painters, and Early Netherlandish artists as well. In the very court of Urbino he was probably more integrated into the central circle of the ruling family than most court painters. Under them, the court continued as a centre for literary culture, growing up in the circle of this small court gave Raphael the excellent manners and social skills stressed by Vasari. Castiglione moved to Urbino in 1504, when Raphael was no longer based there but frequently visited, Raphael mixed easily in the highest circles throughout his life, one of the factors that tended to give a misleading impression of effortlessness to his career. He did not receive a humanistic education however, it is unclear how easily he read Latin. His mother Màgia died in 1491 when Raphael was eight, followed on August 1,1494 by his father, Raphael was thus orphaned at eleven, his formal guardian became his only paternal uncle Bartolomeo, a priest, who subsequently engaged in litigation with his stepmother. He probably continued to live with his stepmother when not staying as an apprentice with a master and he had already shown talent, according to Vasari, who says that Raphael had been a great help to his father. A self-portrait drawing from his teenage years shows his precocity and his fathers workshop continued and, probably together with his stepmother, Raphael evidently played a part in managing it from a very early age. In Urbino, he came into contact with the works of Paolo Uccello, previously the court painter, and Luca Signorelli, according to Vasari, his father placed him in the workshop of the Umbrian master Pietro Perugino as an apprentice despite the tears of his mother. The evidence of an apprenticeship comes only from Vasari and another source, an alternative theory is that he received at least some training from Timoteo Viti, who acted as court painter in Urbino from 1495. An excess of resin in the varnish often causes cracking of areas of paint in the works of both masters, the Perugino workshop was active in both Perugia and Florence, perhaps maintaining two permanent branches. Raphael is described as a master, that is to say fully trained and his first documented work was the Baronci altarpiece for the church of Saint Nicholas of Tolentino in Città di Castello, a town halfway between Perugia and Urbino. Evangelista da Pian di Meleto, who had worked for his father, was named in the commission
Raphael
–
Presumed Portrait of Raphael
Raphael
–
Self-portrait with a friend (1518 circa),
Louvre,
Paris
Raphael
–
Giovanni Santi, Raphael's father; Christ supported by two angels, c.1490
Raphael
–
The
Mond Crucifixion, 1502–3, very much in the style of
Perugino
47.
Parmigianino
–
Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola was an Italian Mannerist painter and printmaker active in Florence, Rome, Bologna, and his native city of Parma. He produced outstanding drawings, and was one of the first Italian painters to experiment with printmaking himself and this in conjunction with their lack of large main subjects has resulted in their being less well known than other works by similar artists. He painted a number of important portraits, leading a trend in Italy towards the three-quarters or full-length figure, Parmigianino was the eighth child of Filippo Mazzola and one Donatella Abbati. His father died of the two years after Parmigianinos birth, and the children were raised by their uncles, Michele and Pier Ilario. In 1515, his uncle received a commission from Nicolò Zangrandi for the decoration of a chapel in San Giovanni Evangelista, by the age of eighteen, he had already completed the Bardi Altarpiece. In 1521, Parmigianino was sent to Viadana to escape the wars between the French, Imperial, and papal armies. In Viadana, he painted two panels in tempera, depicting Saint Francis for the church of the Frati de Zoccoli, and he also worked in San Giovanni and met Correggio, who was at work on the fresco decorations of the cupola. In 1524, he traveled to Rome with five paintings, including the Circumcision of Jesus and his Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror, seeking patronage of the Medici pope. Vasari records that in Rome, Parmigianino was celebrated as a Raphael reborn, within a year, the Sack of Rome caused Parmigianino, and many other artists, to flee. He resided in Bologna for nearly three years, at around 1528, he painted the Madonna and Child with Saints, then later in 1528, he painted Madonna con la Rosa and Madonna with Saint Zachariah. By 1530 Parmigianino had returned to Parma, in 1531, Parmigianino received a commission for two altarpieces, depicting Saint Joseph and Saint John the Baptist, from the unfinished church of Santa Maria della Steccata. The brotherhood overseeing the church advanced him salary and promised him the supplies and materials, however, by 1535, in December, he nominated Don Nicola Cassola, a Parman cleric at the Roman Curia, to act as his legal representative. Parmigianino authorized him to collect the 50 gold scudi from Bonifazio Gozzadini for the Madonna with St. John the Baptist, in 1534, it was decided that the Madonna dal collo lungo would hang in the chapel of the family of Elena Baiardi. Parmigianino had probably expected to succeed Correggio in the favour of the church, however, in April 1538, the administrative offices commissioned initially Giorgio Gandini del Grano, then Girolamo Bedoli, to decorate the apse and choir of the Parma Cathedral. It is believed that at time, he became a devotee of alchemy. Vasari hypothesizes that this was due to his fascination with magic, scholars now agree that Parmigianinos scientific interests may have been due to his obsession with trying to find a new medium for his etchings. As a result of his researches, he completed little work in the church. He was imprisoned for two months for breach of contract after the Confraternita decided unanimously to ban him from continuing in their church and he was replaced between 1539 and 1540 by Giulio Romano, who also promptly withdrew from the contract
Parmigianino
–
Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror (
c. 1524)
Parmigianino
–
Bardi Altarpiece (1521).
Parmigianino
–
Vision of Saint Jerome (detail).
48.
Lorenzo Lotto
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Lorenzo Lotto was an Italian painter, draughtsman and illustrator, traditionally placed in the Venetian school, though much of his career was spent in other North Italian cities. He painted mainly altarpieces, religious subjects and portraits, while he was active during the High Renaissance, his nervous and eccentric posings and distortions represent a transitional stage to the first Florentine and Roman Mannerists of the 16th century. During his lifetime, Lorenzo Lotto was a painter and certainly popular in Northern Italy. He is traditionally included in the Venetian School, but his independent career actually places him outside the Venetian art scene and he was certainly not as highly regarded in Venice as in the other towns where he worked. He had a stylistic individuality, even an idiosyncratic style, after his death, he gradually became neglected and then almost forgotten. This could be attributed to the fact that his oeuvre now remains in lesser known churches or in provincial museums. Born in Venice, he worked in Treviso, in the Marches, in Rome, in Bergamo, in Venice, in Ancona and finally, as a Franciscan lay brother, little is known of his training. As a Venetian he was influenced by Giovanni Bellini as he had a knowledge of contemporary Venetian painting. Though Bellini was doubtless not his teacher, the influence is clear in his early painting Virgin, however, in his portraits and in his early painting Allegory of Virtue and Vice he shows the influence of Giorgiones Naturalism. As he grew older his style changed, perhaps evolving, from a detached Giorgionesque classicism, to a more vibrant dramatic setpiece, more reminiscent of his contemporary from Parma, Correggio. The competition for a painter would have been too great with established names such as Giorgione, Palma the Elder. Nevertheless, Giorgio Vasari mentions in the part of his book Vite that Lotto was a friend of Palma the Elder. In Treviso, a town within the domain of the republic of Venice. The already mentioned painting Allegory of Virtue and Vice was intended as an cover of his portrait of the bishop. The painting St. Jerome in the Desert shows his youthful inexperience as a draughtsman, at the same time he gives an early impression of his skill as a miniaturist. He painted his first altarpieces for the parish church San Cristina al Tiverone, in 1508 he began the Recanati Polyptych altarpiece for the church of San Domenico. This two-tiered, rather conventional painted polyptych consists of six panels, as he became a respected painter, he came to the attention of Bramante, the papal architect, who was passing through Loreto. Lorenzo Lotto was invited to Rome to decorate the papal apartments, nothing survives of this work, as it was destroyed a few years later
Lorenzo Lotto
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Self-portrait
Lorenzo Lotto
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Madonna of the Rosary (1539), oil on canvas.
Lorenzo Lotto
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The Adoration of the Child, (c. 1508), oil on panel.
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